This document summarizes a chapter on syntax presented by Kak Sovanna. It defines syntax as the study of rules governing how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Generative grammar is described as attempting to define all grammatical sentences of a language using rules. Deep structure refers to the basic structure of a sentence, while surface structure is the transformed structure. Syntactic description uses symbols and tree diagrams to represent sentence structure.
This document discusses syntax, which is the study of sentence structure and grammatical rules in language. It defines key syntactic terms like phrases, clauses, subjects, verbs, and word order. It explains that the goal of syntax is to understand the rules common across languages. Common phrase types are defined like noun, verb, adjective, and prepositional phrases. Sentence structure and the relationships between subjects, verbs, and objects are also covered. The document concludes by defining additional syntactic concepts like constituents, construction, and immediate constituent analysis.
X-bar theory proposes that all phrases in all languages share a core hierarchical structure with three levels: a maximal projection (X), an intermediate projection (X'), and a head projection (X'). It aims to define phrase structure rules that capture commonalities across categories and distinguish complements from adjuncts. The theory proposes a set of generalized rules using variables that can represent different syntactic categories. Evidence for intermediate projections comes from constituency tests and replacement operations like one-replacement and do-so replacement. X-bar theory provides a framework for exploring cross-linguistic similarities and differences in syntactic structure.
Stylistics introduction, Definitions of StylisticsAngel Ortega
This document defines stylistics and discusses its branches. Stylistics is the analysis of linguistic variation in actual language use. It examines how the same content can be expressed differently and analyzes styles across texts. Stylistics considers the natural properties of language that ensure intended effects. The document also distinguishes between spoken and written language at the phonetic, lexical, and syntactic levels, and categorizes words as common, formal, technical, and slang.
The document provides an overview of syntax and grammar concepts including:
- The definition of syntax as the rules for combining words into sentences
- The hierarchical structure of sentences from morphemes to words to phrases to clauses and sentences
- The different types of sentences classified by their structure
- The concept of constituents as the building blocks of sentences
- The grammatical categories and functions of constituents including subjects, predicates, objects, and complements
- The characteristics and categories that can function as subjects, objects, complements, and other roles
- An overview of verbs and other parts of speech
This document provides an introduction to syntax from a lecture given at the University of Aden. It begins by discussing related linguistic concepts like grammar and morphology. Grammar is defined as the mental representation of a speaker's linguistic competence, while morphology examines word structure and formation. Syntax is then defined as the study of how words are combined in an orderly manner to form phrases, clauses and sentences. The goals of syntax are outlined, such as illustrating patterns of language and analyzing sentence structure. The document concludes by noting that syntax establishes rules based on traditional grammar and requires recalling information over time.
This document provides an overview of immediate constituent analysis in linguistics. It defines immediate constituent analysis as a method that divides sentences into successive layers of constituents until each constituent contains a single word or meaningful part of a word. The document then discusses the history of immediate constituent analysis, noting it was first mentioned by Leonard Bloomfield and further developed by Rulon Wells and Noam Chomsky. It provides some important notes on how to perform constituent analysis and examples analyzing words like "gentlemanly" into their constituents. The document concludes with a short practice test and references.
The document defines key linguistic terms:
- A word is the smallest unit that can stand alone when pronounced, consisting of either a single morpheme like "rock" or multiple morphemes like "rocks".
- A lexeme is a set of forms taken by a single word, like "run", "runs", "ran", and "running" which are all forms of the lexeme "RUN".
- A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning, for example "cat" and "-s" in "cats" where "cat" means the animal and "-s" indicates plural.
This document discusses syntax, which is the study of sentence structure and grammatical rules in language. It defines key syntactic terms like phrases, clauses, subjects, verbs, and word order. It explains that the goal of syntax is to understand the rules common across languages. Common phrase types are defined like noun, verb, adjective, and prepositional phrases. Sentence structure and the relationships between subjects, verbs, and objects are also covered. The document concludes by defining additional syntactic concepts like constituents, construction, and immediate constituent analysis.
X-bar theory proposes that all phrases in all languages share a core hierarchical structure with three levels: a maximal projection (X), an intermediate projection (X'), and a head projection (X'). It aims to define phrase structure rules that capture commonalities across categories and distinguish complements from adjuncts. The theory proposes a set of generalized rules using variables that can represent different syntactic categories. Evidence for intermediate projections comes from constituency tests and replacement operations like one-replacement and do-so replacement. X-bar theory provides a framework for exploring cross-linguistic similarities and differences in syntactic structure.
Stylistics introduction, Definitions of StylisticsAngel Ortega
This document defines stylistics and discusses its branches. Stylistics is the analysis of linguistic variation in actual language use. It examines how the same content can be expressed differently and analyzes styles across texts. Stylistics considers the natural properties of language that ensure intended effects. The document also distinguishes between spoken and written language at the phonetic, lexical, and syntactic levels, and categorizes words as common, formal, technical, and slang.
The document provides an overview of syntax and grammar concepts including:
- The definition of syntax as the rules for combining words into sentences
- The hierarchical structure of sentences from morphemes to words to phrases to clauses and sentences
- The different types of sentences classified by their structure
- The concept of constituents as the building blocks of sentences
- The grammatical categories and functions of constituents including subjects, predicates, objects, and complements
- The characteristics and categories that can function as subjects, objects, complements, and other roles
- An overview of verbs and other parts of speech
This document provides an introduction to syntax from a lecture given at the University of Aden. It begins by discussing related linguistic concepts like grammar and morphology. Grammar is defined as the mental representation of a speaker's linguistic competence, while morphology examines word structure and formation. Syntax is then defined as the study of how words are combined in an orderly manner to form phrases, clauses and sentences. The goals of syntax are outlined, such as illustrating patterns of language and analyzing sentence structure. The document concludes by noting that syntax establishes rules based on traditional grammar and requires recalling information over time.
