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1. Dr. S. Meenakshi Sundaram, M.V.Sc, Ph.D.,
Dip. LTFM (Israel)
Professor
Department of Livestock Production and Management
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai-600007

2. INTRODUCTION
Animals play an important role in economy and livelihood of the rural
people where 70 per cent of Indian population reside.
One of the important problems that have to be faced during disaster
management of animals is the disposal of dead animals.
Deaths may result from biological events
including chronic wasting disease, bovine
spongiform encephalopathy, foot and
mouth disease, anthrax, avian influenza,
white spot disease, early mortality
syndrome, etc. Deaths may also be
attributed to chemicals or toxic agents.
This poses acute problems during floods, storms, cyclone, heat and cold,
drought conditions, tsunami, or earth quake as the number of animals dying
would be enormous.

4.  Though poultry rearing has assumed the
role of an industry in some pockets, 70
per cent of the poultry in India are still
reared in the backyards, where these
birds produce eggs and meat by
scavenging around their habitation.
 Similarly, in Odisha cyclone during the 4th of June, 1982 there
had been 11,468 cattle lost against 243 human deaths.
Earthquake has comparatively less impact on animals; but in
Uttarkashi earthquake, 3100 cattle heads were lost as against
770 human lives.
 Between 1953-1990 we lost 1, 02, 905 cattle against 1532 human lives because of
earthquakes. It is apparent that even though animals are the main source of livelihood
to the poorest of the poor and to the landless, concrete steps towards disaster
management of livestock and other animals are yet to be taken.

5.  Every year huge numbers of poultry suffer and die
as a result of natural disasters in India. Loss of
livestock and poultry has a dramatic impact on
people as they desperately need healthy animals
and poultry in order to survive and to rebuild their
lives.
• Hence, it is necessary to create a consistent planning mechanism for animal
carcass management during disasters to avoid further worsening of the
situation due to zoonosis. The first priority of animal health officials in the
aftermath of the natural disasters should be the collection and disposal of dead
livestock and poultry following strict bio security measures.
 Taking action to ensure animals are protected
when disasters strike, the government of India in
collaboration with World Society for the
Protection of Animals (WSPA) has conducted
Asia's first national conference on animal
disaster management in New Delhi during April
17-18, 2013.

6. HANDLING OF CARCASSES
 Avoid contact with dead animals& external parasites (flea and ticks).If possible
spray the carcass with flea &tick spray prior to handling.
 People who are handling animal carcass should be provided in advance with
protective clothing.
• All dead animals should be handled only
while wearing gloves. There are several
types of gloves including leather, rubber
and latex gloves.
• Avoid direct contact with dead animals body fluids (blood, urine, feaces).If
contact does occur, wash the skin area with soap and water as soon as possible.

7. HANDLING OF CARCASSES
 They should spray carcass with disinfectant solutions.
 Whenever possible grasping hooks or other tools should be used.
 People should avoid direct contact with their skin, eyes, mouth and
nose and if they inadvertently came into direct contact with carcasses
they should be allowed to clean up as soon as possible.
Carcasses must be double-bagged
in heavy black plastic bags. Each
bag should weigh more than 20
pounds.

8. CHEMICALS USED FOR CLEANING
1. Trisodium phosphate,
2. sodium carbonate
These chemicals along with hot water
facilitate cleaning premises.

9. DISINFECTANTS RECOMMENDED FOR GENERAL USE
 Sodium or calcium hypochlorite ( 200 ppm available chlorine)
 Iodine
 Phenol
 Quaternary ammonium compound (Benzalkonium chloride)

10. TRANSPORT
Suitable leak-proof and sealable vehicles should be used.
They should be checked before loading to ensure that the body and
tailgate seals are in good condition.
In addition, each transport
vehicle should be lined with
a layer of polythene in such a
way that the carcases can be
completely enclosed by
polythene to prevent leakage
of fluids.

12.  Cleaning and disinfection procedures applicable to persons and vehicles
leaving an infected place must be stringently enforced at the disposal site.
 All vehicles leaving the site must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
 All workers must shower and change clothes immediately after completing
the task.
 Other essential visitors and officials must wear disposable protective
clothing.
 All wrapping material that accompanies carcass must be disinfected, baled
and safely disposed of by deep burial.

14. LABEL FOR BIO-MEDICAL WASTE CONTAINERS/BAGS
Label shall be non-washable and prominently visible

15. DISPOSAL METHODS
On-site burial
Burial is an accepted method of disposing of animals when done in compliance
with state and local regulations, and is often the disposal method of choice for
catastrophic livestock losses.
Burying the animals on site within 36 hour after death and at least four feet
below the surface of the ground dramatically lowers the possibility of spreading
a disease.
A disposal site is selected with knowledge of the environmental conditions such
as land topography, depth to groundwater, surface water drainage, as well as
soil type and depth.
Also, separation distances to neighbours, surface water bodies, wells, roads and
rights of way should be considered

16. DISPOSAL METHODS
Recommended separation distances for burial sites are:
 Five feet separation from the bottom of the burial pit to ground
water,
 At least two metre depth of soil is required to cover carcasses to
ground level (Four feet of compacted cover soil),
 1000 feet from public water supply wells,
 500 feet from domestic wells and outside of any well-head
protection areas,
 300 feet from domestic water intakes, streams, creeks, ponds,
springs and lakes and at least 100 feet from the edge of a major cut
or embankment,
 500 feet from residences, livestock facilities and adjacent pastures
owned or leased by another person,
 300 feet from a road,
 500 feet from a secondary highway; and
 1000 feet from a primary highway.

