The document discusses various word and word-formation processes in English and other languages. It provides detailed explanations and examples of processes such as coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms, affixation and others. The document aims to educate readers on the different ways that new words are created and entered into the lexicons of languages.

1. វវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវ
វវវវវវវវវ វវវវវវវ
Cambodia International Cooperation Institute
Faculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages
វវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវ
វវវវវវវវវ វវវវវវវ
Cambodia International Cooperation Institute
Faculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages
Applied Linguistics
Topic: “Word & Word-Formation Processes”
Members of Groups 01:
1)Miss. Ly Chenda
2)Miss. Long Savna
3)Mr. Sem Sopanha
4)Mr. Kong Piseth
5)Mr. Kann Saoda
6)Mr. Um Sothea
Batch 06, Year 04, Semester 01
Academic Year 2015 - 2016
Submitted to Lecturer: Kak Sovanna

2. Content
 Etymology (សសសសសសសស
សសសសសសសសសសសស)
 Coinage​ (សសសសសសសសសសស
សសសស)
 Blending​ (សសសសសសសសសសសសស
សសសសសសសសសសសសសសសសស)
 Clipping (សសសសសសសសសស
សសសសស)
 Backformation​​ (សសសសសស
សសសសសសសស)
 Conversion​ (សសសសសស
សសសសសសសសសសស)
 Borrowing (សសសសស)
 Compounding (សសសសសសសស
សសសសស)
 Acronyms​ (សសសសសសសសស)
 Prefixes (សសសសសសសសស)
 and suffixes (សសសសសសសសស)
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3. Etymology
The study of the origin and history of a word is known
as its etymology, a term which, like many of our
technical words, comes to us through Latin, but has its
origins in Greek (e´tymon “original form” + logia
“study of”), and is not to be confused with entomology,
also from Greek (e´ntomon “insect”).
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4. 1. Coinage (neologism)
= a completely new word is made up from scratch to
suit certain purposes. These are often invented by
companies with new products or processes, or taken
from names.
•Google
•Kleenex
•Nylon
•Skype
•Vaseline
•Yahoo
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5. 1. Coinage (2)
The most salient contemporary example of coinage is
the word google. Originally a misspelling for the
word googol (= the number 1 followed by 100
zeros), in the creation of the word Googleplex,
which later became the name of a company (Google),
the term google (without a capital letter) has
become a widely used expression meaning “to use
the internet to find information.” 06/07/15
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6. 1. Coinage (3)
New products and concepts (ebay) and new activities
(“Have you tried ebaying it?”) are the usual sources of
coinage. New words based on the name of a person or
a place are called eponyms. When we talked about a
hoover (or even a spangler), we were using an
eponym.
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7. 1. Coinage (4)
Other common eponyms are sandwich (from the
eighteenth-century Earl of Sandwich who first insisted
on having his bread and meat together while
gambling) and jeans (from the Italian city of Genoa
where the type of cloth was first made).
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8. 1. Coinage (5)
Some eponyms are technical terms, based on the
names of those who first discovered or invented things,
such as fahrenheit (from the German, Gabriel
Fahrenheit), volt (from the Italian, Alessandro Volta)
and watt (from the Scottish inventor, James Watt).
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9. 2. Borrowing (loan words)
Words are created by borrowing from another
language and incorporating into English.
Sometimes the original meaning is altered, and the
pronunciation may change. Since some words were
borrowed long ago, it may be hard to recognize
that they were ever not part of English.
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10. 2. Borrowing (2)
Examples
 Tortilla * nuance
 coup de grace *chaos
 kowtow
 alchemy
 espresso
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11. 2. Borrowing (3)
As Bill Bryson observed in the quotation presented
earlier, one of the most common sources of new words
in English is the process simply labeled borrowing,
that is, the taking over of words from other languages.
(Technically, it’s more than just borrow- ing because
English doesn’t give them back.)
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12. 2. Borrowing (4)
Throughout its history, the English language has
adopted a vast number of words from other
languages, including croissant (French), dope
(Dutch), lilac (Persian), piano (Italian), pretzel
(German), sofa (Arabic), tattoo (Tahitian), tycoon
(Japanese), yogurt (Turkish) and zebra (Bantu).
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13. 2. Borrowing (5)
Other languages, of course, borrow terms from
English, as in the Japanese use of suupaa or
suupaamaaketto (“supermarket”) and
taipuraitaa (“typewriter”), Hungarians talking
about sport, klub and futbal, or the French
discussing problems of le stress, over a glass of le
whisky, during le weekend.
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14. 2. Borrowing (6)
A special type of borrowing is described as loan-
translation or calque (/kælk/). In this process, there is
a direct translation of the elements of a word into the
borrowing language. Interesting examples are the
French term gratte-ciel,.
