This document summarizes key information about vitamins. It defines vitamins and explains that most are not synthesized in the body and must come from diet. Vitamins are divided into two groups: fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K which are stored in the liver, and water-soluble B vitamins and vitamin C which are not stored. The document then provides details on individual B vitamins, including their functions, sources, and deficiency symptoms.
Proteins are the macromolecules responsible for the biological processes in the cell. They consist at their most basic level of a chain of amino acids, determined by the sequence of nucleotides in a gene. Depending on the amino acid sequence (different amino acids have different biochemical properties) and interactions with their environment, proteins fold into a three-dimensional structure, which allows them to interact with other proteins and molecules and perform their function
Proteins are the macromolecules responsible for the biological processes in the cell. They consist at their most basic level of a chain of amino acids, determined by the sequence of nucleotides in a gene. Depending on the amino acid sequence (different amino acids have different biochemical properties) and interactions with their environment, proteins fold into a three-dimensional structure, which allows them to interact with other proteins and molecules and perform their function
Are most abundantly distributed organic compounds.
70 kg man= protein weight constitute 12 kg
Skeleton and connective tissue contains half
Body protein and other half is intracellular.
B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Though these vitamins share similar names, research shows that they are chemically distinct vitamins that often coexist in the same foods. In general, supplements containing all eight are referred to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by the specific name of each vitamin (e.g., B1, B2, B3 etc.).
Chemistry of Vitamin K, Biochemical role of Vitamin K, Recommended dietary allowance of Vitamin K, Dietary sources of Vitamin K, Deficiency symptoms of vitamin K, Hypervitaminosis of vitamin K, Toxicity of Vitamin K
Are most abundantly distributed organic compounds.
70 kg man= protein weight constitute 12 kg
Skeleton and connective tissue contains half
Body protein and other half is intracellular.
B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. Though these vitamins share similar names, research shows that they are chemically distinct vitamins that often coexist in the same foods. In general, supplements containing all eight are referred to as a vitamin B complex. Individual B vitamin supplements are referred to by the specific name of each vitamin (e.g., B1, B2, B3 etc.).
Chemistry of Vitamin K, Biochemical role of Vitamin K, Recommended dietary allowance of Vitamin K, Dietary sources of Vitamin K, Deficiency symptoms of vitamin K, Hypervitaminosis of vitamin K, Toxicity of Vitamin K
HERE PRESENTATING VITAMINS AS PER SYLLABUS OF MPHARM SUBJECT NATURAL PRODUCTS INCLUDING VITAMIN B2, B12, B3, ITS STRUCTURE ISOLATED FROM CONTENTS AND COMPLETE DETAIL ON IT IN A EASY WAY , THE MOST ASKED VITAMINS.
Vitamins-Introduction, Water soluble and fat soluble vitamins.
Water soluble vitamins-B complex vitamins: thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folate (folic acid), vitamin B12, biotin and pantothenic acid-their source, structure, properties, metabolism, physiological significance, deficiency disease and human requirements.
Fat soluble vitamins: Fat soluble vitamins, Vitamin A, D, E and K and their their source, structure, properties, metabolism, physiological significance, deficiency disease and human requirements.
Vitamin A-Carotene in plants-α-carotenes, β-carotenes and γ-carotenes, 3 forms of vitamin A-Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic acid.
Vitamin D3-cholecalciferol,
Vitamin E -Tocopherol, Vitamin K-Phylloquinone or Anti hemorrhagic Vitamin or Coagulation Vitamin
Definition
Classification
Introduction
Types of WATER SOLUBLE vitamin
Public health significance
Dietary goals
Dietary guidelines
Vitamin C
the B Vitamins
Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
Niacin (Vitamin B3)
Pantothenic Acid
Vitamin B6
Folic Acid
Vitamin B12
Nutritional programmes in india
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
2. Vitamins are defined as
"small organic molecules present in diet which are
required in small amounts. "
• Most of the vitamins are not synthesized in the body and
hence they must be supplied in the diet.
• However few vitamins are synthesized in the body.
Though most of them are present in diet as such some
are present as precursors.
• The precursor forms of vitamins are called as
provitamins. In the body these provitamins are converted
to vitamins.
3. Classification of Vitamins
• Vitamins are divided into two groups.
