Growth and development of tooth / orthodontics courses

INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY
Leader in Continuing Dental Education
www.indiandentalacademy.com

CONTENTS
 Introduction.
 Definition of Growth & Development.
 Formation of Dental lamina.
 Developmental stages of tooth.
 Factors affecting growth & development.
 Developmental anomalies.
 Refrences.

According to Todd.
Growth refers to an increase in number and size.
Development refers to an increase in complexity and maturity.
Growth may be defined as an increase in weight and spatial
dimensions that an organism or organ goes through. For
growth to occur, three things must happen:
(1) increase in number of cells,
(2) increase in size of cells,
(3) increase in the product of the cells.
Development is an organism or organ going toward maturity.

GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
It is a part of developmental
process. Development in its
quantitative aspect is termed as
growth.
Growth is cellular . It takes
place due to the multiplication
of cells.
Growth does not continue
throughout life. It stops when
maturity has been attained.
Growth may or may not bring
It is a comprehensive and
wider term and refers to overall
changes in the individual.
Development is
organizational. It is
organization of all the parts
which growth and
differentiation have produced.
Development is a wider and
comprehensive term and refers
to overall changes in the
individual. It continues
throughout life and is
progressive

Stages in tooth development
PHYSIOLOGICAL STAGES
• Initiation.
• Proliferation.
• Histo differentiation
• Morpho differentiation
• Apposition
MORPHOLOGICAL STAGES
•Dental lamina
•Bud stage.
•Cap stage:
•Bell Stage:
early.
advanced.

 Initiation of tooth Development.
 Stages of Tooth Development.

Primary epithelial band formation:
 After about 37th days of gestation, continuous
horse shoe shaped bands around mouth in
presumptive upper & lower jaw are formed
known as primary epithelial band.

 The formation of these thickened epithelial
bands is result of increased proliferation
activity within epithelium as of a change in
orientation of mitotic spindle & cleavage of
dividing cells.

Dental lamina & vestibule formation:
 Primary epithelial band quickly divides into subdivisions
Dental lamina just behind vestibular.A
Vestibular lamina or lip furrow band.B

Vestibular lamina:
 It proliferates into underlying mesenchyme.
 The cells enlarge ,then degenerate to form cleft
that becomes vestibule between cheek & tooth
bearing area.

 In Primary epithelial band,
certain areas of the basal cells
proliferate more rapidly than
the cells of the adjacent areas
resulting in formation of
Dental lamina.
 It is seen at the site of future
deciduous teeth.
 Serves as primodium for
ectodermal component of
deciduous tooth.
Dental lamina :

 Later during development
of jaws ,permanent molars
arise directly from distal
extension
of dental lamina.
1st permanent molar at
about 4th month in utero.
2nd permanent molar
initiated at about 1st year
after birth.
3rd permanent molar
at about 4th or 5th year.

 The other permanent
teeth develop from
lingual extension of free
end of dental lamina
(known as succesional
lamina) opposite to the
enamel organ of
deciduous tooth.
 They develop from 5th
month in utero
(permanent central
incisor) to 10th month of
age (2nd premolar).

 Total activity of dental
lamina extends over a
period of 5 yrs. After which
it begins to degenerate .
 Dental lamina may be still
active in 3rd molar region
after it has disappeared
elsewhere.
 Remnants of dental lamina
persist as epithelial pearls
or islands within the jaw as
well as in gingiva
(Epithelial rests of serre).
Fate of dental lamina:

 At certain point along
dental lamina,ectodermal
cells multiply still more
rapidly to form knob like
structures that grow into
underlying mesenchyme
called enamel organ.
ENAMEL ORGAN

As cell proliferation continues, each
enamel organ increases in size & change in
shape. On the basis of change in shape
,tooth development is further divided into
following stages:
1. Bud Stage
2. Cap stage
3. Bell stage

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

 Enamel organ
differentiate into
round or ovoid
swelling called tooth
bud.
 Enamel organ at this
stage consists of:
1.Peripherally located
low columnar cells.
2.Centrally located
polygonal cells
 Epithelium of dental
lamina is separated
from underlying
mesenchyme by a
basement membrane.
TOOTH BUD
TOOTH BUD

 A Ectomesnchymal condensation just below enamel
organ is known as dental papilla. It forms future
dentin & pulp.
 B Ectomesnchymal condensation that surrounds
tooth bud & dental papilla is known as dental sac. It
forms future cementum & periodontal ligament.
Dental papilla & dental sac are not well defined in this
stage.
Ectomesnchymal condensation
A B

As the tooth bud continues to proliferates, it
does not expand uniformly into a large
sphere.
Instead tooth bud leads to the cap shape
which is characterised by shallow
invagination on deeper surface of the bud.

