Content analysis is a research technique used to analyze messages and make inferences from text. It involves objectively and systematically identifying characteristics of messages according to explicit rules and procedures. Content analysis can be used to analyze various forms of communication and media. It has both quantitative and qualitative applications. The key aspects of content analysis involve defining categories, sampling data, analyzing context, establishing boundaries, and making valid inferences from text.
The document discusses qualitative content analysis. It defines content analysis as the systematic classification and interpretation of text through coding and identifying themes. Content analysis allows researchers to understand social reality and explore meanings in a scientific manner. It can use inductive or deductive approaches to analyze data. Unique characteristics include flexibility in approaches and ability to extract manifest and latent meanings from text. Researchers use content analysis to describe message characteristics and identify themes. The process involves defining a research question, sampling material, developing a coding scheme of themes, coding the content, and analyzing results both qualitatively and quantitatively. Validity and reliability are also addressed.
Content analysis is a qualitative research technique that analyzes the actual content of various materials such as conversations, interviews, articles, and social media posts. It objectively measures concepts, themes, and attributes within materials. There are three main types of content analysis: conceptual analysis examines concept frequency, relational analysis examines concept relationships, and observational research analyzes materials without directly collecting data from people. The procedures of content analysis involve forming a research question, linking it to theory, designing the study, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting results. Content analysis has advantages such as being inexpensive and unobtrusive but also limitations such as being time-consuming and prone to bias.
Content analysis is a research technique used to objectively, systematically, and quantitatively analyze the manifest content of communications. It can be used to analyze any type of recorded media, such as text, images, or videos. There are two main types: conceptual analysis, which establishes the frequency of concepts, and relational analysis, which examines relationships between concepts. Content analysis is useful for reducing large amounts of unstructured data, identifying important aspects of content, and making inferences about messages, authors, and cultural contexts. While it provides an unobtrusive means of analysis, it can also be time-consuming and reductive when dealing with complex materials.
The document discusses content analysis, which is a research method used to systematically analyze written, spoken, or visual communication to quantify data. Content analysis can be used to study texts such as books, articles, speeches, and historical documents. The document outlines the history of content analysis and describes its applications. It also discusses different types of content analysis such as conceptual analysis and relational analysis, and provides steps for conducting each type. Limitations and advantages of content analysis are presented.
This document provides an overview of content analysis. It defines content analysis as the objective, systematic, and quantitative analysis of communicated content such as texts, books, websites, paintings and laws. The document outlines the various types of content that can be analyzed, such as written, oral, iconic, audio-visual and hypertext. It also discusses the different purposes and uses of content analysis across multiple fields. Furthermore, it describes the typical steps involved in conducting a content analysis, including planning, coding text into categories, examining results, and making inferences.
CONTENT ANALYSIS (Quantitative Research Methods)Libcorpio
Content Analysis, Quantitative Research Methods, LIS Education, Library and Information Science, LIS Studies, Information Management, Education and Learning, Library science, Information science, Library Research Methods,
The document discusses qualitative content analysis. It defines content analysis as the systematic classification and interpretation of text through coding and identifying themes. Content analysis allows researchers to understand social reality and explore meanings in a scientific manner. It can use inductive or deductive approaches to analyze data. Unique characteristics include flexibility in approaches and ability to extract manifest and latent meanings from text. Researchers use content analysis to describe message characteristics and identify themes. The process involves defining a research question, sampling material, developing a coding scheme of themes, coding the content, and analyzing results both qualitatively and quantitatively. Validity and reliability are also addressed.
Content analysis is a qualitative research technique that analyzes the actual content of various materials such as conversations, interviews, articles, and social media posts. It objectively measures concepts, themes, and attributes within materials. There are three main types of content analysis: conceptual analysis examines concept frequency, relational analysis examines concept relationships, and observational research analyzes materials without directly collecting data from people. The procedures of content analysis involve forming a research question, linking it to theory, designing the study, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting results. Content analysis has advantages such as being inexpensive and unobtrusive but also limitations such as being time-consuming and prone to bias.
Content analysis is a research technique used to objectively, systematically, and quantitatively analyze the manifest content of communications. It can be used to analyze any type of recorded media, such as text, images, or videos. There are two main types: conceptual analysis, which establishes the frequency of concepts, and relational analysis, which examines relationships between concepts. Content analysis is useful for reducing large amounts of unstructured data, identifying important aspects of content, and making inferences about messages, authors, and cultural contexts. While it provides an unobtrusive means of analysis, it can also be time-consuming and reductive when dealing with complex materials.
The document discusses content analysis, which is a research method used to systematically analyze written, spoken, or visual communication to quantify data. Content analysis can be used to study texts such as books, articles, speeches, and historical documents. The document outlines the history of content analysis and describes its applications. It also discusses different types of content analysis such as conceptual analysis and relational analysis, and provides steps for conducting each type. Limitations and advantages of content analysis are presented.
This document provides an overview of content analysis. It defines content analysis as the objective, systematic, and quantitative analysis of communicated content such as texts, books, websites, paintings and laws. The document outlines the various types of content that can be analyzed, such as written, oral, iconic, audio-visual and hypertext. It also discusses the different purposes and uses of content analysis across multiple fields. Furthermore, it describes the typical steps involved in conducting a content analysis, including planning, coding text into categories, examining results, and making inferences.
CONTENT ANALYSIS (Quantitative Research Methods)Libcorpio
Content Analysis, Quantitative Research Methods, LIS Education, Library and Information Science, LIS Studies, Information Management, Education and Learning, Library science, Information science, Library Research Methods,
This document defines content analysis and discusses Kerlinger's definition. Kerlinger defines content analysis as a systematic, objective, and quantitative method for studying communication. It involves treating all content in an identical manner (systematic), allowing different researchers to obtain the same results (objective), and quantifying the analysis to aid precision (quantitative). The document also lists uses of content analysis, such as identifying what exists in media, comparing media to reality, testing hypotheses, and exploring media images of minority groups.
The document provides an introduction to research methods and tools, outlining objectives for understanding what constitutes research, the types and importance of educational research, the research process, quantitative and qualitative characteristics and designs, ethical issues, needed skills, and general tools including libraries, computers, measurement, and human cognition.
Ethnography is a branch of anthropology that focuses on understanding a culture from the perspective of the people in that culture. There are two main types: micro ethnography, which studies narrow aspects of a culture, and macro ethnography, which examines broader aspects. Ethnographic research involves observing and interacting with people in their natural environment over an extended period of time to understand their cultural behaviors, artifacts, and speech. It provides health providers insights into cultural beliefs and practices that influence people's health.