This document provides an overview of immediate constituent analysis in linguistics. It defines immediate constituent analysis as a method that divides sentences into successive layers of constituents until each constituent contains a single word or meaningful part of a word. The document then discusses the history of immediate constituent analysis, noting it was first mentioned by Leonard Bloomfield and further developed by Rulon Wells and Noam Chomsky. It provides some important notes on how to perform constituent analysis and examples analyzing words like "gentlemanly" into their constituents. The document concludes with a short practice test and references.
The document defines key linguistic terms:
- A word is the smallest unit that can stand alone when pronounced, consisting of either a single morpheme like "rock" or multiple morphemes like "rocks".
- A lexeme is a set of forms taken by a single word, like "run", "runs", "ran", and "running" which are all forms of the lexeme "RUN".
- A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning, for example "cat" and "-s" in "cats" where "cat" means the animal and "-s" indicates plural.
This document provides an overview of phonology, discussing its key concepts and units of analysis. It defines phonology as the study of sound patterns in language and identifies its three major units as segments, syllables, and features. It examines topics such as minimal pairs, contrastive sounds, allophones, and phonotactics. It also discusses language-specific variations and how sounds that contrast in one language may not in another. Overall, the document provides a concise introduction to fundamental concepts in phonological analysis.
This document discusses various aspects of suprasegmental phonology including terminology, features, syllables, syllable structure, rhythm, stress, prominence, tone languages, intonation and word accent. Some key points include:
- Suprasegmentals refer to aspects of sound such as intonation that are not properties of individual segments. Features include pitch, loudness, tempo, rhythm and stress.
- A syllable contains a vowel and may contain consonants. Syllables are divided into onset, nucleus and coda.
- Rhythm is a pattern of accented and unaccented syllables. Accented syllables are more prominent due to factors like volume, duration and pitch. Prominence can affect
This document discusses different types of affixes:
1. Prefixes and suffixes are affixes that are added to the beginning or end of root words, respectively. Examples of prefixes include "re-" and "dis-" and examples of suffixes include "-s", "-ed", "-ful", and "-ish".
2. Infixes are affixes added within root words, but they do not exist in standard English grammar.
3. Circumfixes are affixes divided into two parts placed at the beginning and end of root words, such as "en-" and "-en" in "enlighten".
Generative grammar proposes that speakers have unconscious knowledge of rules that generate the grammatical sentences of their language. This theory views grammar as a system of rules and principles that are part of the human mind rather than a set of prescribed rules. Generative grammar has transformed the field of linguistics and influenced other fields like computer science and philosophy.
X-Bar theory proposes that phrases contain intermediate constituents projected from a head category. This system of projected constituency may apply across different syntactic categories. The letter X represents an arbitrary lexical category such as noun, verb, adjective, or preposition. According to the rules of X-Bar theory, a phrase consists of an optional specifier and an X-bar projection. An X-bar projection contains an X element and any number of complements. X-Bar theory also defines technical terms like dominance, precedence, c-command, m-command, and government that are used to describe syntactic structures.
The document discusses morphology, which is the study of word structure. It defines morphemes as the smallest units of meaning or grammatical function. Morphemes are classified as either free or bound. The document also discusses inflectional and derivational morphology in English, including common affixes. It provides examples of different word formation processes like compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, and derivation.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, including analysis of language form, meaning, and context, as well as social, cultural, and political factors that influence language. Noam Chomsky argued that language acquisition is innate and proposed the existence of a language acquisition device in the brain. His theory of generative grammar and universal grammar posited that humans are biologically programmed with innate principles and parameters that facilitate language learning.
This document provides an introduction to stylistics as a branch of linguistics. It defines key concepts such as style, defines stylistics as the scientific study of styles of language use, and outlines the main levels of linguistic description used in stylistic analysis such as phonology, lexis, syntax and semantics. It also discusses the scope of stylistics in literary versus general texts and its development over time.
This document provides an overview of generative grammar as established by Noam Chomsky. It discusses how generative grammar aims to describe the infinite number of well-formed sentences in a language using phrase structure rules and a lexicon. The two key components of generative grammar are the phrase structure component, which generates sentences using rules, and the lexicon, which provides lexical information. Together these components can account for language creativity, recursion, and native speaker competence or judgements about grammaticality.
Adverbs and adverb phrases provide additional information about the circumstances of manner, time, or place of a verb, answering questions like how, when, or where. Adverb phrases can modify verbs, adjectives, and entire sentences. Degree adverbs like "very" modify or limit the sense of another adverb, while sentence adverbs like "unfortunately" can appear in different positions in a sentence and express an attitude or evaluation.
The document provides an overview of English syntax and linguistic phenomena. It discusses the basic sentence structures and core patterns in English, including noun phrases, verbs, tense, aspect, modality, and subcategorization. It also covers topics like anaphora, coordination, distribution, and the functions of arguments and predicates.