At this stage , tooth
germ consists of:
 Outer Enamel
epithelium,
 Inner enamel
epithelium,
 Stellate
Reticulum,
 Dental papilla,
 Dental sac, www.indiandentalacademy.com

Outer Enamel epithelium cover convexity of cap. These
cells are cuboidal in shape. They are separated from
dental sac & inner enamel epithelium from dental
papilla by a delicate basement membrane.
Inner enamel epithelium covers concavity & are columnar
in shape.
Stellate reticulum consists of polygonal cells located
between inner & outer enamel epithelium which
separate from one another as more & more intracellular
fluid accumulates to form branched reticular pattern.
They give a cushioning consistency that may support &
protect delicate enamel forming cells.www.indiandentalacademy.com

Enamel Niche:
• Apparent structure created
during histological preparation
due to the sheet like structure
of dental lamina.
• Appears like a concavity
filled with connective tissue
and gives a impression of that
the tooth-germ has a double
attachment to the oral
epithelium.
Enamel Niche
Enamel Niche

Dental papilla:
 Under the influence of
proliferating epithelium of
enamel organ &
ectomesenchyme (to a less
extent), gets enclosed by
invaginated portion of inner
enamel epithelium & condense
to form dental papilla.
 The papilla shows active
budding of capillaries &
mitotic figures.
Dental sac :
•Formed by ectomesnchymal
condensation surrounding
enamel organ & dental papilla.
•Gradually this zone becomes
dense & more fibrous.
Dental sac

 As the invagination of epithelium deepens & its
margins continue to grow ,enamel organ assumes
bell shape .
 Early bell stage
 Advanced bell stage

 Inner enamel
epithelium
 Outer enamel
epithelium
 Stratum Intermedium
 Stellate reticulum
 Cervical loop or zone
of
reflexion
 Dental Papilla
 Dental Sac
Early Bell Stage:

Inner enamel epithelium:
 Consists tall columnar cells about 4 to 5 microns in
diameter & about 40 microns .
 Contains nucleus away from basement membrane.
 Nucleus/cytoplasmic ratio is high.
 Characterised by high glycogen content.
 Cytoplasm contains free ribosomes ,a few RER ,some
mitochondria & few scattered tonofilaments.
 Separated from dental papilla by basement
membrane. www.indiandentalacademy.com

Inner enamel
epitheliumwww.indiandentalacademy.com

Stratum Intermedium:
 A few layers of sqamous cells form stratum intermedium
between inner enamel epithelium & stellate reticulum.
 The well developed cytoplasmic organelles, acid
mucopolysacharides, alkaline phosphatase & glycogen
deposits indicate a high degree of metabolic activity.
 This layer seems to be essential for enamel formation.

Stratum
Intermedium
Stellate reticulum
Inner enamel
epithelium
Dental Papilla

 Expand further mainly by
an increase in amount of
intracellular fluid.
 Cells are star shaped &
attached to one another &
to outer enamel
epithelium and stratum
intermedium by
desmosomes.
 Contains sparsely
Stellate Reticulum :

 Consists of low cuboidal
epithelial cells.
 Supported by basement
membrane around its
periphery.
 Rich glycogen and
cytoplasmic organelle.
 High nuclear
cytoplasmic ratio.
Outer Enamel Epithelium:

 Dental papilla consists of undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells & fine scattered collagen fibrils
scattered throughout extracellular space.
 Nerves & vessels are also seen.
 It is separated from dental organ by a basement
membrane.
Dental Papilla:

•Consists of undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells & circularly
arranged collagen fibrils around enamel
organ & dental papilla.
•Collagen fibrils are more in dental sac
than dental papilla.
Dental Sac:

 Consists of only outer & inner enamel
epithelium.
 This is the point where cells continue
to divide until tooth attains its full
size & which after crown formation
gives rise to epithelial component of
root formation.
Cervical loop or zone of reflexion :

 Separation of tooth germ from Dental Lamina.
 Root formation.
 Morphogenesis of crown.