This document discusses various qualitative research methods for collecting and analyzing data. It describes qualitative research as focusing on collecting narrative and visual non-numerical data to understand a phenomenon of interest. It then outlines several common qualitative research approaches like grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, narrative research, case studies and the types of data collection methods used in each approach such as interviews, observations, focus groups and document analysis. Finally, it discusses the process of analyzing qualitative data which typically involves preparing, organizing, coding and categorizing the data to identify themes and patterns.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research. It discusses the history and characteristics of qualitative research, including that it seeks to understand perspectives from local populations. The document outlines various qualitative methods like case studies, ethnography, and grounded theory. It also discusses issues in qualitative research such as gaining entry, selecting participants, and enhancing validity. Strategies to reduce bias like triangulation and examining outliers are presented.
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
This presentation discusses about content analysis, its use, Types, Advantages, Issues of Reliability & Validity, Problems, Quantitative content analysis, coding, Qualitative content analysis, Creative synthesis, Data reduction and Constant comparison.,
Qualitative research aims to understand people's experiences and interpretations of the world. It provides rich, detailed descriptions through methods like interviews, observations, and written responses. The researcher immerses themselves in the topic to understand perspectives without assumptions. Main types include case studies, grounded theory, phenomenology, and ethnography. Data collection involves interactions, written responses, and observations. Analysis begins during data collection to guide further inquiry. The process moves from specific to general understanding through a funnel or inductive approach. Validity is increased through triangulation of multiple data sources, types, and collection methods. Strengths include understanding context, but it is time consuming and results may not generalize. Mixed methods combine qualitative and quantitative approaches at different stages of
Thematic analysis is a common form of qualitative analysis that involves identifying and examining patterns (themes) within data related to a research question. The analysis is performed through a six phase coding process: 1) familiarizing with the data, 2) generating initial codes, 3) searching for themes among codes, 4) reviewing themes, 5) defining and naming themes, and 6) producing a final report. Themes differ from codes in that they describe what the data means rather than just labeling it. The coding process is cyclical, with researchers refining codes and themes by going back and forth between the phases until reaching satisfactory final themes.
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data through methods like interviews and observations to understand meanings, concepts, definitions, and descriptions. It focuses on subjective experiences and meanings that people assign rather than counting or measuring. There are several types of qualitative research including basic interpretive studies, phenomenological studies, grounded theory studies, case studies, ethnographic studies, narrative analysis, critical qualitative research, and postmodern research. Each type uses different methods and focuses of analysis but all aim to provide an in-depth understanding of experiences, cultures, or phenomena through a subjective rather than objective lens.
This document outlines 8 steps for conducting ethnographic research on a group: 1) Choose a group to study and ensure access; 2) Decide on a research problem or question; 3) Plan data collection methods like interviews or observation; 4) Find knowledgeable informants within the culture; 5) Interact with community members and informants respectfully as a learner; 6) Compile and analyze collected data on language, daily routines, beliefs; 7) Conduct follow-up as needed; 8) Write up the ethnography including methodology, analysis, and respecting confidentiality.
This document discusses ethnography as an invaluable research method. It defines ethnography as the scientific description of peoples and cultures with their customs, habits, and differences. Ethnography uses both qualitative and quantitative methods in a holistic and interpretive way to study cultural systems from emic and etic perspectives. It is a flexible and iterative process that relies heavily on fieldwork through daily recording of field notes. Ethnography presents case studies of host populations in human contexts. It implies formulating questions, collecting and testing data, and drafting conclusions while leaving room for doubt. Ethics in research require avoiding falsification and acknowledging others' work to prevent plagiarism.
Research tools & data collection method_vipinVIPIN PATIDAR
data collection method-
it include following sub points-
1) definition of research tool
2) data
3) primary and secondary data
4) observation method
5) interview
6) questionnaire
7) physiological measure
This document provides an overview of ethnography as a qualitative research method. It defines ethnography as the description and interpretation of cultural behavior through field work and written text. Ethnographic research aims to understand a culture from an emic or etic perspective by observing cultural behaviors, artifacts, and speech in natural contexts over time. The key characteristics of ethnographic research are that it is contextual, unobtrusive, longitudinal, collaborative, interpretative, and organic. Successful ethnographies employ methods like interviews, observation, and document analysis to develop a rich narrative description of a culture. The outcome is a holistic understanding of cultural norms, behaviors, and practices that can provide insights for health research.
Thematic analysis in qualitative research Explained with ExampleSufi Nouman Riaz
https://youtu.be/QNP4KkNFzu4
Thematic analysis is a technique of data analysis while conducting a qualitative study. Thematic analysis is the most recognized, adapted, and used approach to analyze qualitative data.
This video is made as per the illustrations and procedures explained in the Braun and Clarke (2006) research article on Thematic Analysis.
Have you just conducted a qualitative study involving:
Interviews
Focus Groups
Observations
Document or artifact analysis
Journal notes or reflections?
How to use this type of data?
Just as there are numerous statistical tests to run for quantitative data, there are just as many options for qualitative data analysis.
THEMATIC APPROACH
Most common forms of analysis in qualitative research. It emphasizes Pinpointing, Examining, Recording
Patterns (or "themes") within data.
Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the description of a phenomenon and are associated to a specific research question.
Themes become categories for analysis
6 Phases of Coding
(Thematic Analysis)
1-Familiarization with data
2-Generating initial codes
3-Searching for themes among codes
4-Reviewing themes
5-Defining and naming themes
6-Producing the final report
This document discusses causal-comparative research, which aims to identify cause-and-effect relationships between groups by comparing two or more groups that differ on some independent variable. The key points covered are:
1) Causal-comparative research examines pre-existing differences between groups and attempts to determine the cause of those differences, unlike experimental research which manipulates variables.
2) It is useful for studying variables that cannot be manipulated, to inform decisions, and provide a basis for future experimental research.
3) Procedures involve selecting groups that differ on an independent variable, collecting background data, and comparing groups on a dependent variable while controlling for extraneous variables.
Ethnography is a Social science research method. It is the primary data collection method. It is mainly combined with social background. A qualitative approach that studies the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting.
Ethnography came from Greek, it identifies its roots in sociology and anthropology.
*Ethnos = People
*Graphing = Writing
“Ethnography literally means ‘a portrait of a people’. Ethnography is a written description of a particular culture, the custom, belief and behaviour based on information collected through field work.” (Harris and Johnson 2000).
