Xylem
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A group of cells which are similar in Origin and function but of more than One type in structure. Water conducting tissue Along with phloem make vascular tissue Provide support to plants 1)Tracheary elements These are nonliving cells, provide support and conduct water. Two types, (a)Tracheids: elongate, tube like cell, tapering, rounded or oval ends, hard lignified walls. (b)Vessels members: long, cylindrical, tube-like structures with lignified walls. (2)Fibres: thick walls, evolve from tracheids and provide mechanical strength. Two types, (a)Fibre-tracheids: medium thickness walls, have reduced boardered pits. (b)Libriform fibres: very thick walls, have reduced simple pits. Parenchyma cells: living cells, in woody plants, store of food in starch form. Two types: (a)Axial parenchyma: derived from fusiform initials, have tracheary elements and fibres. (b)Ray parenchyma: derived from ray initials of cambium, xylem ray cells. Developmentally, xylem have two types (1)Primary xylem: derived from procambium, developing from embryo, non-woody plants. (2)Secondary xylem: from vascular cambium, second stage of plant development, in woody plants.
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Phloem
This document provides information about phloem in plant anatomy. It discusses the classification, components, and types of phloem. Phloem is classified as primary or secondary, depending on how it develops. The main components of phloem are sieve elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibers. Sieve elements can be sieve cells or more advanced sieve tubes, and are the living cells of the phloem. Companion cells are specialized parenchyma cells associated with and supporting the sieve elements.
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Vascular Cambium & Seasonal activity & its Role in Stem & Root
Vascular Cambium & Seasonal activity & its Role in Stem & Root:
The vascular cambium (pl. cambia or cambiums) is a lateral meristem in the vascular tissue of plants.
The vascular cambium is a cylindrical layer of cambium that runs through the stem of a plant that undergoes secondary growth.
In Dicots:
The vascular cambium is in dicot stems and roots, located between the xylem and the phloem in the stem and root of a vascular plant, and is the source of both the secondary xylem growth (inwards, towards the pith) and the secondary phloem growth (outwards).
In Monocots:
Monocot stems, such as corn, palms and bamboos, do not have a vascular cambium and do not exhibit secondary growth by the production of concentric annual rings. They cannot increase in girth by adding lateral layers of cells as in conifers and woody dicots.
Cambium of some plants remains active for the entire period of their life, i.e., cambial cells divide and resulting cells mature to form xylem and phloem elements.
This type of seasonal activity usually found in the plants present in the tropical regions, and not all plants show cambial activity.
Percentage of ringless trees in the rain forests of; India : 75% Amazon : 43% Malaysia : 15%
In regions with definite seasonal climate; seasonal activity of cambium ceased with onset of unfavorable conditions; In Autumn, it enters the dormant state and lasts for the end of summer; In Spring, cambium again becomes active.
Duration of cambial activity is also affected by day-length, e.g., In Robinia pseudoacacia, cambium is dormant under short-day condition.
The cambium cells formed in circular in cross section from the beginning onwards.
The cambial ring is partially primary (fascicular cambium) and partially secondary (interfascicular cambium).
Periderm originates from the cortical cells (extra stelar in origin).
In Dicot stem, for mechanical support xylem is with comparatively smaller vessels, greater fibers and less parenchyma.
More amount of cork is produces for protection.
Lenticels on periderm are very prominent.
The cambial ring formed is wavy in the beginning and later becomes circular.
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Periderm originates from the pericycle (intra stelar in origin).
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Less amount of cork is produced as root is underground.
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Many ferns from tropical rain forests are epiphytes, which means they only grow on other plant species; their water comes from the damp air or from rainfall running down branches and tree trunks. There are also some purely aquatic ferns such as water fern or water velvet (Salvinia molesta) and mosquito ferns (Azolla species).
Pteridophytes do not have seeds or flowers either, instead they also reproduce via spores.
There are around 13,000 species of Pteridophytes.
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The vascular cambium is a cylindrical layer of cambium that runs through the stem of a plant that undergoes secondary growth.
In Dicots:
The vascular cambium is in dicot stems and roots, located between the xylem and the phloem in the stem and root of a vascular plant, and is the source of both the secondary xylem growth (inwards, towards the pith) and the secondary phloem growth (outwards).
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Monocot stems, such as corn, palms and bamboos, do not have a vascular cambium and do not exhibit secondary growth by the production of concentric annual rings. They cannot increase in girth by adding lateral layers of cells as in conifers and woody dicots.
Cambium of some plants remains active for the entire period of their life, i.e., cambial cells divide and resulting cells mature to form xylem and phloem elements.
This type of seasonal activity usually found in the plants present in the tropical regions, and not all plants show cambial activity.