Syllabic structure of English words.pptxssuseref3e74
The document discusses the syllabic structure of English words. It begins by outlining general characteristics of syllables, including that a syllable typically contains a nucleus (usually a vowel) surrounded by optional consonants. It then discusses theories on syllable formation, including based on sonority, muscular tension, and loudness. The document outlines the structure of English and Russian syllables, including common patterns such as open, closed, covered open and covered closed syllables. It concludes by discussing rules for syllable division in English words.
This slide explains Inflectional morphology which is the study of the processes (such as affixation and vowel change) that distinguish the forms of words in certain grammatical categories.
If you like this slide, please become my patron in my Patreon account :
www.patreon.com/bayujakamagistra
Thank You Very Much
Applied linguistics is the scientific study of language in real world contexts. It involves applying theories of linguistics to understand and solve language-related problems. Applied linguistics draws from fields like linguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics. It focuses on areas such as second language teaching and language testing. Applied linguistics aims to investigate language learning and teaching issues and find practical solutions. It has played an important role in addressing language problems faced by people around the world.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on syntax that covers:
- Syntax is the study of how sentences are constructed in languages.
- Generative grammar models the inner language of the human mind.
- Sentences have deep and surface structures that can differ through transformations like passivization.
- Syntactic analysis uses symbols like arrows and brackets in rules and tree diagrams.
- Phrase structure and lexical rules specify constituents and words.
- Trees and recursion show hierarchical sentence structures embedded within other sentences.
- Transformational rules can move constituents in a sentence's structure.
Phonological rules are part of a speaker's knowledge of their language. They describe predictable changes in sounds and allow for more concise representations. Some key rules discussed include assimilation rules, which make sounds more similar to neighbors; vowel nasalization before nasal consonants; addition of features like aspiration; deletion or insertion of segments; and metathesis, or reordering of sounds. Phonological rules function to derive the phonetic form from an underlying phonemic representation. Speech errors provide evidence that these rules operate in language production.
- Transformational grammar is a theory of language developed by Noam Chomsky that describes how sentences are generated from their underlying syntactic structures.
- According to transformational grammar, sentences have both a deep structure and surface structure related by transformational rules that add, delete, move, or substitute words.
- A key idea is the distinction between competence, a speaker's innate linguistic knowledge, and performance, which can include errors and is influenced by memory and attention limitations.
This document discusses semantics and how it studies meaning in language. It covers topics like how the meaning of sentences is determined by the meanings of its parts and their arrangement. It also examines different types of meanings, scales of meaning, and lexical semantics. Additionally, it explores semantic relations between words like synonymy and antonymy. The document notes that ambiguity is pervasive in language and discusses how word meanings can change over time through processes like semantic broadening, narrowing, amelioration, and pejoration.
This Power Point presentation defines syntax and describes seven syntax rules for the English Language. The Presentation also discusses four issues English Language Learners find so difficult when it comes to learning and acquiring ESL.
Traditional grammar provides a framework for analyzing the structure of language based on Latin concepts. It describes parts of speech like nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, subjects, predicates, objects, clauses, sentences, and conjunctions. While traditional grammar is prescriptive and based on written language rather than contemporary usage, it remains an important basic framework for understanding English grammar.
This document provides an overview of syntax and generative grammar. It discusses key concepts like deep and surface structure, structural ambiguity, recursion, phrase structure rules, lexical rules, complement phrases, and transformational rules. Tree diagrams and other symbols are presented to describe syntactic structures. The goal of generative grammar is to have a system of explicit rules that can generate all valid syntactic structures of a language while avoiding invalid ones.
This document discusses syntactic categories and constituent structure. It defines common parts of speech like nouns, verbs, adjectives. It notes that nouns can denote activities, events, states and properties, not just people, places and things. Morphology and distribution provide more reliable evidence for categories than semantics alone. The document then discusses analyzing sentences into constituents like NP and V NP. It provides tests for constituents like proform replacement and question tests. Finally it discusses noun phrase functions like subject, direct object, and predicative complement.
This document provides an overview of phonology, discussing its key concepts and units of analysis. It defines phonology as the study of sound patterns in language and identifies its three major units as segments, syllables, and features. It examines topics such as minimal pairs, contrastive sounds, allophones, and phonotactics. It also discusses language-specific variations and how sounds that contrast in one language may not in another. Overall, the document provides a concise introduction to fundamental concepts in phonological analysis.
This document discusses various aspects of suprasegmental phonology including terminology, features, syllables, syllable structure, rhythm, stress, prominence, tone languages, intonation and word accent. Some key points include:
- Suprasegmentals refer to aspects of sound such as intonation that are not properties of individual segments. Features include pitch, loudness, tempo, rhythm and stress.
- A syllable contains a vowel and may contain consonants. Syllables are divided into onset, nucleus and coda.
- Rhythm is a pattern of accented and unaccented syllables. Accented syllables are more prominent due to factors like volume, duration and pitch. Prominence can affect
This document discusses different types of affixes:
1. Prefixes and suffixes are affixes that are added to the beginning or end of root words, respectively. Examples of prefixes include "re-" and "dis-" and examples of suffixes include "-s", "-ed", "-ful", and "-ish".
2. Infixes are affixes added within root words, but they do not exist in standard English grammar.
3. Circumfixes are affixes divided into two parts placed at the beginning and end of root words, such as "en-" and "-en" in "enlighten".
Generative grammar proposes that speakers have unconscious knowledge of rules that generate the grammatical sentences of their language. This theory views grammar as a system of rules and principles that are part of the human mind rather than a set of prescribed rules. Generative grammar has transformed the field of linguistics and influenced other fields like computer science and philosophy.