1. fat soluble vitamins
2. water soluble vitamins.
Fat Soluble Vitamins
• They are vitamins A, D, E and K. They have some common
properties.
They are:
1. Fat soluble.
2. Require bile salts for absorption.
3. Stored in liver.
4. Stable to normal cooking conditions.
5. Excreted in feces.
4. Water Soluble Vitamins:
• They are members of vitamin B complex and Vitamin C.
Their common properties are
1. Water solubility.
2. Except Vitamin B12 others are not stored.
3. Unstable to normal cooking conditions.
4. Excreted in urine.
5. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
1. Vitamins are essential for growth, maintenance and
reproduction. However, they are not used for energy
production.
2. Fat soluble vitamins are required for normal colour vision,
blood clotting, bone formation and maintenance of membrane
structure.
3. Most of the water soluble vitamins function as coenzymes or
prosthetic groups of several enzymes involved in
carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism etc.
4. Vitamins A and D act as steroid hormones.
5. Deficiency of fat soluble vitamins produce night blindness,
skeletal deformation, haemorrhages and hemolysis.
6. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE (Cont..)
6. Deficiency of water soluble vitamins produce beriberi,
glossitis, pellagra, microcytic anaemia, megaloblastic
anaemia and scurvy.
7. Some vitamin analogs are used as drugs. For example folic
acid analogs are used as anticancer agents and antibiotics.
8. Moderate consumption of some vitamins is found to decrease
occurrence or severity of some diseases.
For example carotenes, Vitamin E and Vitamin D
consumption at moderate evel reduces incidence of cancer
and cardiovascular diseases.
7. BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE (Cont..)
9. Consumption of vitamin C in significant amounts reduces
severity of cold. They slow down ageing process also.
However, excessive consumption of fat soluble vitamins leads
to toxicity.
10.Vit B12, Folic acid and Vit B6 are beneficial to coronary artery
disease patients. They lower plasma homocysteine levels.
8. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN B COMPLEX
Members of vitamin B complex are
(1) Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
(2) Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
(3) Niacin
(4) Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
(5) Biotin
(6) Folic acid
(7) Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)
(8) Pantothenic acid.
9. VITAMIN B COMPLEX
THIAMIN
Chemistry
• It is a heat labile sulfur containing vitamin. It contains
pyrimidine ring and thiazole ring
• which are joined by methylene bridge. It is highly alkaline
sensitive.
Absorption and Transport
• It is absorbed in small intestine by active transport mechanism
and simple diffusion. Then it reaches liver through circulation.
10. THIAMIN
Function
• Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP or TDP) is the active form of
thiamin.
• It is formed from thiamin in presence of ATP in a reaction
catalyzed by thiamin kinase present in liver.
• TPP is the prosthetic group of enzymes like pyruvate
dehydrogenase, α-keto glutarate dehydrogenase etc.
11. THIAMIN
Sources
• Rich Sources. Outer coatings of food grains like rice,
wheat and yeast.
• Good sources. Whole cereals, pulses, oilseeds and
nuts.
• Fair sources. Meat, liver and egg and fish.
Thiamine Deficiency
1. Adult beriberi. Early signs of beri beri are insomnia,
headache, dizziness, loss of appetite, muscle weakness,
numbness and pricking sensation in lower limbs and
fatigue.
12. Thiamine Deficiency
If not treated it leads to
(a) Wet beri beri. In which cardiovascular system is affected and
it is characterized by edema.
Edema appears in lower limbs, trunk, face and serous
cavities. Blood pressure becomes abnormal. Heart becomes
weak and death occurs due to heart failure.
(b) Dry beri beri. In which central nervous system is affected. In
addition to early signs severe muscle wasting occurs. As a
result individual is unable to walk and becomes bed ridden.
Death may occur if not treated.
2. Infantile beri beri. In infants thiamine deficiency causes
infantile beri beri. It occurs in infants between 2-10 months of
age.
13. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN B COMPLEX
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
Chemistry
• It contains heterocyclic isoalloxazine ring and ribitol a sugar
alcohol. It is sensitive to light and alkali but stable to heat and
acidic medium.
14. Absorption and Transport
• Absorbed in small intestine and distributed to all tissues by
circulation.