Dental lamina joined
tooth germ to oral
epithelium, breaks
into discrete islands of
epithelial cells, and
separate developing
tooth germ from oral
Separation of tooth germ from Dental Lami
Dental Lamina
Enamel Organ

Morphogenesis of crown:
 When tooth germ is growing rapidly during cap to
bell stage, cell division occurs throughout inner
enamel epithelium.
 As division continues, division ceases at a
particular point because cells are beginning to
differentiate & assume their eventual functioning of
producing enamel.
 The point at which inner enamel epithelium
differentiation occurs first represent the site of

• Because inner enamel epithelium is constrained
between cervical loop & cusp tips ,continued
proliferation causes the inner dental epithelium to
buckle & form cuspal outline.
• Thus future cusp is pushed towards outer dental
epithelium
• Inner dental epithelium completes its folding making
it possible to recognize shape of future crown pattern of
tooth.
• Eventually differentiation of inner enamel epitheliumwww.indiandentalacademy.com

 It begins after enamel &
dentin formation has
reached cemento
enamel junction.
 The enamel organ plays
important role by
forming Hertwig’s
epithelial root sheath.
 It is formed by
proliferation of cervical
loop cells .
 It consists of only inner
& outer enamel
epithelium.
 It molds the shape of
root & initiate radicularwww.indiandentalacademy.com

 When dentin is formed ,it
looses its structural
integrity.
 This loss of structural
integrity is as a result of
invasion of surrounding
connective tissue of dental
sac.
 The epithelium is moved
away from surface of
dentin so that connective
tissue cells come into
contact with outer surface
dentin & differentiate into
cementoblasts that deposit
a layer of cementum ontowww.indiandentalacademy.com

 Remnants of
Hertwig’s epithelial
root sheath are found
in periodontal
ligament & are called
Cell Rests of Malassez
.
Cell
Rests of
Malassez

 Prior to the beginning of root formation ,epithelial
root sheath forms epithelial diaphragm by bending
at future cemento enamel junction into horizontal
plane ,narrowing the wide cervical opening of tooth.
 Proliferation of cells of epithelial diaphragm is
accompanied by ectomesenchymal cell proliferation
adjacent to diaphragm.

 In last stages of root development ,the
proliferation of epithelium in diaphragm lags
behind that of pulpal connective tissue.
 Thus wide apical foramen is first reduced to
width of diaphragmatic opening itself , later by
apposition of dentin & cementum at the apex
of root.

 In case of multirooted
teeth, there is
differential growth of
epithelial diaphragm in
the form of tongue like
extensions which grow
towards each other &
fuse causing division of
trunk into two or three
roots.

Age Developmental
Characteristics
 42 to 48 days Dental lamina formation
 55 to 56 days Bud stage for deciduous teeth
 14 weeks Bell stage for deciduous teeth;
Bud stage for permanent teeth
 18 weeks Dentin & functional
ameloblasts in deciduous teeth
 32 weeks Dentin & functional ameloblasts
in www.indiandentalacademy.com

1. Initiation
2. Proliferation
3. Histodifferentiation
4. Morphodifferentiation
5. Apposition

Initiation:
• A lack of initiation results in absence of either single
tooth or multiple teeth.
• Most frequently the permanent upper lateral incisor
,third molar, and lower second premolars.
• Abnormal initiation may result in development of
single or multiple supernumerary teeth.www.indiandentalacademy.com

Proliferation:
 Proliferative growth causes regular
changes in the size and proportions of
the growing tooth germ.

Histo-differentiation:
This phase reaches its peak in the Bell stage,
just before hard tissue formation.
In vitamin deficiency ameloblasts fail to
differentiate ,as a result of which adjacent
mesenchyme fails to differentiate & an atypical
dentin known as osteodentin is formed

Morphodifferentiation:
Disturbance in this phase may result in
supernumerary cusps or roots or suppression of
parts may be there (loss of cusps or roots)
or may result in peg or malformed teeth ( e.g.
Hutchinson’s incisors) with normal enamel &
dentin.

Apposition:
Genetic & environmental factors may
disturb the normal synthesis & secretion of
organic matrix of enamel leading to
condition called enamel hypoplasia.
If organic matter is defective, then enamel
or dentin is said to be hypocalcified or
hypomineralised.