Percentage of ringless trees in the rain forests of; India : 75% Amazon : 43% Malaysia : 15%
In regions with definite seasonal climate; seasonal activity of cambium ceased with onset of unfavorable conditions; In Autumn, it enters the dormant state and lasts for the end of summer; In Spring, cambium again becomes active.
Duration of cambial activity is also affected by day-length, e.g., In Robinia pseudoacacia, cambium is dormant under short-day condition.
The cambium cells formed in circular in cross section from the beginning onwards.
The cambial ring is partially primary (fascicular cambium) and partially secondary (interfascicular cambium).
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In Dicot stem, for mechanical support xylem is with comparatively smaller vessels, greater fibers and less parenchyma.
More amount of cork is produces for protection.
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The slides has been edited. visit for new one on https://www.slideshare.net/alihaider408/stelar-system-stele-its-types-and-evolutionedited-182037813
Sorry for inconvenience.
Stele is defined as a central vascular cylinder, with or without pith and delimited the cortex by endodermis.
Van Tieghem and Douliot (1886) recognized only three types of steles.
1-Protostele
2-Siphonostele
3-Solenostele
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Major highlights of stellar theory are:
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The document discusses different types of meristems in plants. It defines meristems as regions of actively dividing cells that form new tissue, usually found at growing tips. Meristems are classified based on development stage, origin, position in the plant body, and function. Apical meristems are located at the tips of shoots and roots. They consist of immature, dividing cells and correspond to the promeristem, the earliest stage of meristem development. Apical meristems are responsible for the primary growth of shoots and roots.
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- Names are determined by nomenclature types and are based on priority of publication. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct scientific name.
- Names are revised in subsequent International Botanical Congresses starting in 1892 to establish standards for effective/valid publication, author citation, typification, and rejection of illegitimate names.
- Related codes also exist for zoological nomenclature, cultivated plants, bacteria,
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The slides has been edited. visit for new one on https://www.slideshare.net/alihaider408/stelar-system-stele-its-types-and-evolutionedited-182037813
Sorry for inconvenience.
Stele is defined as a central vascular cylinder, with or without pith and delimited the cortex by endodermis.
Van Tieghem and Douliot (1886) recognized only three types of steles.
1-Protostele
2-Siphonostele
3-Solenostele
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Major highlights of stellar theory are:
Stele is a real entity and present universally in all higher plants.
Cortex and stele are two fundamental parts of a shoot system
Stele and cortex are separated by endodermis
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The document discusses different types of meristems in plants. It defines meristems as regions of actively dividing cells that form new tissue, usually found at growing tips. Meristems are classified based on development stage, origin, position in the plant body, and function. Apical meristems are located at the tips of shoots and roots. They consist of immature, dividing cells and correspond to the promeristem, the earliest stage of meristem development. Apical meristems are responsible for the primary growth of shoots and roots.
Icbn
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) governs the formal scientific names used for plants. Some key points:
- Carl Linnaeus is considered the father of modern taxonomy and introduced the system of scientific naming for species in 1753.
- Names are determined by nomenclature types and are based on priority of publication. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct scientific name.
- Names are revised in subsequent International Botanical Congresses starting in 1892 to establish standards for effective/valid publication, author citation, typification, and rejection of illegitimate names.
- Related codes also exist for zoological nomenclature, cultivated plants, bacteria,
Vascular cambium gurpreet s
The vascular cambium is a lateral meristem that increases the diameter of stems and roots through secondary growth. It is composed of fusiform initials that divide to form vertical tissues and ray initials that form horizontal tissues. In dicots, intrafascicular cambium initially develops within vascular bundles and interfascicular cambium develops between bundles, eventually joining to form a complete cambial ring. The cambium divides to produce secondary xylem internally and secondary phloem externally. Its seasonal activity varies the structure of the tissues produced.
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ORIGIN& EVOLUTION OF ANGIOSPERMS.pdf
This PPT offers a magical journey of the magic of the reality of the origin & evolution of Angiosperms.
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The stem consists of nodes and internodes. Axillary and apical buds form branches and elongate the shoot tip. The shoot apex contains a dome-shaped apical meristem that produces leaves and axillary buds. It is organized into an outer layer called the tunica and inner region called the corpus. Leaf primordia develop from the sides of the apical meristem.
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1. Anthoceros is a genus of hornworts that includes about 200 species found worldwide in shady, moist tropical and temperate areas.
2. The plant body is a gametophyte that consists of a small, dark green, lobed thallus containing chloroplasts and rhizoids.
3. Reproduction can occur vegetatively through tubers, gemmae, and persistent apices, or sexually through antheridia that produce sperm and archegonia containing eggs leading to fertilization and formation of a sporophyte.
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Anatomy of Reproductive Parts: Flower, Fruit,Seed
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower). Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Flowers give rise to fruit and seeds. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen.
Fruit anatomy is the internal structure of fruits.
