Anatomy chap 2 from clinical snell

1. Anatomy
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C H A P T E R 2

2. 01
Surface
Anatomy

3. 01
PART
Sur f ace A natomy :
Surface anatomy is the study of the external features of the human body that can be seen,
felt, or palpated through the skin and other superficial tissues. It involves the identification
and description of the location, shape, size, and relationships of the bony landmarks,
muscles, tendons, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures that are accessible from the
surface of the body.
Surface anatomy is important in clinical practice as it provides a way to locate and
identify structures that may be injured, inflamed, or affected by disease. It is also used in
medical education to teach students about the anatomy of the human body and to help
them develop skills in physical examination and diagnostic procedures.
Examples of surface landmarks that can be used to locate deeper structures include the
clavicle, sternum, ribs, iliac crest, spine, and various bony prominences of the limbs.
Surface features such as skin color, temperature, texture, and moisture can also provide
important clues about the underlying health of the body

4. 01
PART
Ex ternal occipital
Protuberance
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The external occipital protuberance, also known as the occipital tuberosity, is a bony prominence
located on the posterior aspect of the skull. It is a small, raised bump or ridge at the midline of the occipital
bone, which is the bone that forms the lower back part of the skull.
The external occipital protuberance serves as an attachment point for several muscles, including the
trapezius, semispinalis capitis, and sternocleidomastoid muscles. It also marks the upper end of the nuchal
lines, which are bony ridges that extend laterally from the external occipital protuberance and provide
additional attachment points for muscles and ligaments.
The size and shape of the external occipital protuberance can vary among individuals, and it can
sometimes be prominent enough to be visible or palpable under the skin. In rare cases, it can be
excessively large or elongated, which may cause pain or discomfort in some people.

5. 01
PART
Cer vical ver tebr ae:
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The cervical vertebrae are the seven vertebrae that make up the upper portion
of the
vertebral column, located in the neck region. They are numbered C1 to C7, starting from the topmost
vertebra (C1) at the base of the skull and ending with the lowest (C7) near the thoracic vertebrae.
The cervical vertebrae have several distinctive features that distinguish them from other vertebrae in the
spinal column. They are smaller and more delicate than the other vertebrae, and their spinous processes
are typically bifid (split into two branches). They also have transverse foramina in their transverse
processes, which provide passage for the vertebral arteries and veins that supply blood to the brain.
The first two cervical vertebrae, C1 and C2, have unique features that allow for a greater range of motion in
the neck. C1, also known as the atlas, has no vertebral body, and instead consists of a ring-shaped
structure that supports the skull. C2, or the axis, has a distinctive bony protrusion known as the dens or
odontoid process, which acts as a pivot for rotation of the atlas and the head.
The cervical vertebrae protect the spinal cord and support the weight of the head. They also provide
attachment sites for muscles, ligaments, and other structures that control movement and stability of the
neck and head. Dysfunction or injury to the cervical vertebrae can result in pain, weakness, and other
symptoms that can affect daily activities and quality of life.

6. Thoraco and Lumbar vertebrae:
The thoracic vertebrae and lumbar vertebrae are two regions of the vertebral column that are located
below the cervical vertebrae, in the mid and lower back, respectively.
The thoracic vertebrae are the 12 vertebrae that form the upper and mid back region. They are numbered
T1 to T12, starting from the topmost vertebra (T1) near the base of the neck and ending with the lowest
(T12) near the lumbar vertebrae. The thoracic vertebrae are larger and stronger than the cervical
vertebrae, and they have long, downward sloping spinous processes that provide attachment sites for the
muscles that support the back and ribs.
The lumbar vertebrae are the five largest and strongest vertebrae in the vertebral column, located in the
lower back region. They are numbered L1 to L5, starting from the topmost vertebra (L1) near the bottom of
the thoracic vertebrae and ending with the lowest (L5) near the sacrum. The lumbar vertebrae are
designed to support the weight of the upper body and provide stability and mobility to the lower back. They
have large vertebral bodies and short, thick spinous processes that provide attachment sites for the
muscles of the lower back.
The thoracic and lumbar vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs, which are cushion-like
structures that absorb shock and provide flexibility to the spine. These discs can degenerate or become
damaged over time, leading to conditions such as herniated discs or spinal stenosis. The vertebrae also
provide attachment sites for muscles, ligaments, and other structures that support and control movement of
the back, torso, and limbs

7. Sacrum:
The sacrum is a large triangular-shaped bone located at the base of the vertebral column, between the
two hip bones. It is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae (S1 to S5) during early adulthood. The
sacrum serves as a strong foundation for the pelvis and supports the weight of the upper body when
seated.
The sacrum is wider at the top and gradually narrows towards the bottom. Its upper surface articulates
with the fifth lumbar vertebra, while its lower surface articulates with the coccyx (tailbone) and forms the
sacrococcygeal joint.
The sacrum has several distinctive features that provide attachment sites for ligaments and muscles that
support the pelvic girdle and lower back. It has four pairs of anterior and posterior sacral foramina, which
provide passageways for nerves and blood vessels. It also has a large midline sacral canal that contains
the sacral nerves.
The sacrum plays an important role in stabilizing the pelvis during movements such as walking,
running, and jumping. Dysfunction or injury to the sacrum can lead to conditions such as sacroiliac joint
dysfunction, sacral fractures, or sacral nerve root compression. Treatment may involve physical therapy,
medication, or surgery depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition.