Qualitative Research Questions and MethodologyLevelwing
Big Data isn't just about numbers and charts; qualitative research provides rich insight to help with any business question you may have. This presentation provides an overview of qualitative research methodology and the importance and process of developing scalable research questions. Learn more about Levelwing's research capabilities: http://ow.ly/gcSXU
Research methodolgy and legal writing: Content AnalysisNikhil kumar Tyagi
This document provides an overview of content analysis as a research method. It defines content analysis as the systematic study and quantification of messages to make inferences about their meaning. The document discusses the history and development of content analysis, outlines different types (conceptual and relational analysis), and reviews common uses such as studying social phenomena, media coverage, and sensitive topics. Content analysis is presented as a versatile tool across many fields for analyzing recorded communication.
WK 10 – Research Workshop - Content and discourse analysis Carolina Matos
This document provides an overview of media content analysis. It discusses quantitative versus qualitative content analysis and defines content analysis as the systematic analysis of messages to make valid inferences. It also covers developing coding schemes, sampling methods, and how to conduct a content analysis study through coding data and establishing intercoder reliability. Manual and electronic methods of coding are also compared.
This document defines content analysis and discusses Kerlinger's definition. Kerlinger defines content analysis as a systematic, objective, and quantitative method for studying communication. It involves treating all content in an identical manner (systematic), allowing different researchers to obtain the same results (objective), and quantifying the analysis to aid precision (quantitative). The document also lists uses of content analysis, such as identifying what exists in media, comparing media to reality, testing hypotheses, and exploring media images of minority groups.
The document provides an introduction to research methods and tools, outlining objectives for understanding what constitutes research, the types and importance of educational research, the research process, quantitative and qualitative characteristics and designs, ethical issues, needed skills, and general tools including libraries, computers, measurement, and human cognition.
Ethnography is a branch of anthropology that focuses on understanding a culture from the perspective of the people in that culture. There are two main types: micro ethnography, which studies narrow aspects of a culture, and macro ethnography, which examines broader aspects. Ethnographic research involves observing and interacting with people in their natural environment over an extended period of time to understand their cultural behaviors, artifacts, and speech. It provides health providers insights into cultural beliefs and practices that influence people's health.
This document discusses various qualitative research methods for collecting and analyzing data. It describes qualitative research as focusing on collecting narrative and visual non-numerical data to understand a phenomenon of interest. It then outlines several common qualitative research approaches like grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, narrative research, case studies and the types of data collection methods used in each approach such as interviews, observations, focus groups and document analysis. Finally, it discusses the process of analyzing qualitative data which typically involves preparing, organizing, coding and categorizing the data to identify themes and patterns.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research. It discusses the history and characteristics of qualitative research, including that it seeks to understand perspectives from local populations. The document outlines various qualitative methods like case studies, ethnography, and grounded theory. It also discusses issues in qualitative research such as gaining entry, selecting participants, and enhancing validity. Strategies to reduce bias like triangulation and examining outliers are presented.
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
This presentation discusses about content analysis, its use, Types, Advantages, Issues of Reliability & Validity, Problems, Quantitative content analysis, coding, Qualitative content analysis, Creative synthesis, Data reduction and Constant comparison.,
Qualitative research aims to understand people's experiences and interpretations of the world. It provides rich, detailed descriptions through methods like interviews, observations, and written responses. The researcher immerses themselves in the topic to understand perspectives without assumptions. Main types include case studies, grounded theory, phenomenology, and ethnography. Data collection involves interactions, written responses, and observations. Analysis begins during data collection to guide further inquiry. The process moves from specific to general understanding through a funnel or inductive approach. Validity is increased through triangulation of multiple data sources, types, and collection methods. Strengths include understanding context, but it is time consuming and results may not generalize. Mixed methods combine qualitative and quantitative approaches at different stages of
Thematic analysis is a common form of qualitative analysis that involves identifying and examining patterns (themes) within data related to a research question. The analysis is performed through a six phase coding process: 1) familiarizing with the data, 2) generating initial codes, 3) searching for themes among codes, 4) reviewing themes, 5) defining and naming themes, and 6) producing a final report. Themes differ from codes in that they describe what the data means rather than just labeling it. The coding process is cyclical, with researchers refining codes and themes by going back and forth between the phases until reaching satisfactory final themes.
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data through methods like interviews and observations to understand meanings, concepts, definitions, and descriptions. It focuses on subjective experiences and meanings that people assign rather than counting or measuring. There are several types of qualitative research including basic interpretive studies, phenomenological studies, grounded theory studies, case studies, ethnographic studies, narrative analysis, critical qualitative research, and postmodern research. Each type uses different methods and focuses of analysis but all aim to provide an in-depth understanding of experiences, cultures, or phenomena through a subjective rather than objective lens.
This document outlines 8 steps for conducting ethnographic research on a group: 1) Choose a group to study and ensure access; 2) Decide on a research problem or question; 3) Plan data collection methods like interviews or observation; 4) Find knowledgeable informants within the culture; 5) Interact with community members and informants respectfully as a learner; 6) Compile and analyze collected data on language, daily routines, beliefs; 7) Conduct follow-up as needed; 8) Write up the ethnography including methodology, analysis, and respecting confidentiality.
This document discusses ethnography as an invaluable research method. It defines ethnography as the scientific description of peoples and cultures with their customs, habits, and differences. Ethnography uses both qualitative and quantitative methods in a holistic and interpretive way to study cultural systems from emic and etic perspectives. It is a flexible and iterative process that relies heavily on fieldwork through daily recording of field notes. Ethnography presents case studies of host populations in human contexts. It implies formulating questions, collecting and testing data, and drafting conclusions while leaving room for doubt. Ethics in research require avoiding falsification and acknowledging others' work to prevent plagiarism.
Research tools & data collection method_vipinVIPIN PATIDAR
data collection method-
it include following sub points-
1) definition of research tool
2) data
3) primary and secondary data
4) observation method
5) interview
6) questionnaire
7) physiological measure
This document provides an overview of ethnography as a qualitative research method. It defines ethnography as the description and interpretation of cultural behavior through field work and written text. Ethnographic research aims to understand a culture from an emic or etic perspective by observing cultural behaviors, artifacts, and speech in natural contexts over time. The key characteristics of ethnographic research are that it is contextual, unobtrusive, longitudinal, collaborative, interpretative, and organic. Successful ethnographies employ methods like interviews, observation, and document analysis to develop a rich narrative description of a culture. The outcome is a holistic understanding of cultural norms, behaviors, and practices that can provide insights for health research.