Fruits are the mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers. In fleshy fruits, the outer layer (which is often edible) is the pericarp, which is the tissue that develops from the ovary wall of the flower and surrounds the seeds.
But in some seemingly pericarp fruits, the edible portion is not derived from the ovary. For example, in the fruit of the ackee tree the edible portion is an aril, and in the pineapple several tissues from the flower and stem are involved.
The outer covering of a seed is tough because the parent plant needs to protect the plant growing.
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering known as the seed coat.
It is a characteristic of spermatophytes (gymnosperm and angiosperm plants) and the product of the ripened ovule which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule.
Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants.
Laticferous
A laticifer is a type of elongated secretory cell found in the leaves and/or stems of plants that produce latex and rubber as secondary metabolites.
Thin walled
Greately elongated
Much branched structure
Which contain milky juice
Complex composition called latex
These are following two types:-
Articulated laticifers
Non-articulated laticifers
Structure, Development & Function of Periderm
A group of secondary tissues forming a protective layer which replaces the epidermis of many plant stems, roots, and other parts.
Although periderm may develop in leaves and fruits, its main function is to protects stems and roots.
The periderm consists of three different layers:
Phelloderm
Phellogen (cork cambium)
Phellem (cork)
Its main function is to protect the underlying tissues from:
Desiccation
Freezing
Heat injury
Mechanical destruction
Disease
Loss of epidermis.
Bounding tissue restricting the pathogen & insects.
Allowing gaseous exchange through lenticels.
Sapwood and Heartwood
Sapwood:
“When a tree is young, certain cells within the wood are alive and capable of conducting sap or storing nutrients, and the wood is referred to as sapwood. The sapwood also termed as Alebernum.”
Heartwood:
“Heartwood also called duramen. Dead central wood of trees. As new sapwood is formed under the bark, the inner sap wood changes to heartwood. In the wood under going this change the living cells die.”
Sapwood is new wood and is like a pipeline which moves water through the tree up to the leaves.
The sapwood is lighted colored and formed of living cells associated with vessels and fibers.
Sapwood commonly ranges from 4 to 6 cm (1-1/2 to 2 in.) in radial thickness.
Many second-growth trees of merchantable size consist mostly of sapwood.
Heartwood consists of inactive cells that do not function in either water conduction or food storage.
The compounds (including resins, phenols, and terpenes, sometimes referred to as extractives) not only help make heartwood more resistant to attack by insects and decay organisms but also tend to give this inner portion of the stem a distinctive darker color.
The proportion of heartwood to sapwood in the main stem does vary with species. Black locust, for example, usually has a very narrow band – often less than an inch – of functioning sapwood, whereas maple stems often can have many inches of sapwood and relatively narrow cores of heartwood.
Sapwood is formed due to the cambial activity of the secondary xylem.
Heartwood is formed due to accumulation of different compounds, such as oils gums, and resins, etc.
The oils, resins and colouring materials infiltrate the walls, and gums and resins may fill the lumina of the cells in heart wood.
During the transformation a number of changes occur – all living cells lose protoplasts; water contents of cell walls are reduced; food materials are withdrawn from the living cells; tyloses are frequently formed which block the vessels, the parenchyma walls become lignified; oils, gums, tannins, resins and other substances develop in the cells.
Sapwood performs the physiological activities, such as conduction of water and nutrients, storage of food, etc.
The function of heartwood is no longer of conduction, it gives only mechanical support to the stem.
The heartwood part of a tree is also far more susceptible to fungus than the centre of the trunk.
Heartwood contains far less moisture than sapwood and will have far less shrinkage when it’s dried.
The sapwood in the centre of the tree dies, forming heartwood, and as the cells die they release chemicals that change the colour of the wood, as well as making the wood stronger and more resistant to attack by insects.
Schlerenchyma Cells
Schlerenchyma
Definition:
Schlerenchyma cells are specialized plant cells that exist to provide strength and support.
They are present in all kinds of plants including grasses,trees and flowering plants. Their cell wall consists of cellulose,lignin and hemicellulose.
There are two types of schlerenchyma. 1. Fibers 2.Schleroids
Long spindle shaped cells. They usually occur in strands. Within a stand ,the fibers overlap. Walls are not highly hydrated. Supporting elements in plant parts that are no elongating.
Function of Schlerenchyma
Schlerenchyma cells are strong,thick cells that provide most of the support in plant. Enable plant organs to withstand various strain, bending, weight and presssure without damage to the thin softer cells.
Structure, Development & Function of Collenchyma
Type of ground tissue, they are elongated cells with irregularly thick cell walls that provide support and structure.
Structure & Development:
Large central vacuole.
Prominent nucleus.
Living cells.
Flexible.
Irregularly thickened cell walls.
Thick primary cell wall made up of cellulose and pectin.
Secondary wall deposition starts in them.
Located beneath the epidermis in the stem and roots of dicot.