X-Bar theory proposes that phrases contain intermediate constituents projected from a head category. This system of projected constituency may apply across different syntactic categories. The letter X represents an arbitrary lexical category such as noun, verb, adjective, or preposition. According to the rules of X-Bar theory, a phrase consists of an optional specifier and an X-bar projection. An X-bar projection contains an X element and any number of complements. X-Bar theory also defines technical terms like dominance, precedence, c-command, m-command, and government that are used to describe syntactic structures.
The document discusses morphology, which is the study of word structure. It defines morphemes as the smallest units of meaning or grammatical function. Morphemes are classified as either free or bound. The document also discusses inflectional and derivational morphology in English, including common affixes. It provides examples of different word formation processes like compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, and derivation.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, including analysis of language form, meaning, and context, as well as social, cultural, and political factors that influence language. Noam Chomsky argued that language acquisition is innate and proposed the existence of a language acquisition device in the brain. His theory of generative grammar and universal grammar posited that humans are biologically programmed with innate principles and parameters that facilitate language learning.
This document provides an introduction to stylistics as a branch of linguistics. It defines key concepts such as style, defines stylistics as the scientific study of styles of language use, and outlines the main levels of linguistic description used in stylistic analysis such as phonology, lexis, syntax and semantics. It also discusses the scope of stylistics in literary versus general texts and its development over time.
This document provides an overview of generative grammar as established by Noam Chomsky. It discusses how generative grammar aims to describe the infinite number of well-formed sentences in a language using phrase structure rules and a lexicon. The two key components of generative grammar are the phrase structure component, which generates sentences using rules, and the lexicon, which provides lexical information. Together these components can account for language creativity, recursion, and native speaker competence or judgements about grammaticality.
Adverbs and adverb phrases provide additional information about the circumstances of manner, time, or place of a verb, answering questions like how, when, or where. Adverb phrases can modify verbs, adjectives, and entire sentences. Degree adverbs like "very" modify or limit the sense of another adverb, while sentence adverbs like "unfortunately" can appear in different positions in a sentence and express an attitude or evaluation.
The document provides an overview of English syntax and linguistic phenomena. It discusses the basic sentence structures and core patterns in English, including noun phrases, verbs, tense, aspect, modality, and subcategorization. It also covers topics like anaphora, coordination, distribution, and the functions of arguments and predicates.
Syllabic structure of English words.pptxssuseref3e74
The document discusses the syllabic structure of English words. It begins by outlining general characteristics of syllables, including that a syllable typically contains a nucleus (usually a vowel) surrounded by optional consonants. It then discusses theories on syllable formation, including based on sonority, muscular tension, and loudness. The document outlines the structure of English and Russian syllables, including common patterns such as open, closed, covered open and covered closed syllables. It concludes by discussing rules for syllable division in English words.
This slide explains Inflectional morphology which is the study of the processes (such as affixation and vowel change) that distinguish the forms of words in certain grammatical categories.
If you like this slide, please become my patron in my Patreon account :
www.patreon.com/bayujakamagistra
Thank You Very Much
Applied linguistics is the scientific study of language in real world contexts. It involves applying theories of linguistics to understand and solve language-related problems. Applied linguistics draws from fields like linguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics. It focuses on areas such as second language teaching and language testing. Applied linguistics aims to investigate language learning and teaching issues and find practical solutions. It has played an important role in addressing language problems faced by people around the world.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on syntax that covers:
- Syntax is the study of how sentences are constructed in languages.
- Generative grammar models the inner language of the human mind.
- Sentences have deep and surface structures that can differ through transformations like passivization.
- Syntactic analysis uses symbols like arrows and brackets in rules and tree diagrams.
- Phrase structure and lexical rules specify constituents and words.
- Trees and recursion show hierarchical sentence structures embedded within other sentences.
- Transformational rules can move constituents in a sentence's structure.
Phonological rules are part of a speaker's knowledge of their language. They describe predictable changes in sounds and allow for more concise representations. Some key rules discussed include assimilation rules, which make sounds more similar to neighbors; vowel nasalization before nasal consonants; addition of features like aspiration; deletion or insertion of segments; and metathesis, or reordering of sounds. Phonological rules function to derive the phonetic form from an underlying phonemic representation. Speech errors provide evidence that these rules operate in language production.
- Transformational grammar is a theory of language developed by Noam Chomsky that describes how sentences are generated from their underlying syntactic structures.
- According to transformational grammar, sentences have both a deep structure and surface structure related by transformational rules that add, delete, move, or substitute words.
- A key idea is the distinction between competence, a speaker's innate linguistic knowledge, and performance, which can include errors and is influenced by memory and attention limitations.
This document discusses semantics and how it studies meaning in language. It covers topics like how the meaning of sentences is determined by the meanings of its parts and their arrangement. It also examines different types of meanings, scales of meaning, and lexical semantics. Additionally, it explores semantic relations between words like synonymy and antonymy. The document notes that ambiguity is pervasive in language and discusses how word meanings can change over time through processes like semantic broadening, narrowing, amelioration, and pejoration.
This Power Point presentation defines syntax and describes seven syntax rules for the English Language. The Presentation also discusses four issues English Language Learners find so difficult when it comes to learning and acquiring ESL.
Traditional grammar provides a framework for analyzing the structure of language based on Latin concepts. It describes parts of speech like nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, subjects, predicates, objects, clauses, sentences, and conjunctions. While traditional grammar is prescriptive and based on written language rather than contemporary usage, it remains an important basic framework for understanding English grammar.