Functions
• Active forms of riboflavin are FMN and FAD. They act as
prosthetic groups of several enzymes. FMN is flavin
mononucleotide and FAD is flavin adenine dinucleotide.They
act as carriers of hydrogen atoms in redox reactions.
Sources
• Whole grains, legumes, pulses, green leafy vegetables, yeast,
eggs, milk and meat are good sources.
• Root vegetables and fruits are fair sources.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
15. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
Riboflavin Deficiency
• In humans riboflavin deficiency causes oral, facial, occular
lesions.
(a) Angular Stomatitis. Lesions of mouth particularly at corners of
mouth.
(b) Cheliosis. Red swollen and cracked lips.
(c) Vascularization of cornea and conjuctiva and blood shot
eyes.
(d) Glossitis. Inflammated magenta coloured tongue.
16. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
NIACIN
Chemistry
• The word niacin refers to two pyridine derivatives. They are
nicotinic acid and nicotinamide.
• Both are highly stable to heat and stable to alkali and acid.
Absorption and transport
• Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are absorbed in small
intestine and reach various tissues through circulation where
they are converted to NAD and NADP.
17. Niacin
Functions
• Nicotinamide is component of two coenzymes NAD and
NADP. NAD is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and NADP
is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate.
Sources
• Whole grains, peanuts, legumes, yeast, liver, fish and meat
are good sources.
• Milk and egg are poor source of niacin but rich source of
tryptophan. Vegetables and fruits are poor source of niacin.
Niacin Deficiency
• Niacin deficiency causes pellagra in which skin,
gastrointestinal tract and nervous system are affected.
• Dermatitis, Diarrhoea and Dementia are characteristic
symptoms of pellagra.
18. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
PYRIDOXINE
Chemistry
• Three compounds derived from pyridine show vitamin B6
activity. They are pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.
Pyridoxine is stable to heat and sensitive to light and alkali.
Absorption and Transport
• Pyridoxine is easily absorbed and reaches various tissues
through circulation. In the tissues pyridoxine is converted to
pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.
19. PYRIDOXINE
Functions
• Pyridoxal phosphate is active form. It is formed from pyridoxal
by phosphorylation catalyzed by pyridoxal kinase.
• Pyridoxal phosphate act as prosthetic group or co enzyme of
enzymes which are involved in transamination,
decarboxylation, transsulfuration, desulfuration and non-
oxidative deamination reactions.
• Pyriodoxal phosphate is coenzyme for enzymes that are
involved in the synthesis of heme, serotonin, catecholamines
and coenzyme A synthesis.
20. PYRIDOXINE
Sources
• Whole grains, legumes, liver and yeast are good sources.
Leafy vegetables, milk, meat and eggs are fair sources.
Pyridoxine Deficiency
1. It is rare in human adults.
2. In children vitamin B6 deficiency causes epileptic form
convulsions (seizures) due to decreased formation of neuro
transmitters like GABA, serotonin and catecholamines.
21. BIOTIN
Chemistry
• It is a sulfur containing vitamin. It consist of imidozole ring
fused to tetrahydro thiophene with valerie acid side chain. It is
stable to heat but alkaline sensitive.
Absorption and transport
• It is absorbed in the small intestine and reaches liver and
other tissues through circulation.
22. Function
• Biotin is prosthetic groups of several carboxylases like
pyruvate carboxylase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, propionyl-CoA
carboxylase etc.
• Biotin is attached to e-aminogroups of Iysyl residue of
apoenzyme through, amide linkage. In carboxylation reaction
it acts as a carrier of CO2
Dietary sources
• Whole cereals, legumes, groundnuts, milk, meat and fish are
good sources. Vegetables and fruits are fair sources.
Biotin deficiency
• Biotin deficiency is rare in humans because it is present in
most of the common foods.
23. FOLIC ACID
Chemistry
• Folic acid consist of pteridine nucleus, p-aminobenzoic acid
and glutamate. It is sensitive to light and acid but stable to
heat and alkali.
Absorption and transport
• Folic acid present in natural foods is called as folyl
polyglutamate. In the intestinal mucosal cells hydrolase form
folic acid which is reduced to N5 - methyl tetrahydrofolate.
• Methyl tetrahydrofolate is the major circulating form probably
bound to protein.
24. Function
• Tetrahydrofolate or FH4 which is reduced form of folic acid is
carrier of one carbon units.