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15. 2. Borrowing (7)
which literally translates as “scrape-sky,” the Dutch
wolkenkrabber (“cloud scratcher”) or the German
Wolkenkratzer (“cloud scraper”), all of which were
calques for the English skyscraper.
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16. 2. Borrowing (8)
The English word superman is thought to be a loan-
translation of the German U ¨ bermensch, and the
termloan-word itself is believed to have come from
the German Lehnwort.
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17. 2. Borrowing (9)
The English expression moment of truth is believed to
be a calque from the Spanish phrase el momento de
la verdad, though not restricted to the original use as
the final thrust of the sword to end a bullfight.
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18. 2. Borrowing (10)
Nowadays, some Spanish speakers eat perros
calientes (literally “dogs hot”) or hot dogs.
The American concept of “boyfriend” was a
borrowing, with sound modification, into Japanese as
boyifurendo, but as a calque into Chinese as “male
friend” or nan pengyu.
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19. 3. Compounding
In some of the examples we have just considered,
there is a joining of two separate words to
produce a single form. Thus, Lehn and Wort
are combined to produce Lehnwort in German.
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20. 3. Compounding (2)
This combining process, technically known as
compounding, is very common in languages such
as German and English, but much less common
in languages such as French and Spanish.
Common English compounds are bookcase,
doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook,
wallpaper, wastebasket and waterbed.
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21. 3. Compounding (3)
All these examples are nouns, but we can also create
compound adjectives (good-looking, low-paid) and
compounds of adjective (fast) plus noun (food) as in a
fast-food restaurant or a full-time job.
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22. 3. Compounding (4)
. This very productive source of new terms has been
well documented in English and German, but can also
be found in totally unrelated languages, such as
Hmong (spoken in South East Asia),which combines
hwj (“pot”) andkais (“spout”) to produce hwjkais
(“kettle”).
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23. 3. Compounding (5)
Recent creations are paj (“flower”) plus kws (“corn”)
for pajkws (“pop- corn”) and hnab (“bag”) + rau
(“put”) + ntawv (“paper” or “book”) for hnabraun-
tawv (“schoolbag”).
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24. 4. Blending
The combination of two separate forms to produce a
single new term is also present in the process called
blending . However, blending is typically accomplished
by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it
to the end of the other word.
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25. 4. Blending (1)
Smurk (smoke + murk)
telecast (television/broadcast)
Brunch (breakfast/lunch),
motel (motor/hotel)
bit (binary/digit)
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26. 4. Blending(2)
Infotainment (information/entertainment) and
simulcast (simulta- neous/broadcast) are other
new blends from life with television.
To describe the mixing of languages, some people
talk about Franglais (French/Anglais) and
Spanglish (Spanish/English).
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27. 4. Blending (3)
In a few blends, we combine the beginnings of both
words, as in terms from information technology,
such as telex (teleprinter/exchange) or modem
(modulator/demodulator).
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28. 5. Clipping (4)
The element of reduction that is noticeable in
blending is even more apparent in the process
described as clipping. This occurs when a word of
more than one syllable (facsimile) is reduced to a
shorter form (fax), usually beginning in casual
speech.
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29. 5. Clipping (5)
Other common examples are ad (advertisement),
bra (brassiere), cab (cabriolet), condo
(condominium), fan (fanatic), flu (influenza), perm
(permanent wave), phone, plane and pub (public
house).
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30. 5. Clipping (6)
There must be something about educational
environments that encourages clipping because
so many words get reduced, as in chem, exam,
gym, lab, math, phys-ed, poly- sci, prof and typo.
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31. 6. Backformation
A very specialized type of reduction process is known
as backformation. Typically, a word of one type
(usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another
type (usually adverb).
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32. 6. Backformation (1)
donate (from “donation”), emote (from “emotion”),
enthuse (from “enthusiasm”), liaise (from “liaison”)
and babysit (from “babysitter”). Indeed, when we use
the verb backform (Did you know
that“opt”wasbackformed from “option”?),
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33. 6. Backformation (2)
The assumption seems to have been that if there is a
noun ending in -er (or something close in sound), then
we can create a verb for what that noun -er does.
Hence, an editor will edit, a sculptor will sculpt and
burglars, peddlers and swindlers will burgle, peddle
and swindle.
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34. 7. Conversion
Conversion is the word formation process
in which a word of one grammatical form
becomes a word of another grammatical form
without any changes to spelling or
pronunciation.
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35. 7. Conversion (2)
For example, the noun email appeared in
English before the verb: a decade ago I would
have sent you an email (noun) whereas now I
can either send you an email (noun) or
simply email (verb) you.
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36. 7. Conversion (3)
Phrasal verbs (to print out, to take over) also
become nouns (a print out , a takeover). One
complex verb combination (want to be) has
become a new noun, as in He isn’t in the group, he’s
just a wanna be. Verbs (see through, stand up)
also become adjectives, as in see-through
material or a stand-up comedian.