This document provides an overview of syntax and generative grammar. It discusses key concepts like deep and surface structure, structural ambiguity, recursion, phrase structure rules, lexical rules, complement phrases, and transformational rules. Tree diagrams and other symbols are presented to describe syntactic structures. The goal of generative grammar is to have a system of explicit rules that can generate all valid syntactic structures of a language while avoiding invalid ones.
This document discusses syntactic categories and constituent structure. It defines common parts of speech like nouns, verbs, adjectives. It notes that nouns can denote activities, events, states and properties, not just people, places and things. Morphology and distribution provide more reliable evidence for categories than semantics alone. The document then discusses analyzing sentences into constituents like NP and V NP. It provides tests for constituents like proform replacement and question tests. Finally it discusses noun phrase functions like subject, direct object, and predicative complement.
- Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to form phrases and clauses.
- A sentence can be broken down into constituents, which are phrases or words that serve a grammatical function within the sentence. Constituents are combined and related through syntactic rules and analysis.
- Syntactic analysis involves identifying parts of speech, morphological features like tense and case, and syntactic functions like subjects, objects, and complements to determine a sentence's structure.
Syntax deals with how words are combined into larger units like phrases, sentences, and texts. There are different syntactic theories that approach this topic in various ways, such as transformational grammar, constructional syntax, and communicative syntax. Basic syntactic notions include syntactic units, forms, meanings, functions, positions, and relations between units.
This document discusses different types of sentences and clauses in syntax, including noun phrases, prepositional phrases, complementizer phrases, wh-questions, yes/no questions, and embedded clauses. It provides syntactic tree diagrams to illustrate the structure of sample sentences like "The father in the library", "On the desk", and "I want him to clean the board".
This document discusses logical syntax and well-formed formulas (WFFs). It defines what constitutes a WFF and covers logical operators like negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditionals, and biconditionals. It also discusses identifying the dominant operator of compound statements and paraphrasing sentences into symbolic logic by replacing statements with letters according to a dictionary. Exercises are provided to help students practice determining if strings are WFFs and symbolizing English sentences.
This document provides an overview of grammar and different approaches to analyzing grammar. It discusses traditional grammar including parts of speech, agreement, and grammatical gender. It also covers the prescriptive approach, which establishes rules for proper language use, and the descriptive approach, which objectively describes a language's structures. Finally, it examines structural analysis using test frames, constituent analysis of phrases, and labeled bracketed sentences to diagram sentence structure.
Hosted by Henri Broekmate (Lionbridge). Panelists Nathalie Dougall (Booking.com), Matt Romaine (Gengo), Bernie Hsu (Alibaba).
For many firms, global crowdsourcing is an unparalleled way to reduce fixed costs and dramatically enhance operating efficiency and scalability. Enterprise crowdsourcing and big data seem to be a good match, particularly as data-related work can often be broken down into tasks or projects. Managing resources and workflows at the task or unit level is at the heart of the localization industry’s expertise. Many suppliers are finding that they can easily offer adjacent services such as search relevance, sentiment analysis, data tagging, user generated content curation, transcription, and data enrichment, in a crowd model – typically in a private crowd. This panel will discuss whether localization service providers and language technology innovators are offering relevant crowd solutions. Using technology as a lens, we will also discuss whether there is a role for increased crowdsourcing as the adoption of MT drives increased post-editing work. Lastly we will exchange ideas about where the crowdsourcing opportunity sits in the framework of the “gig” economy, and whether it will thrive and grow, or crumble under the push for legislation and labor reform.
Syntax refers to the system of rules that govern sentence structure and the formation of phrases. There are various theories of syntax that attempt to describe these rules, including transformational grammar and phrase structure rules. Syntax involves categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and more. Linguists use tools like trees and tests to analyze syntactic structure and determine constituents. Parameters within universal grammar allow for variation across languages.
This document discusses Meek and domain fronting as techniques for circumventing internet censorship. It provides an overview of censorship tools and the arms race between censors and circumvention methods. Meek uses domain fronting to hide proxy traffic by making encrypted requests to CDNs like Google and Cloudflare that appear as normal traffic, making the connections difficult for censors to block without blocking major sites. Meek has been implemented in tools like Psiphon and Tor to provide uncensorable access by tunneling their protocols over domain-fronted connections. While attacks from deep packet inspection are possible, Meek has so far proven very effective at evading censorship.
This document provides an overview of the Minimalist Program (MP) in linguistics. It discusses the following key points:
1. The MP aims to develop a simple linguistic model with minimal components and operations. It builds on principles of economy of derivation and representation from earlier theories like Government and Binding Theory.
2. Core concepts in the MP framework include morphosyntactic features, uninterpretable features, interpretable features, phases of derivation, probes and goals. Derivations proceed through numeration, spell-out at phases, and interpretation at the interfaces of phonetic form and logical form.
3. A phase is a syntactic domain like CP or VP that structures the derivation. Probes are
The document discusses syntactic structures in English and describes four main groups of structures. It provides examples of structures formed by combining words like nouns and verbs. The structures can be divided into modifiers and heads, with the head being the main word that is modified. The document outlines different types of modifiers that can be used with nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions as heads.
The document discusses various aspects of syntactic structure and sentence structure. It covers topics such as word order, grammaticality, phrasal categories including noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases and prepositional phrases. It also discusses the structure of predication, modification, and complementation. Key concepts covered include subjects, objects, verbs, prepositions, and how different parts of speech can function together in sentences based on rules of syntax.
