This document discusses various methods for sampling water. It begins by explaining that sampling must account for environmental heterogeneity and can involve static or dynamic systems. It then outlines five main sampling methods: systematic, random, judgmental, stratified, and haphazard. For each method, it provides an example of how it would be implemented for water sampling. It also discusses types of samples, equipment for surface and groundwater sampling, and considerations for continuous monitoring. The key points are that sampling must address spatial and temporal variability and that different methods have advantages for different sampling needs and environments.

1. Water Sampling Methods
&
Tools
Praveen Kumar Singh
M. Sc. (2nd Sem.)
Department of Environmental Science
Central University of Rajasthan
singhpraveenkumar@live.com

2. Sampling Flow Chart
Sampling
Planning
Water
Sampling
Preparation
Storage
Sampling at
the Sites
Transportation Analyses

3. Sampling Methods
If an environmental domain was completely homogeneous, a single sample
would adequately represent it. However, we seldom come across such a situation, as the
environment is highly heterogeneous.
A static system is one which does not change much with time. It must be
sampled so that the sample reflects all the inhomogeneity of the system. If a field is to
be tested for a longlived pesticide in the soil, that could be considered to be a relatively
static system.
A dynamic system is one whose content changes with time. Most regions
which we wish to characterize by taking samples are dynamic to some extent, and show
both spatial and temporal variation. When a river or a waste effluent stream is to be
characterized, its concentration will probably change over a period of minutes, days, or
hours.

4. Systematic,
Random,
Judgmental (nonstatistical),
Stratified,
Haphazard

5. Systematic Sampling
For example,
The area to be analyzed may divided by a grid, and a sample taken at each point of
the grid.
For air pollution studies, an air sample might be taken at fixed intervals of time, say
every three hours.
This approach does not require the prior knowledge of pollutant distribution, is easy
to implement, and should produce unbiased samples. However, systematic sampling
may require more samples to be taken than some of the other methods.

6. Random Sampling
Typically, the area to be sampled is divided into triangular or rectangular areas with a
grid. Three dimensional grids are used if the variation in depth (or height) also needs
to be studied. The grid blocks are given numbers. A random number generator or a
random number table is then used to select the grid points at which samples should
be collected. If a waste site contains numerous containers of unknown wastes and it
is not possible to analyze every container, a fraction of the containers are selected at
random for analysis.

7. Judgmental Sampling
In the lake samples might be collected just around the outfall point. This type of
judgmental sampling introduces a certain degree of bias into the measurement.
For example, it would be wrong to conclude that the average concentration at these
clustered sampling points is a measure of the concentration of the entire lake.
However, it is the point which best characterizes the content of the waste stream. In
many instances, this may be the method of choice, especially when purpose of the
analysis is simply to identify the pollutants present. Judgmental sampling usually
requires fewer samples than statistical methods, but the analyst needs to be aware of
the limitations of the samples collected by this method.

8. Stratified Sampling
The strata in a stratified scheme do not necessarily have to be obviously different. The
area may be divided into arbitrary subareas. Then a set of these are selected randomly.
Each of these units is then sampled randomly.
For example, a hazardous waste site can be divided into different regions or units.
Then, the soil samples are collected at random within each region or within randomly
selected regions. Stratification can reduce the number of samples required to
characterize an environmental system, in comparison to fully random sampling.

9. Haphazard Sampling
A sampling location or sampling time is chosen arbitrarily. This type of sampling is
reasonable for a homogeneous system. Since most environmental systems have
significant spatial or temporal variability, haphazard sampling often leads to biased
results. However, this approach may be used as a preliminary screening technique to
identify a possible problem before a full scale sampling is done.