Thematic analysis in qualitative research Explained with ExampleSufi Nouman Riaz
https://youtu.be/QNP4KkNFzu4
Thematic analysis is a technique of data analysis while conducting a qualitative study. Thematic analysis is the most recognized, adapted, and used approach to analyze qualitative data.
This video is made as per the illustrations and procedures explained in the Braun and Clarke (2006) research article on Thematic Analysis.
Have you just conducted a qualitative study involving:
Interviews
Focus Groups
Observations
Document or artifact analysis
Journal notes or reflections?
How to use this type of data?
Just as there are numerous statistical tests to run for quantitative data, there are just as many options for qualitative data analysis.
THEMATIC APPROACH
Most common forms of analysis in qualitative research. It emphasizes Pinpointing, Examining, Recording
Patterns (or "themes") within data.
Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the description of a phenomenon and are associated to a specific research question.
Themes become categories for analysis
6 Phases of Coding
(Thematic Analysis)
1-Familiarization with data
2-Generating initial codes
3-Searching for themes among codes
4-Reviewing themes
5-Defining and naming themes
6-Producing the final report
This document discusses causal-comparative research, which aims to identify cause-and-effect relationships between groups by comparing two or more groups that differ on some independent variable. The key points covered are:
1) Causal-comparative research examines pre-existing differences between groups and attempts to determine the cause of those differences, unlike experimental research which manipulates variables.
2) It is useful for studying variables that cannot be manipulated, to inform decisions, and provide a basis for future experimental research.
3) Procedures involve selecting groups that differ on an independent variable, collecting background data, and comparing groups on a dependent variable while controlling for extraneous variables.
Ethnography is a Social science research method. It is the primary data collection method. It is mainly combined with social background. A qualitative approach that studies the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting.
Ethnography came from Greek, it identifies its roots in sociology and anthropology.
*Ethnos = People
*Graphing = Writing
“Ethnography literally means ‘a portrait of a people’. Ethnography is a written description of a particular culture, the custom, belief and behaviour based on information collected through field work.” (Harris and Johnson 2000).
Qualitative Research Questions and MethodologyLevelwing
Big Data isn't just about numbers and charts; qualitative research provides rich insight to help with any business question you may have. This presentation provides an overview of qualitative research methodology and the importance and process of developing scalable research questions. Learn more about Levelwing's research capabilities: http://ow.ly/gcSXU
Research methodolgy and legal writing: Content AnalysisNikhil kumar Tyagi
This document provides an overview of content analysis as a research method. It defines content analysis as the systematic study and quantification of messages to make inferences about their meaning. The document discusses the history and development of content analysis, outlines different types (conceptual and relational analysis), and reviews common uses such as studying social phenomena, media coverage, and sensitive topics. Content analysis is presented as a versatile tool across many fields for analyzing recorded communication.
WK 10 – Research Workshop - Content and discourse analysis Carolina Matos
This document provides an overview of media content analysis. It discusses quantitative versus qualitative content analysis and defines content analysis as the systematic analysis of messages to make valid inferences. It also covers developing coding schemes, sampling methods, and how to conduct a content analysis study through coding data and establishing intercoder reliability. Manual and electronic methods of coding are also compared.
Content Analysis Overview for Persona DevelopmentPamela Rutledge
After developing an Ad Hoc persona as the core of your engagement strategy, it's important to test your assumptions against real people and real data. Content analysis is a methodology for evaluating text-based data that can be gathered from social media tools.
Critical Discourse Analysis Of President Bush SpeechCandice Him
This document discusses critical discourse analysis (CDA) and its aims and potential social contributions. CDA analyzes language as social and cultural practice and engages in normative critique and judgment of discourse and society. CDA aims to educate people about power relations and achieve greater social equality. It also seeks to understand how discourse reproduces social domination and power imbalances between groups. CDA takes a structural approach to indirectly analyze the deeper causes and consequences of social issues.
A Content Analysis Of Narratives From A Categorical And Holistic Point Of Vie...Richard Hogue
The document summarizes a study analyzing narratives from people who underwent a rite of passage experience, such as a wedding or competitive exam. 16 participants were interviewed about their experiences before, during, and after the rite of passage. The interviews were analyzed using categorical content analysis to identify core themes. Key categories that emerged included commitment, feelings, changes in identity, and lessons learned. The analysis aimed to understand how the rituals influenced any changes reported by participants.
This document analyzes trends in the core Hungarian psychology journal (MPSZ) using bibliometric and network analysis techniques. It finds that MPSZ has served as an open review journal, maintaining an extremely open author community. The journal covers diverse topics but has clear orientations in cognitive, developmental, and personality psychology. Three main research communities were identified: psycholinguistics, environmental psychology, and developmental/comparative psychology. While topics were introduced early on, applied topics gradually increased over time. MPSZ has reflected international trends in psychology while also anticipating some areas like neuroscience. It provides an up-to-date view of psychology informed by its intellectual background citations.
Analysis of the Content course of Standard VI to VIII (Tamil, English, Mathematics, Science and Social science) Text Books prescribed by Government of Tamil Nadu, and content course of standard IX - X ( for UG) , XI – XII (for PG) Computer Science Text Books Prescribed by Government of Tamil Nadu.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely-acknowledged, yet widely-used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically-flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
Keywords: thematic analysis, qualitative psychology, patterns, epistemology, flexibility
Braun, V. and Clarke, V., 2006
Textual analysis Or Content Analysis pptHelinaWorku2
This power point includes Definition ,the Focus of the Investigation ?,How to carry out a content analysis, Kinds of textual analysis , The advantages and disadvantages of content analysis.
PSY-850 Lecture 4Read chapters 3 and 4.Objectives Different.docxamrit47
PSY-850 Lecture 4
Read chapters 3 and 4.
Objectives:
Differentiate between ethnography and phenomenology.
Contrast data collection and analysis methods employed in ethnography and phenomenology.
Approaches to Qualitative Research: Ethnography and Phenomenology
Introduction
Ethnographic studies are considered a special case of phenomenological study when the phenomenon observed is a specific culture (Geertz, 1973). Their use ranges from the study of remote primitive cultures by participant-observers to urban marketing studies of the nature of demand for products using focus groups.
Ethnography
The ethnographic approach studies the social interactions of a group to learn the mechanisms by which individuals develop understanding of their everyday life-world. This is the identification of the ways and means used to create dynamic social equilibrium in their group (Garfinkel, 1967). These ways and means enable group members to have fairly accurate expectations of others' behavior and a basis for comprehending expected and unexpected behavior. The product of an ethnographic study is an explicit description of these ways and means.