This week's lesson will cover the differences between descriptive and prescriptive grammar, explore syntactic structure theory, distinguish syntactic structures and their functions, examine the impact of syntax on language teaching, and discuss syntactic challenges of academic English. Key concepts include descriptive and prescriptive grammar, phrase structure, modals, comparatives, logical connectors, and relative clauses. Challenges of academic English syntax for English language learners include structures involving passive voice, modals, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses. Teachers should scaffold instruction to address these challenges and promote students' cognitive academic language proficiency.
This document defines and categorizes the different parts of speech in syntax. It discusses lexical categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, determiners, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions and auxiliary verbs. It also examines phrasal categories including noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases. Examples are provided to illustrate different parts of speech and how they are arranged to form sentences.
This document discusses cleft sentences, which are used to emphasize specific information by fronting it. It provides examples of using introductory "it" to emphasize different parts of sentences. It also discusses other types of cleft sentences that emphasize the person, thing, place, time, reason, or action using relative pronouns like "who", "that", and "which". Exercises are provided to practice forming cleft sentences.
This document provides an overview of syntax and generative grammar. It defines syntax as the study of how words are arranged to show meaning within and between sentences. Grammar is defined as the art of writing, but is now used to study language. Generative grammar uses formal rules to generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences in a language. Deep structure refers to the underlying meaning and surface structure refers to the observable form. Tree diagrams are used to visually represent syntactic structures. Movement rules are needed to account for transformations between deep and surface structures. Recursion allows sentences to be embedded within other sentences.
Syntax & syntactic analysis,lec.1, dr. shadia.ppt [compatibility mode]Dr. Shadia Banjar
This document discusses syntactic analysis and syntax. It defines syntax as the rules for arranging words into sentences in a language. Syntactic analysis involves breaking down sentences into constituents such as phrases and labeling them. Sentences can be analyzed at multiple levels from the sentence level down to the morpheme level. Different representations are used for syntactic structure including bracketing, labeled bracketing, and tree diagrams. Tree diagrams provide a visual representation of a sentence's phrase structure and hierarchical constituent structure.
This document discusses syntax and sentence structure. It defines syntax as the rules of sentence formation and the component of grammar that represents a speaker's knowledge of phrase and sentence structure. It discusses constituents, phrase structure rules, syntactic categories, and phrase structure trees. Phrase structure trees are used to represent the hierarchical structure of sentences and show constituent structures and syntactic categories. The document notes that language has an infinite quality, as sentences can always be lengthened through the addition of modifiers. It provides examples of phrase structure trees and tests to identify verbs phrases and noun phrases.
This document discusses 11 word formation processes: etymology, coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronym, derivation, and multiple processes. It provides examples for each process and explains how new words are created through modifying, combining, shortening, or deriving elements from existing words. The key word formation processes that generate many new English words are borrowing, derivation using affixes, and compounding.
Education is the process by which people acquire knowledge, skill, habits, values, or attitudes. The word education is also used to describe the results of the educational process.
This document provides definitions for 135 key terms in applied linguistics. It defines terms related to phonetics, morphology, semantics, syntax, and other areas of linguistics. Some key terms defined include accent, affix, allomorph, applied linguistics, assimilation, bilingual, bound morpheme, cohesion, compounding, conjugation, derivation, dialect, and morphology. The document is compiled by Lect. Kak Sovanna of the Cambodian International Cooperation Institute and provides definitions to support the study of applied linguistics.
The document discusses various word and word-formation processes in English and other languages. It provides detailed explanations and examples of processes such as coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms, affixation and others. The document aims to educate readers on the different ways that new words are created and entered into the lexicons of languages.
This document provides information about adjective clauses, including:
1. Definitions of adjective clauses and relative pronouns. Adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.
2. Types of relative pronouns including who, whom, whose, that, which, when, where, why.
3. Kinds of adjective clauses including relative pronouns as subject and object.
4. Punctuation rules for restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. Restrictive clauses do not use commas while nonrestrictive clauses do.
5. Formation of adjective clauses with relative pronouns as objects of prepositions, either with the preposition first or last.
This document discusses the different types of adverb clauses. It begins by defining an adverb clause as a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb by telling when, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions. There are 8 types of adverb clauses: time, place, purpose, cause/reason, condition, result/consequence, comparison, and supposition/concession. Each type is introduced by specific subordinating conjunctions and examples are provided for each type.
This document discusses the four main types of sentences in English: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. It provides examples and explanations of each type. Simple sentences contain one independent clause. Compound sentences contain two or more independent clauses joined with coordinators, conjunctive adverbs, or semicolons. Complex sentences contain one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, which can be adverb, adjective, or noun clauses. Compound-complex sentences contain at least three clauses, with at least two being independent clauses.
This document discusses issues and solutions related to agriculture in Cambodia. Some key issues discussed include low literacy levels among farmers, lack of expertise to monitor farmers, difficulty reaching widely spread farms, and farmers' reluctance to change. Suggested solutions include providing education and training to farmers on practices like integrated pest management; increasing farm mechanization; conducting agricultural research; developing the rice export market; improving irrigation, credit access, and transportation infrastructure; and prioritizing farm credit systems and land titling programs. The conclusion emphasizes sustainably expanding irrigation and learning from past mistakes in managing irrigation systems.