10. Continuous Monitoring
An ideal approach for some environmental measurements is the installation of
instrumentation to monitor levels of pollutants continuously. These real time
measurements provide the most detailed information about temporal variability.
If an industrial waste water discharge is monitored continuously, an accidental
discharge will be identified immediately and corrective actions can be implemented
while it is still possible to minimize the damage.
Continuous monitoring is often applied to industrial stack emissions. Combustion
sources, such as incinerators, often have CO monitors installed. A high CO
concentration implies a problem in the combustion process, with incomplete
combustion and high emissions. Corrective action can be triggered immediately.
Continuous monitoring devices are often used in workplaces to give early warnings of
toxic vapor releases.
At present, a limited number of continuous monitoring devices are available. Monitors
are available for gases such as CO, NO2, and SO2 in stack gases, and for monitoring
some metals and total organic carbon in water. These automated methods are often less
expensive than laboratory analyzed samples, because they require minimal operator
attention. However, most of them do not have the sensitivity required for trace level
determinations.

11. Types Of Samples
Grab sample: A grab sample is a discrete sample which is collected at a specific
location at a certain point in time. If the environmental medium varies spatially or
temporally, then a single grab sample is not representative and more samples need to
be collected.
Composite sample: A composite sample is made by thoroughly mixing
several grab samples. The whole composite may be measured or random samples from
the composites may be withdrawn and measured.

12. Rinse the sampling vessel with water on site 3~4 times. Care must be taken to avoid
contaminating water to be sampled during rinsing.
Submerge the sampling vessel gently, fill it with the water sample and close it tightly. If
the collected water sample may be frozen, leave some space for expansion equivalent to
about 10% of the sampling vessel.
Sampling using Sampling Vessels
Surface water Equipment

13. Simple Water Sampler

14. Buckets or Samplers with Shafts (Scoops)
Such instruments made of polyethylene are often used. A rope can be attached to the
bucket if required. Scoops with adjustable shafts are convenient. Items made of
synthetic resins such as polypropylene can also be used. Samplers made of stainless
steel can be used provided they are not to be used for tests on trace amounts of heavy
metals.

15. Water Collection using Heyroth Water Sampler

16. Vandorn Water Sampler

17. Insulated Water Sampler

18. Groundwater Equipment
Bailer
A bailer in is a hollow tube used to retrieve groundwater samples from monitoring
wells. Bailers are tied to a piece of rope or a piece of wire and lowered into the water
column. Once lowered, the bailer uses a simple ball check valve to seal at the bottom
in order to pull up a sample of the groundwater table. Bailers can be disposable or
reusable, and they are made out of polyethylene, PVC, FEP or stainless steel.
Bailers are simple devices to use and are
relatively inexpensive. In addition, bailers
can be lowered to any depth while pumps
have sharp limitations on the depth of the
well.
The main drawback of using bailers is
aeration of the water as the sample is
obtained, which could release volatile
organic compounds that need to be tested.
Also, if there is a high amount of sediment
or turbidity, this may interfere with the ball
check valve seating correctly.

19. Suction lift Pump
Suction-lift pumps create a vacuum in the intake
line that draws the sample up to land surface.
Sampling is limited to situations where water
levels are within about 20 ft of the
ground surface.
Vacuum effect can cause the water to lose
some dissolved gas.

20. Air-lift Samplers
The pump injects compressed air at the bottom of
the discharge pipe which is immersed in the liquid.
The compressed air mixes with the liquid causing the
air-water mixture to be less dense than the rest of the
liquid around it and therefore is displaced upwards
through the discharge pipe by the surrounding liquid
of higher density.
Causes changes in carbon dioxide concentrations;
therefore this method is unsuitable for sampling for
pH-sensitive parameters.
In general, this method is not an appropriate method
for acquisition of water samples for detailed chemical
analyses because of degassing effect on the sample.
Oxygenation is impossible to avoid unless
elaborate precautions are taken.

21. Submersible Pump
The submersible pumps are multistage centrifugal pumps
operating in a vertical position. Produced liquids, after being
subjected to great centrifugal forces caused by the high
rotational speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the
diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to pressure energy takes
place. This is the main operational mechanism of radial and
mixed flow pumps.
The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the
protector by a mechanical coupling at the bottom of the pump.
When fluids enter the pump through an intake screen and are
lifted by the pump stages. Other parts include the radial
bearings (bushings) distributed along the length of the shaft
providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high
rotational speeds. An optional thrust bearing takes up part of
the axial forces arising in the pump but most of those forces
are absorbed by the protector’s thrust bearing.

22. Thank You…