With this knowledge, researchers can begin to understand how the group's members make sense of the world in which they exist. If successful, it may be possible to determine what events (e.g., the immigration of foreigners or the gain of a new local industry) and conditions (e.g., prolonged drought or growth in incomes over a couple of decades) to which the group may adapt well and to what they may have difficulty adapting. Two key variables here are the expectation (from fully expected to unexpected) and the comprehensibility (from fully comprehensible to incomprehensible).
Thus, the idea of making sense of everyday life is decomposed into two properties (expectation and comprehensibility) that give a richer description of what ethnographers seek. This is an example of increasing the richness of a description, another goal of ethnographic studies (Geertz, 1973). Another example is a study of fire prevention strategies for the National Science Foundation, where Armstrong and Vaughn (1974) replaced housing stock (number of residential units) in New York City with average persons per unit and total population. The data from two sources instead of one were used, enriching the study by this same method of decomposition.
Increasing descriptive variables, where logical, is only one way of enriching a study. There is no simple or formulaic way to achieve richness, but Geertz (1973) provides excellent and detailed guidelines. Review of data, reconsideration of findings, discussions of meaning, or use of the Delphi procedure (Dalkey, 1969) can all be used. Delphis are not just for ethical review, but for study of any complex issue.
Denzin and Lincoln (2005) recommend certain actions of the ethnographer:
1. Combine symbolic meanings with patterns of interaction.
2. Observe the world from the point of view of the ...
5Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research Statistical.docxtroutmanboris
5
Statistical Methods in Qualitative Research
Statistical Method
What is measured by this method
Circumstances for Use
Examples of use in Research Studies
Qualitative Content Analysis
Analyzes narrative data, and in-depth interviews. Can evaluate large volumes of data with intent to identify recurring themes and patterns. Attempts to break down elements of data into clusters. May be concurrent or sequential (Polit &Beck, 2017).
Good method for evaluating personal histories, perspectives, experiences. Best method for studying personal, sensitive situations (Sauro, 2015).
Examples of this methodology include evaluation of the experience of a rape victim, what it feels like to have an abortion, how it feels to have lived through a disaster.
Ethnographic analysis
Evaluates cultural phenomena, patterns, perspectives. Requires “participant observer” technique. No preconceived hypothesis. May take months or years to complete. Maps and flowcharts are tools to help illustrate findings (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method to “acquire a deep understanding of the culture being studied” (Polit & Beck, 2017 p. 538).
An example of ethnographic analysis could include a research study with ethnographers integrating with Native Americans living on a reservation while observing everyday life seeking to extrapolate overlying cultural issues.
Phenomenologic Analysis
Attempts to understand the essence of experiencing a particular phenomenon by observation, interviews, and outside research. Descriptive analysis
Method for understanding individual perspectives of experiencing a certain phenomenon. Seeks to extrapolate commonalities and themes among subjects (Sauro, 2015).
Conducting interviews with persons who have experienced hallucinations, with the intent to understand their perspective and experience of the phenomenon, is an example of this method of research.
Grounded Theory Analysis
Aim is to provide theories and explanations for phenomena based on previously coded information Uses interviews and previous accepted research. Unlike Qualitative content analysis, which seeks to break down information, Grounded theory strives to put information back together (Polit & Beck, 2017).
Method for development of theories, Could be used meta-analyses or systematic reviews.
An example of a grounded theory analysis is” Beck’s (2002) model of mothering twins” as cited in Polit & Beck (2017).
Focus Group Analysis
Analyzes group data in relation to a specific topic. Group interviews, recordings, and field notes .are instruments for conducting this type of research.
May be used for evaluation of a potential survey tool, consensus on a new product. Researchers seek to extrapolate recurring themes.
An example of a focus group analysis might be to evaluate perceptions of a new product being marketed to test for general consensus of its desirability.
Quasi-statistics: a tabulation of the frequency with which certain themes or insights are supported by the data
Qualitat.
THE PURPOSE Knowledge After completing this assignment, .docxoscars29
THE PURPOSE:
Knowledge:
After completing this assignment, you will understand:
1) The scope and diversity of psychology as a discipline.
2) How psychologists working from different philosophical and theoretical perspectives make different
contributions to our understanding of particular psychological topics.
Skills:
After completing this assignment, you will be able to:
1) Assess the strengths and weaknesses of various explanations for your topic.
2) Explain how the Integration and/or competition between explanations from various perspectives helps
psychology advance our understanding of human behavior and mental processing.
YOUR TASK:
Your task is to select ONE psychological topic you find particularly interesting. This may be a topic we have covered in
the course or a psychological topic we have not covered. You will then examine this topic from three different
philosophical or theoretical perspectives within psychology. For example, you could examine your topic from any of the
following philosophical perspectives: physiological, behavioral, cognitive, social, humanistic, evolutionary,
psychoanalytic, etc). Alternatively, you could opt to examine your topic more specifically using three different theories,
which may or may not differ in their philosophical perspectives. For example, imagine that you choose “bullying” as
your topic. You could examine how bullying is explained from a biological, behavioral, and social perspective (three
different philosophical perspectives). Alternatively, you could choose to examine how three different theories attempt
to explain bullying. Two of these theories might be theories from a “social” perspective and one might be a theory from
a “biological” perspective.
In either case, you must utilize and cite original sources for those perspectives in your analysis/discussion. This means
that you must research your topic to find three different explanations for your topic. Your analysis cannot be based on
personal opinion alone.
Write-up: Your write-up should begin with a general overview of your topic and the reasons why it is particularly
interesting or relevant to you. This introduction should be followed by an analysis of your topic from three different
philosophical or theoretical perspectives. Your analysis should demonstrate a general understanding of your topic and
the fundamental principles used by each philosophical or theoretical perspective to explain that topic (using at least
three academic sources outside of your textbook as source material). In addition, you should discuss whether the
explanations offered by the different perspectives are complimentary to one another or contradict one another. Finally,
your analysis should include your own personal reflection of these perspectives and an informed assessment of what
you see as the strengths and weaknesses of each based on your research of them.
THE CRITERIA:
Review the grading criteria for this .
This document provides an overview of 22 qualitative data analysis methods: Typology, Grounded Theory, Analytic Induction, Logical Analysis, Quasi-Statistics, Narrative Event Analysis, Domain Analysis, Taxonomic Analysis, Thematic Analysis, Metaphorical Analysis, Hermeneutical Analysis, Content Analysis, Conversation Analysis, Discourse Analysis, Semiotic Analysis, Phenomenology, Heuristic Inquiry, Ethnography, Case Study Research, Historical Analysis, Action Research, and Feminist Research. Each method is briefly defined and includes a reference for further information. The document aims to help students, practitioners, and academics with their qualitative research projects.