Issues Surrounding Legalization of Prostitution in CambodiaSovanna Kakk
This document summarizes the key issues surrounding the legalization of prostitution in Cambodia. It discusses how prostitution is currently illegal under Cambodian law due to negative social and cultural impacts. Legalizing it could increase sex trafficking and spread diseases like HIV/AIDS. While it may benefit the economy, most Cambodians oppose it because it violates traditional values and norms. The document examines perspectives from different groups and sectors and concludes that the challenges of legalizing prostitution outweigh the benefits in the Cambodian context.
The role and design of instructional materialsSovanna Kakk
My name is Sovanna Kak, a lecturer at Unversity. I would like to share my knowledge with all of you. My facebook is Sovanna Kakk and my phone number is 093560021
This document discusses morphology and defines key terms. It describes the two types of morphemes: free and bound. Free morphemes include lexical morphemes like nouns and verbs, and functional morphemes like conjunctions. Bound morphemes cannot stand alone and include derivational affixes like prefixes and suffixes, and inflectional morphemes that indicate grammatical functions. The document also discusses morphological description, problems that can arise, morphs and allomorphs, and provides examples from other languages to illustrate morphological patterns.
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3. Read the following sentences and try to
identify various meanings in each sentence.
The camper saw a bear with binoculars.
I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.
Flying planes can be dangerous.
A: I just saw someone carrying a monkey and
an elephant go into the circus.
B: Wow, that someone must be pretty strong.
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4. The camper saw a bear with binoculars.
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5. The camper saw a bear with binoculars.
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7. What is syntax?
It comes from Greek, syntaxis (syn
‘together’ + taxis ‘to arrange’ -> ‘to
arrange together’)
Syntactic is the adjective from
syntax.
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8. What is syntax? (1)
Syntax is the study of rules that govern
the ways in which words combine to form
phrases, clauses, and sentences.
(About.com)
It could also refer to the arrangement of
words itself in a sentence. (About.com)
6/28/2015 8Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
9. What is syntax? (3)
Linguistically, Syntax is also defined as a major
component of the grammar of a language that
concerns the ways in which words combine to
form sentences and the rules which govern the
formulation of sentences, making some
sentences possible and others not possible
within a particular language. (Dictionary of
Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics,
4th edition)
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10. Generative Grammar
A type of grammar, inspired by Noam
Chomsky, that attempts to define and
describe, by a set of rules or principles,
all the grammatical sentences of a
language and no ungrammatical ones.
This type of grammar is said to generate,
or produce, grammatical sentences.
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11. Generative Grammar (1)
Language is seen as consisting of a
set of finite numbers of rules, which
enable the production of infinite
numbers of well-formed sentences.
6/28/2015 11Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
12. Generative Grammar (2)
This is very similar to mathematics.
E.g. 3x + 2y = z
If x=5 and y=10 then z=35
If x=2 and y=1 then z=8
•“If the sentences of a language can be seen
as a comparable set, then there must be a set
of explicit rules that can produce all those
sentences.”
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13. Generative Grammar (3)
Deep and Surface Structure
Generative Grammar also attempts to
describe (a) how to 2 different sentences
are closely related, and (b) how to 2
similar sentences are different.
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14. Generative Grammar (4)
Charlie broke the window.
The window was broken by Charlie.
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15. Generative Grammar (5)
Deep and Surface Structure (2)
The first sentence is active, focusing on
Charlie.
The second is passive, focusing on window.
The meaning is still the same, and therefore,
what makes them different is just their written
forms. This is called the Surface Structure.
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16. Generative Grammar (6)
Deep and Surface Structure (3)
In fact, the all the aforementioned examples
derive from a common basic structure, which
consists of the same constituents or
components (Charlie, window, break).
This is called the Deep Structure.
6/28/2015 16Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
17. Generative Grammar (7)
Deep Structure is an abstract
underlying level of structural
organization in which all the
elements determining structural
interpretation are represented.
6/28/2015 17Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
18. Generative Grammar (8)
Deep and Surface Structure (4)
Suppose we have a deep structure:
NP + V + NP
6/28/2015 18Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
19. Generative Grammar (9)
Deep and Surface Structure (4)
The following sentences can be derived:
a)Charlie broke the window.
b)The window was broken by Charlie.
c)It was Charlie who broke the window.
d)Was the window broken by Charlie?
6/28/2015 19Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
20. Generative Grammar (10)
Deep and Surface Structure (5)
In short,
Deep Structure = Basic Structure
Surface Structure = Transformed Structure
6/28/2015 20Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
21. Generative Grammar (11)
Deep and Surface Structure (6)
Sometimes, 2 different deep structures
could also be expressed in the same
surface structure.
6/28/2015 21Presented by Mr. Kak Sovanna (+85593600021)
22. Generative Grammar (12)
Eg. The camper saw a bear with binoculars.
(1) would mean that the camper use
binoculars to see a bear
(2) would mean that the camper see a bear
who is using a binocular
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23. Deep and Surface Structure (7)
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24. Deep and Surface Structure (8)
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25. Generative Grammar (13)
Deep and Surface Structure (9)
This is called Structural Ambiguity.
Structural Ambiguity occurs when a particular
sentence (or structure) could have two or
more underlying interpretations that have to
be represented differently in deep structure.
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26. Generative Grammar (14)
E.g. Those small boys and girls have been selected
for the contest.
E.g. Outside of a dog, a book is a man’s best friend;
inside it’s too hard to read.
Everybody knows dogs are man's best friend, right?