Usually absent in monocot stem and root.
There are three main types of collenchyma:
Lamellar collenchyma (uniformly thickened cell walls).
Angular collenchyma (thickened at intercellular contact points).
Lacunar collenchyma (collenchyma with intercellular spaces).
Provides structural support.
Filling of vacant spaces in young shoots and leaves that is later used for lateral growth.
Provides elasticity to plant parts by allowing them to bend easily.
Helps in photosynthesis.
Storage of secretory products.
Exchange of respiratory gases.
Function and development of parenchyma cells
Parenchyma:
General purpose cells of plant
Rounded in shape
uniformly thin walls
lack secondary wall
living at maturity
having large vacoule
location leaf, stem (pith) root, fruit
Simple tissues
Functions:
Basic metabolic function (repiration,
photosynthesis, chlorenchyma in
leaf, protein synthesis
Epidermis
The epidermis is the outermost cellular layer which covers the whole plant structure, i.e. it covers roots, stem, leaves.
It is composed of a single layer of living cells, although there are exceptions.
Epidermis is usually closely packed, without intercellular spaces or chloroplasts. Instead, the epidermis is like a clear spray coating whose sole purpose is to protect the plant from the elements, while still letting the sun shine in. That's particularly important for a leaf because their main job is to photosynthesize.
Composition of Epidermis:
Epidermal Proper Cells
Specialized cells
Stomatal Guard Cells
Trichomes
Epidermal Proper Cells:
These cells vary in thickness and shape
The outer walls, which are exposed to the atmosphere and usually thickened, and may be covered by a waxy, waterproof cuticle which are made up of cutin. Apart from the normal epidermal cells there are also stomata in the epidermis of leaves and stem.
Wax in the form of granules or rods may be deposited on the surface of cuticle as continuous.
Specialized Epidermal Cells:
In certain species of pteridophytes and gymnosperm, many species of Graminae and certain dicots, fiber-like epidermal cells are formed.
In Graminae and many other monocots ,bubble-like cells are formed called Bulliforms cells, these cells are larger then normal epidermal cells and are thin walled.
Function:
These cells are concerned with opening of rolled leaf as enclosed in bud.
Rolling and unrolling of mature leaves as a result of loss and uptake of water.
Stomatal cells:
A stoma is an opening (pore) which is bounded by two bean shaped cells called guard cells and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts.
The guard cells differ from normal epidermal cells in that they have chloroplasts and the cell walls are thickening unevenly; the outer wall is thin and the inner wall (nearest the opening) is thick.
The leaf and stem epidermis is covered with pores called stomata (sing., stoma), part of a stoma complex consisting of a pore surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing guard cells.
The epidermal cells protect the underlying cells.
The waxy cuticle prevents the loss of moisture from the leaves and stems.
The transparent epidermal cells allow sunlight (for photosynthesis) to pass through to the chloroplasts in the mesophyll tissue.
The stomata of leaves and stems allow gaseous exchange to take place which is necessary for photosynthesis and respiration.
Water vapour may be given off through the stomata during transpiration.
The root-hairs absorb water and dissolved ions from the soil.
Anomalous forms of growth
Alternative type of cambium show abnormal activity and produce alternative secondary bodies that differ from common type, their growth is called anomalous secondary growth.
There is two types of anomalous secondary
Growth;
Abnormal growth from normal cambium in dicot
Abnormal growth from abnormal cambium in monocot
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Xylem
- 1. Xylem Farah Naz #19 Life Sciences IUB
- 2. Xylem • Term introduce by Nageli(1858). • Greek xylos meaning wood.
- 3. • A group of cells which are similar in Origin and function but of more than One type in structure.
- 4. Functions of xylem • Water conducting tissue • Along with phloem make vascular tissue • Provide support to plants
- 5. Elements of xylem • 1)Tracheary elements These are nonliving cells, provide support and conduct water. Two types, (a)Tracheids: elongate, tube like cell, tapering, rounded or oval ends, hard lignified walls. (b)Vessels members: long, cylindrical, tube-like structures with lignified walls.
- 6. Elements of xylem • (2)Fibres: thick walls, evolve from tracheids and provide mechanical strength. Two types, • (a)Fibre-tracheids: medium thickness walls, have reduced boardered pits. • (b)Libriform fibres: very thick walls, have reduced simple pits.
- 7. Elements of fibres • Parenchyma cells: living cells, in woody plants, store of food in starch form. Two types: • (a)Axial parenchyma: derived from fusiform initials, have tracheary elements and fibres. • (b)Ray parenchyma: derived from ray initials of cambium, xylem ray cells.
- 8. Types of xylem • Developmentally, xylem have two types • (1)Primary xylem: derived from procambium, developing from embryo, non-woody plants. • (2)Secondary xylem: from vascular cambium, second stage of plant development, in woody plants.
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