Here is an in-depth presentation that overviews twenty two (22) qualitative data methods that can be used in marketing research. For more great FREE resources, join us on facebook today at www.facebook.comb2bwhiteboard.
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This document provides an overview of how to analyze content using NVivo software. It discusses uploading documents to NVivo, coding the content into categories or nodes, and using tools like word frequency queries, text searches, and visualization to analyze relationships within and across texts. The goal of content analysis is to make inferences about messages, authors, audiences, and cultural contexts by systematically coding and examining texts.
CHAPTER FOUR Five Qualitative Approaches to InquiryWe wan.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER FOUR :
Five Qualitative Approaches to Inquiry
We want to present a couple of scenarios. In the first, the qualitative researcher does not identify any specific approach to qualitative research he or she is using. Perhaps the methods discussion is short and simply limited to the collection of face-to-face interviews. The findings of the study are presented as a thematic workup of major categories of information collected during the interviews. Contrast this with a second scenario. The researcher adopts a specific approach to qualitative research, such as a narrative research approach. Now the methods section is detailed describing the meaning of such an approach, why it was used, and how it informed the procedures of the study. The findings in this study convey the specific story of an individual, and it is told chronologically, highlighting some of the tensions in the story. Details about the specific organization in which the individual’s story takes place provide important contextual information. Which approach would you find to be the most scholarly? The most inviting? The most sophisticated? We think that you would opt for the second approach.
We need to identify our approach to qualitative inquiry in order to present it as a sophisticated study; to offer it as a specific type so that reviewers can properly assess it; and, for the beginning researcher, who can profit from having a writing structure to follow, to offer some way of organizing ideas that can be grounded in the scholarly literature of qualitative research. Of course, this beginning researcher could choose several qualitative approaches, such as narrative research and phenomenological research, but we would leave this more advanced methodological approach to more experienced researchers. We often say that the beginning researcher needs to first understand one approach thoroughly and then venture out and try another approach before combining different ways of conducting qualitative research.
This chapter will help you begin the mastery of one of the qualitative approaches to inquiry as well as to distinguish among the five approaches. We take each approach, one by one, and provide a definition, discuss its origin, identify the key defining features of it, explore the various types of ways to use it, and provide procedures involved in conducting a study within the approach. Then we consider challenges that you will likely incur as you proceed and outline the emerging directions associated with the approach. Finally, a comparison of the five approaches across foundational considerations, data procedures, and research reporting is followed.
Questions for Discussion
· What is the focus and definition for each approach (narrative research, phenomenological research, ground theory research, ethnographic research, and case study research)?
· What are the origin and background influences for each approach?
· What are the defining features of each approach?
· What various form.
The document provides an overview of discourse analysis as a tool for social research. It defines discourse and discusses different approaches to discourse analysis such as frame analysis and critical discourse analysis. It also outlines some aims of discourse analysis, tools that can be used like corpus linguistics, and examples of analyzing text and framing. Key questions discussed include how analyzing discourse can reveal agendas and assumptions and how the structure of discourse can influence actions.
content analysis and discourse analysisRudy Banuta
Content analysis and discourse analysis are both techniques used to analyze written, spoken, or visual communication messages. Content analysis focuses on quantitatively analyzing the manifest or surface content of communication messages by categorizing words or phrases. The goal is to make objective inferences about the sender, message, or audience. Discourse analysis takes a more qualitative approach to analyze the structures and functions of written, spoken, or signed language beyond the sentence level by examining how social and cultural meanings and relationships are constructed through language within a specific context. While both are useful analytical tools, content analysis relies more on scientific methods and objectivity, while discourse analysis emphasizes interpretation and the subjective role of the researcher and context in constructing meaning.
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2) Interactional sociolinguistics which examines how context influences production and interpretation of discourse through cues like intonation.
3) Ethnography of communication which analyzes speech events within their social and cultural contexts using Hymes' SPEAKING framework.
4) Conversation analysis which identifies turn-taking and adjacency pairs as fundamental units and examines how conversation is achieved interactively.
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Semiotics is the study of meanings and signs. It examines how meaning is derived from texts, images, and other signs through social interpretation. The field has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy but was modernized by linguists like Saussure and Pierce in the 19th/20th centuries. Semiotics is relevant to information science because both fields study representation and the social construction of meaning from signs and culture. It provides frameworks for understanding how information and language acquire context-dependent meanings.
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2. Content Analysis
Multiple Definitions
Background
Applications and Procedure
An Illustration
Consistency within Diversity
Growth
Reliability
Validity
3. General Definitions
“...a research technique that uses a set of procedures
to make valid inferences from text” (Weber, 1990, p. 9)
A summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages relying on
scientific method and not limited to types of variables measured or
context of messages (Neuendorf, 2002)
"Any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically
identifying specified characteristics of messages” (Holsti, 1969 p. 14)
4. Definitions (continued)
“...technique for objective, systematic, & quantitative description of
manifest content communication” ( Berelson, 1952, p. 18)
“ …systematic, replicable data reduction technique, compressing many
words of text into content categories based on explicit rules of
coding” (Stemler, 2001)
“Close analysis of explicit and implicit messages of a text through
classification and evaluation of key concepts, symbols, and themes to
determine
meaning and explain its effect it on the audience” (Reitz, 2004)
“...systematic reading of texts and symbolic matter not necessarily from an
author’s or user's perspective” (Krippendorf, 2004, p. 3)
6. Goal of Content Analysis
To draw inferences about:
A text
To obtain documentary evidence about:
A sender
A message
A receiver (audience)
9. Analysis of Texts
Researchers have analyzed texts since the start of
writing
Content analysis draws on Aristotelian principles of
textual analysis as described in “Poetics”
Subject of text
Creator
Audience
Purpose
Context
Ethos
Pathos
10. Analysis of Texts
Medieval Scholastics recognized latent meanings of words,
leading to categories
First documented content analysis:
18th century Sweden
Collection of religious hymns blamed for subverting orthodox state
church and inciting dissent
Words and symbols in songs were same as orthodox hymnal, but
occurred in different contexts (Dovring, 1951; Krippendorf, 2009)
11. Analysis of Texts
During early 20th century Weber studied content of newspapers
raising fundamental questions:
How do newspapers affect readers?