Well, books are, too-in a way. You can read books
and understand them, but dogs aren't easy to
understand. that's what "inside if a dog it's too dark
to read" means.
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27. Generative Grammar (15)
Recursion
Recursive rules have the capacity to
be applied more than once in
generating a structure.
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28. Generative Grammar (16)
Recursion
E.g. The gun was on the table near
the window in the bedroom of the
old house.
E.g. John believed that Cathy knew
that Mary helped George.
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29. Syntactic Description
In describing syntax, the following symbols
should be remembered.
S Sentence NP Noun Phrase
N Noun VP Verb Phrase
V Verb PP Prepositional Phrase
Art Article PN Proper Noun
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30. Syntactic Description (2)
Adj Adjective * Ungrammatical sent.
Adv Adverb → Consists of/ Rewrites as
Pro Pronoun ( ) Optional constituent
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31. Syntactic Description (3)
Prep Preposition
{ } One and only one of these
constituents must be selected.
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32. Syntactic Description (4)
Therefore, if we were to describe a
noun phrase (NP), the structure shall
be written as:
NP → Art N
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33. Syntactic Description (5)
Because a noun phrase generally consists
of an article and a noun, as in ‘The dog’.
Yet it is also possible for an NP to further
include an adjective, as in ‘The small dog’
, and therefore, could be rewritten as:
NP → Art (Adj) N
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34. Syntactic Description (6)
As we have learnt, an NP could consist of
a pronoun or a proper noun (Name of
people, places, etc.), then we could have
the following:
NP → Art N
NP → Pro
NP → PN
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35. Syntactic Description (7)
But instead of that, we can
choose to write
NP → { Art N, Pro, PN}
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36. Syntactic Description (8)
With these descriptions, we can go about
describing the Phrase Structure Rules
of a sentence.
1. S → NP VP
2. NP → Art N
3. VP → V NP
As in: The child found a puppy.
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37. Syntactic Description (9)
Sometimes, a VP might also
include a PP. To be more specific,
the structure could be written as:
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38. Syntactic Description (10)
1. S → NP VP
2. NP → {Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN}
3. VP → V NP (PP) (adv)
4. PP → Prep NP
As in
David rode a bike in the garden yesterday.
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39. Syntactic Description (11)
Phrase Structure Rules are not enough.
We also need Lexical Rules to specify
which words can be used when rewriting
specific constituents. We might ask ‘What
are examples of a N?’
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40. Syntactic Description (12)
‘What are examples of a PN?’ Thus,
based on the previous example, we have:
1. PN → { Mary, George }
2. N → { girl, dog, boy }
3. Art → { a, the }
4. Pro → { it, you }
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41. Syntactic Description (13)
5. V → { follow, saw }
6. Adj → {small, crazy}
7. Prep → {near, with}
8. Adv → { lately, fast }
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42. Syntactic Description (14)
Relying on these rules, we are
able to generate grammatical
sentences, not ungrammatical
ones as in the following.
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43. Syntactic Description (15)
1. The girl followed the boy.
2. A boy helped the dog.
3. George saw a dog.
4. A small dog followed Mary.
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44. Syntactic Description (16)
5.The small boy saw George with
a crazy dog lately.
6.*You it saw.
7.*Mary helped boy.
8.*Followed the dog.
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45. Syntactic Description (17)
Although phrase structure and lexical
rules are great in describing syntax,
there also exists Tree Diagram (or
Tree Structure) for description.
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46. Syntactic Description (18)
An NP as ‘The girl’ can be represented below.
•NP → Art N
•Art → { the }
•N → { girl }
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47. Syntactic Description (19)
Now, we shall try to draw a tree
diagram of the sentence below.
The girl saw a dog.
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48. Syntactic Description (20)
First, we know that the S
consists of an NP and VP. Then
we have .
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49. Syntactic Description (21)
Next, the NP consist of the Article, the,
and the Noun, girl. Thus we obtain
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50. Syntactic Description (22)
The VP further consists of a V and an NP.
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51. Syntactic Description (23)
Finally, the NP of the VP consists of an
Art and a N. Hence,
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52. Syntactic Description (24)
Practice drawing tree diagram for the following
sentences.
1. George bought a car.
2. The house has a room with air-conditioner.
3. The children walk to school.
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53. Syntactic Description (25)
4. He wrote a letter to his lover.
5. We bought the last ticket to Paris.
6. His criticism made Jane extremely
unhappy.
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54. Syntactic Description (26)
Practice drawing tree diagram for the following
sentences.
1. They are recruiting some volunteers.
2. She found him attractive.
3. She said that George bought a new car.
4. He wants to buy a new shirt.
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55. Syntactic Description (27)
Practice drawing tree diagram for the
following sentences.
5. Did George buy a car?
6. Who bought a car?
7. Recently Mary lost her job.
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56. Syntactic Description (28)
Transformational Rules
Examine the following 2 sentences.
Do they differ?
1.Mary saw George recently.
2.Recently Mary saw George.
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57. Syntactic Description (29)
Transformational Rules (2)
• Actually, the structure of the 2nd
sentence is said to be derived from the
1st sentence. It is said that the adverb
‘recently’ has been moved to the
beginning in the 2nd sentence.
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61. References
Sovannarith, L. (2011). Applied Linguistics. Phnom Penh:
Institute of Foreign Languages.
Geldren, E. V. (2010). An Introduction to Grammar of
English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.
Applied Linguistics. CICI.
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