BROADLY CLASSIFIED AS
1. Genetic:
i. Inherited
ii. Mutagenic
2. Environmental Factors:
a. Infections :
i. Systemic:
- Rubella
- Influenza
ii. Local: periapical infection affecting
deciduous tooth

b. Exanthematous diseases: measles ,chickenpox ,scarlet
fever.
c. Physical injuries: trauma , radiation,extra temperature.
d. Hormonal disturbances: parathyroid ,thyroid ,growth
hormone, pituitary hormone .
e. Nutritional deficiency : vitamin A,Vit B complex Vit
C,Vit D, proteins, aminoacides.
f. Hypocalcemia
g. Birth injury-premature birth ,traumatic birth,RH
hemolytic disease.
h. Congenital syphilis:
i. Ingestion of chemicals
j. Idiopathic
k. Miscellaneous drugs & chemicals:teratogenic
l. Maternal disease & defects
m. Embryonic defects

Developmental
Disturbances of the
Teeth

 (1) Size
 (2) Number and Eruption
 (3) Shape/Form
 (4) Defects of Enamel and Dentin
Developmental Disturbances

SIZE
Microdontia Macrodontia
(1) True Generalized
Microdontia
(2) Relative Generalized
Microdontia
(3) Focal or Localized
Microdontia
1) True Generalized
Macrodontia
(2) Relative Generalized
Macrodontia
(3) Focal or Localized
Macrodontia

Number and Eruption
Supernumerary
Anodontia
Impaction

Supernumerary
In addition to the regular number of teeth.
Supernumerary teeth develop from a second tooth bud
arising from the dental lamina near the regular tooth bud.
Gardner's syndrome and cleidocranial dysostosis.

Supernumerary teeth can be classified by
shape and by position.
• Supplemental,
• Tuberculate,
• Conical,
• Compound
odontoma,
• Complex odontoma.
Shape
•Mesiodens,
• Paramolar,
• Distomolar.
Position

Anodontia
A congenital anomaly in which some or all o
f the teeth are missing.
Types
▪ Complete anodontia—
The absence of permanent dentition, often asso
ciated with ectodermal dysplasia.
▪ Partial anodontia, hypodontia—
Missing at least one tooth.

Impaction
Do not fully erupt into the oral cavity
distoangular impaction
mesioangular impaction horizontal impaction
vertical impaction

Shape and Form
Crown
Root

Crown
• Fusion
• Gemination
• Taurodontism
• Talon’s Cusp
• Leong’s Cusp
•Dens Invaginatus
• Peg-shaped Lateral
• Hutchinson Incisor
• Mulberry Molar

Root
•Concresence
• Enamel Pearl
• Dilaceration
• Flexion
• Ankylosis

Fusion
Joining of 2 developing
tooth germs
Resulting in a single
large tooth structure
May involve entire length of teeth
Fusion of 2 teeth from a
single enamel organ
Partial cleavage
Appearance of 2 crowns
that share same root canal
Gemination

Taurodontism
Variation in tooth form:
1. elongated crowns
2. apically displaced
furcations
3. resulting in pulp chambers
that have increase apical
occlusal height
Associated with syndromes
such as
Down syndrome
Klinefelter’s syndrome

Dens Evaginatus
Talon’s Cusp
Leung’s Premolar
1. Well-delineated additional cusp
2. Located on the lingual surface of
anterior tooth
1. Clinically as an accessory cusp
or a globule
2. Located on occlusal surface
between buccal and lingual
cusps of premolars

 deep surface invagination
of crown or root that is lined
by enamel
 2 forms:
 coronal
 radicular
Dens Invaginatus
(Dens in Dente)

 undersized lateral incisor
 smaller than normal
 occurs when permanent lateral
incisors do not fully develop
Peg-Shaped Lateral

 characteristic of congenital
syphilis
 lateral incisors are peg-shaped
or screwdriver-shaped
 widely spaced
 notched at the end
 with a crescent-shaped
deformity
Hutchinson’s Incisor

 dental condition usually
associated with congenital
syphilis
 characterized by multiple
rounded rudimentary enamel
cusps on permanent 1st molars.
 giving the appearance of a
mulberry
Mulberry Molar

Concresence
Enamel Pearl
Dilaceration
Flexion
Ankylosis
Root

 2 fully formed teeth
 joined along the root surfaces
by cementum.
frequently in
posterior and maxillary regions.
often involves a 2nd molar
tooth in which its roots
closely approximate the
adjacent impacted 3rd molar
 may occur before or after the
teeth have erupted.
Concrescence