How do the contents of newspapers compare quantitatively over a
generation?
What is carried as news
What is carried as editorial
What is omitted
Weber is regarded as a pioneer in the sociology of the press
12. Psychological Analysis
Gordon Allport
Pioneer in personality theory
Analyzed “Letters to Jenny” (Diary)
Aimed to understand her experienced world by identifying
psychological traits as expressed in her letters and diaries
(Krippendorf& Bock, 2009)
14. Content Analysis and Data
The Effect of Semantics on Public Opinion and Propaganda
Program Effectiveness
Readability of Text
Television Violence
Library Transactions
Characteristics of Reference Questions
Personality Traits
Determination of Authorship
15. Questions for Content Analysis
“How are minority ethnic groups treated in short stories in popular
magazines?” (Berelson, 1952)
“How can communications be tested for propaganda elements?”
“What ways do motion pictures reflect popular feelings and desires?”
“What are the dominant images in Shakespeare’s plays?”
“What happens to a good book when it becomes a movie?”
“How do criteria used for program effectiveness reflect program
objectives?”
How do attitudes reflect personality structure?
What domains are currently being studied in library and information
science?
16. A Quantitative Illustration
Research Problem:
What role does popular magazine fiction play in
affecting attitudes toward ethnic minorities?
(Berelson and Salter, 1946)
17. Hypotheses Asserted
Sympathetic characters are from the majority
Unsympathetic characters are from minorities and usually
unsympathetic and secondary
Social interaction between majority and minority groups
seldom occurs.
When interaction occurs, minority group in a subordinate position.
The problems of majority and minority groups differ
The majority has individual (personal) problems
The minority has social and economic problems
The goals of the majority (love, comfort) more approved than
goals of the minority (material gain).
18. Hypothesis and Categories
Hypotheses were translated into categories – a priori assignation
The first hypothesis yielded 3 categories for analysis:
Ethnic identification of character
Role in the story
Level of approval (sympathy for character)
Other hypotheses provide more categories:
Socio-economic status of characters
Kind of interaction
Problems
Goals
After categories for the hypotheses are exhausted, they can be
addressed by potential data
19. Final Step in Analysis
Establish Categories
Determine Indicators (a priori)
First general category was ethnicity
Indicators of ethnicity rarely explicit
(i.e. “He was Italian-American”)
Indirect indicators of ethnicity conceived – indicators involved names (i.e.
Antonio), language, appearance, memberships, etc.
Second category was character’s role in story
Was the role major or minor?
Indicator was the space allotted to specific character
Third category was socio-economic level
Indicator included characteristics as occupation, education, income, possessions,
standard of living, etc.
After examining the stories other categories and indicators were noted. These
emergent categories extended the hypothesis (a posteriori)
21. The Basic Steps
Which data are analyzed? (Unit of Analysis)
How are data defined? (Definition of Terms--these are the variables to
measure. Both internal and external validity come into play here.)
What is the population or unit from which the sampling data are drawn?
(Sampling Frame or Unit of Sampling)
What is the context relative to which the data are analyzed?
What are the boundaries of the analysis?
What is the target of inference?
Code Book - Coding Form
22. Comparison: Berelson’s Study and
Krippendorf’s 6 Questions
Krippendorf Berelson
1. What data are analyzed? 1. Units of analysis are words.
2. How are the data defined? 2. Data defined by categories and
their indicators.
3. What is the population or unit
from which the sampling data are 3. Frame is fictional story in
drawn? popular magazine.
4. What is the context relative to 4. Context involves attitudes
which the data are analyzed? toward ethnicities.
5. What are the boundaries of the 5. Boundary is single story in
analysis? selection of magazines.
6. What is the target of inference? 6. Do indicators support
hypothesis?
24. Content, System, Goals
The objective of content analysis is determining answers
to questions that the text implies – explicitly and implicitly
It is a systematic technique of “reading between the lines”
Can this goal be attained most effectively with quantitative or
qualitative techniques?
Distinguishing feature between 2 approaches is starting
point:
hypothesis or grounded induction
methods of deriving categories
what depth of communication accepted as an indicator
25. Quantitative Procedures
Content analysis starts with the hypothesis
Categories derived from possibilities of hypothesis
Categories established a priori and indicators based on
manifest (surface) meaning
26. Qualitative Procedures
Qualitative approach derives categories after examining
document – emergent coding
Factors in latent meanings of words or messages
Context and proximity suggest the intended
meaning of a message
27. Media: Qualitative Analysis
Narrative Analysis (focus on literary composition and structure)
Rhetorical Analysis examines properties of text; emphasis not on meaning,
but how meaning is conveyed)
Discourse Analysis – examines manifest language in text – language and
word
usage
Semiotic Analysis – focus is on latent meanings and deep structures
Interpretive Analysis – formation of theory from observation
Conversation Analysis – used by social scientists in psychology,
communications and sociology
Critical Analysis – analyzes media messages (how are groups
represented in media of all forms)
28. Consistency within Diversity
The definitions, uses, and techniques vary according to
whether the researcher conducts a quantitative study
or a qualitative study
Content analysis stipulates three core conditions for
qualitative or quantitative character of study
These central conditions include:
Objectivity
System
Generality (Holsti, 1969)
29. Objectivity (Holsti, 1969)
The test of objectivity is whether another researcher,
following identical procedures with the same data, can arrive
at a similar conclusion
Objectivity, in content analysis, means that explicit rules and procedures
guide the research process
For example, what criteria will be applied in formulating a category?
What criteria determines content unit (word, theme, webpage, animation,
imagery, kinds of imagery, narrative, dialogue, space, advertisements,
maps, transactions)?
Objectivity requires researcher explicitly state ground a category is
selected
and what rationale prompts one inference rather than an alternative
30. System
Systematic procedures facilitate objective, unbiased
selection of content and categories (Holsti, 1969)
Assigning firm rules to regulate inclusion & exclusion
of content and categories prevents researcher from
biased, self-serving selection
Rules preclude an analyst from intentional or
unintentional bias in selecting only content or category
supporting hypothesis, proposition, or self-interest.
31. Generality
Select content based on clear definitions for determining
content and categories – fosters objectivity
Establish procedures for inclusion or exclusion of data --
contributes towards consistency and systematic, impartial
selection
Promote principled, legitimate descriptive analysis with
systematic procedures – provides a basis for generalizing
about the data collection
Relate data to an established theory or reasoned proposition
for data to be conclusive or meaningful
33. Arguments Refined
Quantitative and qualitative methods are different approaches to investigating same
problem
Must content analysis be defined by quantitative or qualitative methodologies?