18. The following guidelines may be of assistance in determining the pit
volume required.
Allow a fill capacity of about 1.5 m3 for each adult cattle or five adult
sheep or five pigs or 75 turkeys or 225 chickens.
Rumen should be punctured just prior to burial to prevent the build up
of methane and carbon dioxide in the pit.
A burial pit 6 metres long, 3 metres wide and 4 metres deep are suitable
for the burial of 20 cattle or 60 sheep or 60 pigs.
These measurements allow for a cover of 2 metres of soil above the
carcases when the pit is closed.
DISPOSAL METHODS

21. When closing the pit, surplus soil should be heaped over it as overfill to prevent
carcasses from rising out of the pit because of gas entrapment, prevent
scavengers digging up carcasses, help filter out odours and to assist in
absorbing the fluids of decomposition.
After pit subsidence, it will be necessary to replace any topsoil not utilized
during pit closure.
Lime should be added to pits, to prevent earthworms from bringing
contaminated material to the surface after pit closure.
Cover the carcasses with soil, 40 cm is suggested, and add an unbroken layer of
slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 before filling is completed.
Lime should not be placed directly on carcasses, because in wet conditions it
slows and may prevent decomposition.
DISPOSAL METHODS

23. Off-site burial
 Animal disposal in pits or trenches not on-site or on an adjacent
property may be appropriate in specific emergency situations if
authorized by the competent authority..
Landfill disposal
 Dead animals may be disposed at any of the permitted municipal solid
waste landfills with due permission from the competent authority.
 Due to the potential for individual facility restrictions, arrangements
should be made with the landfill prior to transport by a licensed
rendering service.

25. Incineration (Burning)
 There are three commonly used methods of incineration such as open-air
burning, biological incineration, and controlled burning.
On-site open-air burning
 Combustible material such as timbers and straw as fuel additives are
required to achieve sufficient temperatures to completely consume the
carcasses.
 The fire line should be sited at right angles to the direction of the prevailing
wind to maximize ventilation. Space for air can be provided by digging
trenches under the pyre and/or elevating the fire bed.
 If the fire bed is to be built on the ground, dig trenches of 30 × 30 cm to act
as air vents.
 These should lie in the direction of the prevailing wind at 1 m intervals
under the length of the proposed fire bed.

26. If the fire bed is to be elevated, lay rows of baled straw and heavy timbers
parallel to the prevailing wind and then another layer of timbers crossing
the bottom layer, leaving a gap of about 20 cm between timbers.
Then lay other fuel, such as lighter timber or straw bales, over this timber
support.
Fuel supplies should be stacked upwind and the fire built from that side
while carcasses should be loaded from the opposite side.
The size of the fire bed is governed by the size of carcasses to be burnt; for
adult cattle allow 2.5x1 m.
Smoke from such fires can be high in particulates and/or produce offensive
odours if the burn is not complete.
The critical factors in success of open air burning are the direction of
prevailing winds, selecting locations out of sight of public view, and the
type of animal to be disposed of.
Animals with high fat content such as hogs will burn much faster and with
less fuel requirements than poultry which are low in fat with feathers do not
burn easily.

28. FUEL REQUIREMENTS
Local availability will govern the type and amount of fuels.
Fuel requirements may be estimated on the basis that one
adult cattle carcass is equivalent to four adult pigs or shorn
sheep, or three adult woolly sheep.
The following can be used as a guide per adult Cattle:
Heavy timber: 3 pieces, 2.5 × 1× 0.75m;
Straw: 1 bale;
Small timber: 35 kg;
Coal: 200 kg;
Liquid fuel: 5 litres.

29. BIOLOGICAL INCINERATION
An efficient disposal method, as it creates almost no pollution or particulates, and
achieves virtually complete oxidation of the carcasses.
There are limiting factors for this method unfortunately, such as cost, lack of
portability, location of existing incinerators, and capacity restraints.
CONTROLLED BURNING
An open pit, or by air curtain incineration (Trench burners) during an emergency may be
followed on need basis.
Limiting factors such as location of site, access to site, type of animal carcass involved, fuel
availability, amount of carcasses to burn and environmental considerations are to be
considerad while taking decisions for burning.
Commonly recommended dimension for the trench is 8’x8’x35’, but the size can be altered
according the amount of carcasses or debris to be consumed. The system delivers the air
stream at approximately 165 miles per hour down into the pit at an angle to create a “mini-
cyclone" within the pit.