8. Cocyx:
The coccyx, also known as the tailbone, is a small triangular bone located at the bottom of the
vertebral column, below the sacrum. It is formed by the fusion of 3 to 5 small vertebrae during early
adulthood. The coccyx serves as an attachment site for various muscles and ligaments, and provides
support for the pelvic floor.
The coccyx is made up of several small bones that are fused together to form a single structure. It
has a curved shape, with the tip pointing downward. It provides attachment points for muscles of the
pelvic floor, as well as the gluteus maximus muscle. The coccyx also helps to distribute weight when
sitting, providing a cushioning effect to the buttocks.
Injuries to the coccyx can cause pain and discomfort in the lower back and buttock region, and may
be caused by trauma, childbirth, or prolonged sitting on hard surfaces. Treatment for coccyx injuries
typically involves rest, pain management, and physical therapy, and in severe cases, surgical
intervention may be necessary.

9. 02
Upper
lateral part
of thorax

10. 02
PART
U pper lateral par t of thorax :
T he uppe r late ral par t of the thorax re fe r s to the uppe r and oute r re gion
of the c he st wall, loc ate d be twe e n the ne c k and the armpit. It inc lude s the
are a ove rlying the uppe r ribs, the musc le s and fasc ia that c ove r the m, and
the skin and subc utane ous tissue s that e nve lop the c he st.
In terms of anatomy, the upper lateral par t of the thorax contains several
impor tant struc ture s, suc h as the c lav ic le (c ollarbone ), the sc apula
(shoulde r blade ), the de ltoid musc le (whic h c ove r s the shoulde r j oint), the
trape zius musc le (whic h e x te nds from the ne c k to the uppe r bac k), and the
se rratus ante rior musc le (whic h he lps to rotate the sc apula).
Clinic al c onditions that may affe c t the uppe r late ral par t of the thorax
inc lude frac ture s of the c lav ic le or ribs, strains or te ar s of the shoulde r
musc le s, inflammation or inj ur y to the brac hial ple x us (a ne twork of
ne r ve s that supplie s the arm), and various type s of c anc e r or infe c tions
that can involve the lymph nodes in the armpit

11. 02
PART
Scapula :
The scapula, also known as the shoulde r blade , is a flat, triangular bone
located in the uppe r bac k re gion. It c onne c ts the uppe r arm bone
(hume rus) to the c ollarbone (c lav ic le ) and prov ide s attac hme nt points
for several muscles that control the movement of the shoulder j oint.
T he sc apula has three main border s: the supe rior borde r, whic h is the
top e dge of the bone ; the m e dial borde r, whic h runs paralle l to t he spine ;
and the late ral borde r, whic h is the oute r e dge . T he sc apula also has two
main processes: the acromion, which is a bony proj ection that ar ticulates
with the c lav ic le to form the ac romioc lav ic ular j oint; and the c orac oid
proc e ss, whic h is a shor te r proj e c tion that prov ide s attac hme nt for
musc le s and ligame nts.

12. 03
Lower
lateral part
of back

13. 02
PART
Lower lateral par t of back ;
T he lower lateral par t of the back is typ ic ally th e are a on
e ithe r side of the lumbar spine , whic h is the lowe r por tion of
the spine loc ate d in the lowe r bac k . T his are a may also be
re fe rre d to as the flanks or the lowe r bac k re gion.
T he musc le s in this are a inc lude the quadratus lumborum,
e re c tor spinae , and latissimus dor si. T he se musc le s are involve d
in stabilizing the spine , as we ll as in move me nts suc h as
be nding, twisting, and e x te nding the trunk .
If you are e x pe rie nc ing pain in this are a, it may be due to a
musc le strain, inj ur y, or othe r unde rlying me dic al c ondition. It is
impor tant to spe ak with a he althc are profe ssional if you are
e x pe rie nc ing pe r siste nt pain or disc omfor t in this are a.

14. 04
iliac crest

15. 03
PART
iliac crest:
The iliac crest is a prominent cur ved por tion of the pelvis that
forms the uppe r borde r of the hip bone . It is loc ate d on e ithe r
side of the body and c an be fe lt at the top of the hips whe n
you plac e your hands on your waist. T he iliac c re st prov ide s
attac hme nt points for se ve ral musc le s, inc luding the
latissimus dor si, gluteus maximus, and abdominal muscles.
T he iliac c re st is an impor tant landmark in anatomy and is
use d as a re fe re nce point for many me dic al proc e dure s, suc h
as spinal taps and inj e c tions. It is also c ommonly use d as a
site for bone marrow aspiration and for har vesting bone graf ts
for various or thope dic proc e dure s.
Inj urie s or c onditions that affe c t the iliac c re st c an c ause pain
and disc omfor t in the hip, lowe r bac k , or abdome n. Some
common conditions that affect the iliac crest include iliac
c re st c ontusion, stre ss frac ture s, and iliotibial band syndrome .
If you are e x pe rie nc ing pain or disc omfor t in this are a, it is
impor tant to spe ak with a he althc are profe ssional for prope r
diagnosis and tre atme nt.

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