Droplets of ectopic enamel
or so called enamel pearls
May occasionally be found
on
roots of teeth.
Uncommon, minor
abnormalities, which are
formed on normal teeth.
Enamel Pearls

Occur most commonly in
bifurcation or
trifurcation of teeth.
Maxillary molars are
commonly affected than
mandibular molars

 Angulation or a sharp
bend or curve in root
or crown of a formed
tooth.
 trauma to a developing
tooth can cause root to
form at an angle to normal
axis of tooth.
Dilaceration

Hereditary factors are believed
to be involved
in small number of cases.
Eruption generally continues
without problems, rare
deformity

• Deviation or bend restricted just to the root
portion.
• Usually bend is less than 90 degrees.
• May be a result of trauma to the developing
tooth.
Flexion

Ankylosis
1. Also known as “submerged teeth.”
2. Fusion of a tooth to surrounding
bone.
3. Deciduous teeth most commonly
mandibular 2nd molars.
4. Become ankylose to bone.
5. This process prevents their
exfoliation + subsequent
replacement by permanent teeth.

Defects of Enamel and Dentin

 also known as:
 Hereditary Enamel Dysplasia
 Hereditary Brown Enamel
 Hereditary Brown Opalescent
Teeth
Amelogenesis Imperfecta

 group of conditions caused by
defects in the genes encoding
enamel matrix proteins
 genes that encode for enamel
proteins:
 amelogenin mutated in
 enamelin in patients
 others with this
condition

 Reduced enamel thickness
 abnormal contour
 absent interproximal
contact points
 Radio graphically:
 enamel reduced in bulk
 shows thin layer over occlusal
+ interproximal surfaces
Hypoplastic Amelogenesis Imperfecta

 enamel is normal in form on
eruption but:
 opaque
 white to brownish-yellow
 softer than normal
 tends to chip from
underlying
dentin
Hypomaturation Amelogenesis Imperfecta

 enamel matrix is formed in
normal quantity
 poorly calcified
 when newly erupted:
 enamel is normal in thickness
 normal form
 but weak
 opaque or chalky in appearance
Hypocalcified Amelogenesis Imperfecta

 with years of function:
 coronal enamel is removed
 except for cervical portion
that is occasionally calcified
better
 Radio graphically:
 density of enamel and dentin are
similar

 also known as “Hereditary
Opalascent Dentin”
 due to clinical discoloration
of teeth
 mutation in the dentin
sialophosphoprotein
 affects both primary and permanent
dentition
Dentinogenesis Imperfecta

 have blue to brown
discoloration.
 with distinctive translucency.
 enamel frequently separates
easily from underlying defective
dentin.

 Radiographically:
 bulbous crowns
 cervical constriction
 thin roots
 early obliteration of roots
canals + pulp chambers

 Classification:
 Type I
 Type II
 Type III
Dentinogenesis Imperfecta

 Occurs in families with
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
 Primary teeth are more severely
affected than permanent teeth
Type I Dentinogenesis Imperfecta

 partial or total obliteration of pulp chambers and root
canals.
 by continued formation of dentin.
 roots may be short and blunted.
 cementum, periodontal membrane and bone appear
normal.

 Never occurs in association with osteogenesis
imperfecta unless by chance
 Most frequently referred to as hereditary
opalascent dentin
 Only have dentin abnormalities and no bone
disease
Type II Dentinogenesis Imperfecta

• Partial or total obliteration of pulp
chambers and root canals.
• Continued formation of dentin.
• Roots may be short and blunted.
• Cementum, periodontal membrane and
bone appear normal.

•“Bradwine type”.
• Racial isolate in Maryland.
• Multiple pulp exposures in deciduous not seen in
type I or II.
• Periapical radiolucencies.
• Enamel appears normal.
• Large size of pulp chamber is due to insufficient and
defective dentin formation.
Type III Dentinogenesis Imperfecta

DENTIN DYSPLASIA
• Also known as “Rootless Teeth”,
• Rare disturbance of dentin
formation
• Normal enamel
• Atypical dentin formation
• Abnormal pulpal morphology

Classification:
• Type I ( Radicular
Type)
• Type II (Coronal Type)

•Both dentitions are of normal color
• Periapical lesion
• Premature tooth loss may occur because of
short
roots or periapical inflammatory lesions
Type I (Radicular Type)

• Roots are extremely short
• Pulps almost completely
obliterated
• Periapical radiolucencies.
Radiographically:

• Color of primary
dentition is opalescent.
•Permanent dentition is
normal.
• Coronal pulps are usually
large (thistle tube
appearance)
• Filled with globules of
abnormal dentin.
Type II (Coronal Type)

Abnormally large pul
chambers in coronal
portion of tooth
Radiographically:
Deciduous Permanent
• Roots are extremely
short
• Pulps almost
completely
obliterated.