30. ON-SITE COMPOSTING
Composting of livestock mortalities is an approved method of disposal.
Compost is considered to be one of the more environmentally friendly forms
of carcass disposal, because it is in effect a form of recycling.
However, for this method of disposal to be successful, proper equipment,
material and management are required.
It is applicable for many natural disaster situations and is routinely used in the
commercial poultry industry today as an accepted form of disposal.
Composting is the mixing by volume of 1 part carcass to 2 parts litter and 1
part straw in alternate layers in a boxed, enclosed area.
The method can also be used for larger animals.

32. Whereas poultry can be placed whole in layers, larger animals need to be
cut or ground into smaller parts first.
But, it is not appropriate when disease bio security is an issue.
The primary phase of composting takes 2-3 months and the secondary
phase another 2-3 months.
The advantages of composting are that initial start up costs are minimal,
and the end product can be utilized as fertilizer material or a soil additive.
Composting disadvantages are that it is a slow process (months) which
requires some monitoring throughout the process, and is usually not
appropriate for disease situations because the causative organisms may not
be destroyed immediately.

33. RENDERING SERVICE
Rendering is a process of separating animal fats and proteins, usually
by cooking.
The recovered proteins are used almost exclusively as animal
foodstuffs, while the recovered fats are used both industrially and in
animal feeds.
There are two primary methods of rendering.
The older method uses steam under pressure (with a grinding
process) in large closed tanks.
A second and newer method is dry rendering, which cooks the
material in its own fat by dry heat in open steam-jacketed drums.

37. Rendering is considered an environmentally friendly method of disposal
because it recycles the animal protein from the carcasses back into a usable
form as meat or bone meal.
Nevertheless it has limitations.
Rendering is not economically feasible for
poultry, and most renderers have voluntarily
declined to render sheep carcasses because of
concerns that the rendering of sheep infected
with Scrape (which were then used as protein
supplements in cattle feed), could have been the
instigating event that began the “Mad Cow
Disease” (BSE) outbreak in England in the
1980’s.

38. ALKALINE HYDROLYSIS
Alkaline hydrolysis or tissue digestion is a relatively new
technique for carcass disposal.
The process uses alkali at elevated temperature to convert
the animal carcasses to a sterile aqueous solution of amino
acids, sugars and soaps.
The only by-products of the process is the mineral
constituents of the bone and teeth of the carcasses, that
are soft enough after the organic matter are degraded to be
easily crushed by hand.

39. The bone remnants can be captured and reused as
calcium phosphate powder (sterile bone meal).
The advantages of the process is that it sterilizes and
digests in one operation, is more economical than some
other forms of disposal, and is environmentally
responsible.
The disadvantages are that there are capacity constraints
which preclude its effective use in large scale disasters,
and it is not widely available at this time.

40. BIOSPHERE PROCESS
The biosphere process is a bio-refining technology which
employs a biolytic hydrolyser, operating under high temperature,
steam pressure, and internal agitation in a sealed steel vessel.
The process produces hydrolysis of protein and carbohydrate
materials, fracturing long chain molecules and yielding sterile,
high nutrient fertiliser as an output.
It operates at 180o C under 12 atmospheric pressure for a period
of 40 minutes. It inactivates all pathogens and is
environmentally sound. Inactivation of prions is still
undetermined.

41. DISEASES ENCOUNTERED DUE TO IMPROPER
DISPOSAL OF CARCASSES
Diseases Infected materials Routes of infection
Brucellosis
Foetus, placenta, carcasses,
blood, organic fluids
Skin
Aerosol
Anthrax
Spores in carcasses, blood,
organic fluid
Aerosol
Skin injuries
Q-fever
Placenta, organic fluids, milk, ticks Aerosal
Ticks
Leptospirosis
Viscera, blood, urine, organic fluid,
water contaminated by urine
Skin
Oral
Respiratory
Conjunctiva mucosa
Rift valley fever
Blood and other organic fluids Bites of mosquitoes
Blood and other organic fluids
Mycobacteriosis
Infected tissues Oral
Aerosol
Skin lesions
Rabies
Blood, organic fluids, central nervous
systems
Bites
Skin injuries
Salmonellosis
Blood, infected tissues, faeces oral

42. CONCLUSIONS
In considering all of the ramifications surrounding carcass disposal
methods, there is no clear-cut preferred choice.
There are multitudes of factors that can influence the final decision.
General factors to be considered include;
 Nature/amount of disposal material,
 Suitable site availability,
 Infectious agent involved,
 Hydrology/typology considerations,
 Which disposal options are viable,
 Fuel availability,
 Recovery funding requirements, and
 Public perception.

43. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1.Dr. R. Anandaraja
2.Dr. P. Rameshkumar
3.Dr. Diptimayee Sahoo
4.Dr. U. Naseema and
5.Dr. S. Sabidha