Genetic modification involves identifying desirable traits in plants or animals and transferring the genes responsible for those traits into other species. The first genetically modified plant was tobacco in the 1990s. Scientists isolate the genes of interest and insert them into plant cells using Agrobacterium bacteria or biolistics. Thousands of modified plants are then screened to identify those that express the trait. If field trials are successful, the genetically modified crop can be commercially approved after assessing food and environmental safety. Genetic modification of animals uses a similar process but requires inserting genes into embryonic stem cells.

1. What is Gene+c Modifica+on?
The conceptual foundation of biotechnology is not new.
Man has been cross-breeding animals and hybridising plants to
select desired characteristics or to improve crop yields for
thousands of years.

2. First GM plants
The 20th century witnessed huge advances being made by
scientists to unravel plant and animals genetic coding and found
new ways to achieve in evolutionary terms a blink of an eye to
what may have taken hundreds or thousands of years to achieve
using conventional means.
By the latter part of the last century scientists were able to
identify traits and the genes associated with them and transfer
them from plant to plant.
The first plant to be genetically modified was tobacco in the early
90’s followed by herbicide resistant soy in 1995.

3. Gene+c Traits
Genetic modification is expensive and involves scientists
identifying the genetic traits which might be of use. The source
of genetic information known as DNA often comes from plants or
bacteria but could come from animals.
The genes selected are often responsible for producing traits
which confer tolerance to pesticides, produce chemicals toxic to
insects, help plants resist diseases or alter the nutritional value
of the plant.

4. Copyrights and Patents
Biotechnology companies, government bodies invest vast sums of money
on research to screen organisms for useful traits and identify the genes
responsible for them.
Biotechnology companies patent their discovery in the event that royalties
can flow from use of the genetic code . Because genetic modification is
expensive, biotech companies vigorously protect their copyright and
intellectual property.

5. Gene+c Modifica+on ‐ Step 1
Scientists must first identify and isolate the genes responsible for the
desired trait and then create a genetic cassette containing the target
sequence and additional pieces of DNA taken from other plants,
bacteria or viruses called marker genes.
These marker genes (promoters and terminators) flank the target
sequence and act like biological on and off switches for the cell so that
the host plant will produce the desired protein responsible for the trait.
A promoter (35Sp) from the cauliflower mosaic virus is commonly used
but other genetic material from plants may be used instead.

6. Gene+c Modifica+on ‐ Step 2
Two methods have been developed to insert the genetic cassette
containing the desired sequence into plant cells.
The first method uses an ubiquitous bacterium, Agrobacterium
tumafaciens like the Trojan horse because it has which has the ability to
infect plants and insert its (and the new genetic information) into the
host plant’s DNA.
The second method known as ‘biolistics’ because tiny fragments of gold
or tungsten carrying the new genetic information is fired into the plant’s
cells.

7. Gene+c Modifica+on ‐ Step 3
Because of the randomness of both insertion techniques success rates
are low because scientists cannot control where in the plant’s genome
the cassette is inserted nor how many copies are inserted.
Many thousands of plant are then cultivated and screened to
determine if the desired trait has made it into the host plant’s genome.
To achieve this, scientists are helped by the marker genes one of
which may confer for example antibiotic resistance.

8. Gene+c Modifica+on ‐ Step 4
Scientists then test the mature plants to determine that the desired
traits work and that the trait is passed on following conventional
Mendelian inheritance.

9. Gene+c Modifica+on ‐ Step 5
Official authorisation is required to move onto greenhouse trials and
then outdoor field trials.
If these trials are successful a commercial variety which includes the
GM trait is then produced. Further field trials then follow to ensure it
performs well and as expected in the environment.
At this stage the biotechnology company may apply for EU approval
to release the crop commercially and requires the submission of a
dossier of evidence containing covering food and environmental risk.

10. Regula+on
The EU regulatory system assesses the genetically modified crop
with its non-genetically modified equivalents with respect to chemical
composition a process known as ‘substantial equivalence’.
The EU system is superior to other systems in other parts of the
world which often heavily rely upon data being provided by the very
same biotechnology company seeking approval.

11. Gene+c Modifica+on of animals
Genetic modification of animals is similar in most respects however
the new genetic material must be inserted into embryonic stem cells
using micro-injection or a virus.
The genetically modified animal must then be cloned to ensure the
inserted trait is passed on to the next ‘generation’.