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37. 7. Conversion (4)
Or adjectives, as in a dirty floor, an empty
room, some crazy ideas and those nasty
people, can become the verbs to dirty and
to empty, or the nouns a crazy and the
nasty.
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38. 8. Acronym
Acronyms are new words formed from the initial
letters of a set of other words. These can be forms
such as CD (“compact disk”) or VCR (“video
cassette recorder”) More typically, acronyms are
pronounced as new single words, as in NATO
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), NASA
(National Aeronautics and Space
Administration)or UNESCO (United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization).
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39. 9. Acronym(1)
ATM (“automatic teller machine”)
PIN (“personal identification number”)
(WAR) (“women against rape” )
(MADD) (“mothers against drunk driving”)
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40. 10. Derivation
In our list so far, we have not dealt with what is
by far the most common word- formation
process to be found in the production of new
English words. This process is called derivation
and it is accomplished by means of a large
number of small “bits” of the English language
which are not usually given separate listings in
dictionaries.
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41. 10. Derivation (2)
These small “bits” are generally described as
affixes. Some familiar examples are the elements
un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism and -ness
which appear in words like unhappy,
misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish,
terrorism and sadness.
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42. 11. Affixation
= adding an established prefix or a suffix to the
existing base
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43. A) Suffixation
- is characteristic of noun and adjective
formation
- a suffix usually changes not only the lexical
meaning of a word but also its grammatical
meaning or its word class, e.g. to bake – baker,
beauty - beautiful
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44.  Noun-forming suffixes:
-or : actor, visitor, director
-er/eer : speaker, engineer, opener
-ist : scientist, satirist, journalist
-ess : hostess, stewardess, actress
-ty/ity : cruelty, purity, stupidity
-ure/ture : failure, exposure, mixture
-dom : freedom, kingdom,
-age : passage, marriage, postage
-ance/ence : appearance, preference
-hood : likelihood, brotherhood,
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45.  Noun-forming suffixes (1)
Ing : reading, opening, beginning
-ion/sion/tion/ition/ation: operation, permission
-ness : kindness, goodness, wilingness
-y/ery : difficulty, enquiry, robbery, slavery
-ship : partnership, membership, kinship
-ment : government, development, movement
-t : complaint, restraint
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46. Adjective-forming suffixes
-able/ible : comfortable, fashionable, sensible
-ic/atic : atomic, heroic, systematic
-ful : beautiful, helpful, careful
-y : bloody, dirty, sunny
-less : useless, homeless, careless
-al/ial/tial: personal, influential, preferential
-ive/ative/itive: active, creative, sensitive
-ant/ent : pleasant, different, excellent
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47. Adjective-forming suffixes (1)
en: wooden, golden, woollen
-like: childlike, ladylike
-ing: amusing, interesting, charming
-ous: dangerous, famous, mysterious
-ish: bookish, childish, foolish
-ly: friendly, lovely, manly
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48.  Verb-forming suffixes
-ize/ise: civilize, modernize
-ify/fy/efy: simplify, glorify
-en, deepen, sharpen, lengthen
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49.  Adverb-forming suffixes
-ly : formally, calmly, easily
-ward/wards : homeward, afterwards,
backwards
-wise/ways : clockwise, otherwise,
sideways
-fold : twofold, threefold
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50. B) Prefixation
 a prefix usually changes or concretizes the
lexical meaning of a word and only rarely
parts of speech, e. g. write – rewrite,
smoker – non-smoker
 Prefixes are sometimes used to form new
verb: circle – encircle, large – enlarge etc.
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51. Negation or opposition
• un- : unable, unfair, unpack, unzip
• dis- : disagreeable, dislike
• a- : amoral, atypical
• in- : informal, inexperience
• im- : (before b, m, p) impossible, immoral
• il- : (before l) illegal, illogical
• ir- : (before r) irregular, irrational
• non- : non-smoker, non-scientific
• de- : decode, defrost, devalue
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52. Repetition, making it possible
re-: reread, rebuild, reunited, redo
en-/em-: enrich, enlarge, embitter
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53. Degree, measure or size:
super- : supersonic, superhuman
semi- : semi-final, semidetached
hyper- : hyperactive, hypersensitive
ultra- : ultrahigh, ultraviolet
over- : overtime, overpopulated
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54. Time and place, order, relation
post- : post-war, postpone, postgraduate
inter- : international, intercontinental
pre- : pre-war, prehistoric, prearrange
ex- : ex-president, ex-husband, ex-film-
star
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55. References
Yule, G. 1883. The Study of Language. 4th
ed.
Cambridge: Universities of Edinburgh, Hawai’i,
Louisiana State & Minnesota.
Applied Linguistics: Year 04, Semester 01. page 39-
46
Mujaddidi, A. Applied Linguistics, Chapter 5
Words and Word-formation Processes.
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56. OrKun..!
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57. Question and Answer
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