Also known as:
Odontogenic Dysplasia
Odontogenesis Imperfecta
Ghost Teeth
Regional Odontodysplasia

• One or several teeth in a
localized area are affected
• Maxillary teeth are involved
more frequent
• Etiology is unknown
• Teeth affected may exhibit a
delay or total failure in eruption
• Shape is altered, irregular in
appearance.

Radiographically:
• Marked reduction in radiodensity.
• Teeth assume a “ghost” appearance.
• Both enamel + dentin appear very thin.
• Pulp chamber is exceedingly large.

Recent research
related to
development

Tooth regeneration: a revolution in stomatology
and evolution in regenerative medicine.
One of the pivotal issues in tooth regeneration is to devise
clinically translatable approaches that are not cost-
prohibitive and can translate into therapies for patients who
cannot afford or do not have access to dental implants.
Costs for development of cell homing approaches for tooth
regeneration are anticipated not as substantial as for tooth
regeneration by cell transplantation.
Thus, tooth regeneration by cell homing may provide
tangible pathways towards clinical translation.
Int J Oral Sci (2011) 3:107-116

Amelogenin is also expressed transiently in differentiating
odontoblasts during predentin formation, but was absent in
mature functional odontoblasts. In intact adult teeth,
amelogenin was not present in dental pulp, odontoblasts, and
dentin. However, in injured and carious adult human teeth
amelogenin is strongly re expressed in newly differentiated
odontoblasts and is distributed in the dentinal tubuli under
the lesion site. In an invitro culture system, amelogenin is
expressed preferentially in human dental pulp cells that start
differentiating in to odontoblast like cells and form mineralization
nodules. These data suggest that amelogenin plays important roles
not only during cytodifferentiation, but also during tooth repair
processes in humans.
Distribution of the amelogenin protein in developing
injured carious human teeth.
Frontier in physiology.
2014

(1) The explant culture of DP led to harvesting of
a relatively pure cell population of DTSCs;
(2) DTSCs express pluripotent stem cell markers
(3) DTSCs are multipotent cells with high
differentiation potential that are able to
contribute to all embryonic germ lineage
formation.
(4) DTSCs are almost unlimited source of young
stem cells with easy access.
Stem Cells in Dental Pulp of Deciduous Te
TISSUE ENGINEERING: Part
Volume 18, Number 2, 2012

Dental Pulp Stem Cells isolated from laser
pierced cryopreserved teeth show mesenchymal
stem cells morphology, immunophenotype,
viability and proliferation rate similar to those of
cells isolated from fresh, non cryopreserved
teeth, whereas significant loss of cell viability
and proliferation rate was shown by cells
isolated from teeth cryopreserved without laser
piercing.
A novel method for banking dental pulp
stem cells
Transfusion and apheresis science
October 2012 Volume 47, Issue 2,
Pages 199–206www.indiandentalacademy.com

It appears that dental stem cells have the potential for
continued cell division and regeneration to replace
dental tissues lost through trauma or disease. Clinical
applications using these cells for apexogenesis and
apexification will be dependent on a greater
understanding of the environment at the immature root
end and what stimulates dental stem cells to begin
dividing and then express a certain phenotype.
Dental stem cells and their potential role in
apexogenesis and apexification.
Int Endod J. 2009 Nov;42(11):955-62.

REFRENCES
1) TEN CATE’S Oral histology
2) NEVILLE, et al: Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology
3) G S KUMAR et al: Oral histology and embryology
4) SHAFER, et al: A textbook of Oral Pathology.

THANK YOU

Growth and development of tooth / orthodontics courses

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (20)

Similar to Growth and development of tooth / orthodontics courses

Similar to Growth and development of tooth / orthodontics courses (20)

More from Indian dental academy

More from Indian dental academy (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Growth and development of tooth / orthodontics courses