Holsti (1969) holds that other measures besides quantitative frequency counts &
enumeration valid
Alternative method of quantifying data with greater refinement is “contingency analysis”
Contingency analysis codes presence or absence of a trait within document or unit of
sampling. Inferences derived from proximity of two or more units of analysis in sampling unit
The use of quantitative procedures or qualitative is not an either/or issue -- they can
interact
Restriction to quantitative analysis has been criticized on several grounds
Such restriction leads to bias in the problems to consider
It is also stated that qualitative methods can result in more meaningful or descriptive
inferences
34. Manifest and Latent Content
Considerations:
Must content analysis be restricted to manifest content – or
surface meanings; elements “physically present &
countable” (Neuendorf, 2002 p. 23)
Holsti offers compelling example of limits of manifest content.
Limit to manifest content would not yield this notion
Describes patient in mental hospital who states he is in
Switzerland. In this case, the patient’s meaning of Switzerland is
“freedom.” By stating he is in Switzerland, he is stating that he
wants freedom.
Latent content & meaning would provide the context whereby the
receiver of the message would understand the idiosyncratic
meaning.
Latent content need not be dismissed. However, as Holsti
emphasizes, it should be verified by “independent evidence.”
35. A Growing Trend
During early 20th century Max Weber applied techniques of content
analysis to journalism when he introduced the notion of studying
the sociology of the press (Weber, 1924)
Over 24 years -- 1971-1995, Riffe&Freitag (1997) noted six-fold
increase in number of content analyses appearing in journal, J&MC
Quarterly
Software applications and the WWW enable text & data analysis
Neuendorf (2002) reported more than 24 text content analysis
programs are available (THAT WAS 9 YEARS AGO)
Many electronic content analysis applications now available – text,
audio, video
36. Reliability
Reliability measured basically in two ways (Stemler, 2001)
Stability – (intra-rater reliability Does same coder get same results
again and again?
Reproducibility – (inter-rater reliability) Do different coders, rating
the same text, get the same results?
37. Internal Validity
Internal validity is degree a procedure of measurement represents
the defined concept
Does the procedure measure what one intends to measure?
Research question determines what one intends to measure
In previous example, the concern was how individuals in majority
population and minority population were characterized in fictional stories
carried by popular magazines
Study valid if results of inquiry yield data related to this concern
and research question
38. External Validity
External validity or the ability to generalize to the wider
population, depends largely on the soundness of one’s
sampling technique and sample
Need experimental controls or validity becomes serious
concern
Triangulation or independent corroboration is one means of
establishing validity
Another involves conducting same inquiry using another method of
inquiry – formal experimental design employing surveys or
qualitative procedure with focus group/interviews
40. Bibliography
Allport. G. (1965). Letters from Jenny. In K. Krippendorff& M. Bock (Eds.), The content
analysis reader (p. 28-37). London: Sage. Print.
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities.
Reading, MA: Addision-Wesley Pub. Co. Retrieved from http://
www.questia.com
Krippendorf, K. (2003). Introduction to Content Analysis. CA: Sage. Print
Krippendorff, K. & Bock, M. A. (2009). The Content Analysis Reader. CA:
Sage. Print.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. London: Sage.
Online resource: http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/content
Reitz, J. M. (2004). Dictionary for library and information science. CN: Libraries Unlimited.
(Print).
Riffe, D. &Freitag, A. (1997). A content analysis of content analyses: Twenty-five years of
Journalism Quarterly. J&MC, 74, 4, 873-882.
41. Bibliography (continued)
Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment,
Research and Evaluation, 7 (17). Retrieved from http://PAREonline.net
Weber, M. (1924). Toward a sociology of the press: An early proposal for
content analysis. In K. Krippendorff& M. Bock (Eds.), The content analysis
reader (p. 9-11). London: Sage. Print.
Weber, R. (1990). Basic Content Analysis. London: Sage. Print.
Documentary Research: Refers to research that is based on documentary sources or factual records and reports.
Text, in this sense, refers to all forms of recorded material.As a research technique, it is required that all studies be replicable. In order to meet this requirement, all forms of communication need to be stable and durable. (Holsti, 1969 p. 2). Documents include any text, audio recordings, music, videotapes, drawings, television, or images. In the digital age, content analysis includes the analysis of stable email, posts, blogs, podcasts, webinars, and all forms of digital communication. Lasswell, a communications scholar, used content analysis to study propaganda. .This well-known question combines quantitative procedures or enumeration and qualitative procedures or context and proximity.
Categories were formed that encompassed a concept that many words could convey. The notion of the connotation and ambiguity of words and their meanings were recognized.
The process of determining authorship involves compiling a list of probable authors and comparing their, language, use of language, themes, and all stylistic features that characterize each author. That author whose textual content is most similar in all defined categories to the text in question would be designed the rightful author. One of the most recent, successful examples of this use was in identifying the anonymous author of the 1990’s book,” Primary Colors.” The book dealt with Clinton’s 1992 Presidential campaign, but the authorship had not been disclosed. Using the method of content analysis, the literary techniques of rhetorical analysis and narrative analysis, Donald Foster, a Vassar professor, identified Joe Klein, a Times magazine writer, as the author of the book.
Program effectiveness in education would look at mission statements and program objectives, then evaluate whether the criteria used to measure program effectiveness (measures of achievement—test scores, performance, behavior) reflects the objectives. Or, how do criteria used to assess learning reflect objectives established for a course. Objectives and criteria should be established at the start of a program or course—not during.
Strictly speaking, qualitative studies require a priori categories; qualitative studies are characterized by their emergent and inductive coding of categories.
(Krippendorf, 2003)Stemple (2001) cites three problems associated with compiling documents for content analysis 1. a significant number of documents from the population are missing 2. Records or Documents that do not meet the definition of the document should be discarded and a notes citing the reason kept. 3. Documents meet the definition, but can not be coded because they are missing passages or have ambiguous content.
Paraphrased from Holsti (1969, p. 4).
Objectivity, System, and Generality are not exclusive to content analysis. They are required conditions of all scientific or reasoned inquiry.
(Holsti, 1969 p. 10)By interact, I mean that each methodology can inform the other.
Max Weber formally emphasized the importance of applying quantitative and qualitative approaches in analyzing how the contents of newspapers effect public opinion. Weber referred to this study as the sociology of the press.
This is a seriously rough means of testing reliability. However, it may reveal some of the difficulties involved with determining features and consistently coding them.