• Folic acid is required for the synthesis of DNA through
nucleotides particularly TMP formation, in rapidly dividing cells
like bone marrow or erythropoietic cells or intestinal cells.
• Folic acid prevents neural tube defects (NTD) that occur
during fetal development.
Sources
• Green leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage, ladyfinger,
curry and mint leaves, pulses like black gram, green gram,
eggs and liver are good sources. Coconuts, whole cereals
and milk are fair sources.
25. Folic Acid Deficiency
• Megaloblastic anaemia is the main symptom of folic acid
deficiency. It is most common in pregnant women and in
unweaned children.
26. CYANOCOBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12)
Chemistry
• It has complex chemical structure. It is made up of
Tetrapyrrole ring system called as corrin ring with a central
cobalt (Co) atom with molecular formula (C63 H88 N14 O14 PCO)
27. Absorption and Transport
• The absorption of vitamin B12 takes place in ileum.
Transcobalamin II delivers vitamin B12 to tissues.
Storage
• Unlike other water soluble vitamins vitamin B12 is stored in the
liver and other tissues.
Functions
• Vitamin B12 act as prosthetic group or coenzyme.
Vitamin B12 Deficiency
• Vitamin B12 deficiency affects bone marrow, intestinal tract
and neurological system. In vitamin B12 deficiency these
systems are affected because DNA synthesis, methionine
synthesis and fatty acid synthesis are altered.
28. PANTOTHENIC ACID
Chemistry
• It is an amide of β-alanine and dihydroxy dimethyl butyric acid
(Pantoic acid)
• It is stable to heat but unstable to alkali or acid.
Absorption and transport
• Intestinal phosphatases release pantothenic acid from dietary
sources.
• Free pantothenate or its salts are freely absorbed in the
intestine and reach various tissues through circulation.
29. Functions
• Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A. Coenzyme
(CoA) participates in several enzymatic reactions of
carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism.
• It serves as carrier of acyl groups during fatty acid
biosynthesis.
Pantothenic acid deficiency
• It cause burning feet, abdominal cramps, restlessness and
fatigue in humans.
Sources
• Organ meat, liver, milk, whole cereals, legumes and eggs are
good sources. Vegetables and fruits are poor sources.
30. VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)
Chemistry
• It is a sugar acid known as hexuronic acid. Ascorbic acid is
easily oxidized by atomospheric O2 to dehydroascarobic acid
• High temperature (cooking) accelerates oxidation.
• Light and alkali also promotes oxidation.
Absorption and transport
• Vitamin C is readily absorbed in the intestine by sodium
dependent active transport mechanism and reaches various
body tissues through circulation. Ascorbic acid enters various
cells like erythrocytes, leucocytes etc. freely.
31. Functions
1. Ascorbic acid act as antioxidant. It is free radical scavenger.
Since it is a strong reducing agent it protects carotenes,
vitamin E and other B vitamins of dietary origin from oxidation.
2. It is required for the hydroxylation of proline and lysine
residues of collagen. Since collagen is component of ground
substance of capillaries, bone and teeth vitamin C is required
for proper bone and teeth formation also.
3.It participates in hydroxylation reactions of steroid
biosynthesis.
4. It is required for catecholamine synthesis from tyrosine.
5. In the liver bile acid synthesis requires ascorbic acid.
32. 6. It is required for the absorption of iron in the intestine. It
maintains iron in ferrous form.
7. Catabolism of tyrosine requires ascorbic acid.
8. Vitamin C is effective in controlling bacterial invasion by
inhibiting activity of bacterial hyaluronidase enzyme. It acts as
inhibitor of this enzyme due to structural similarity to
glucuronate of hyaluronin, the substrate of hyaluronidase.
33. Vitamin C deficiency
1. In adults deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy. But it rarely
occurs in normal people.
The symptoms of scurvy are
(a) Haemorrhages in various tissues particularly in inside of
thigh, calf and forearm muscles. It may be due to capillary
fragility.
(b) General weakness and anaemia.
(c) Swollen joints, swollen gums and loose tooth.
(d) Susceptible for infections.
(e) Delayed wound healing.
(f) Bone fragility and osteoporosis.
2. Vitamin C deficiency in infants gives rise to infanitle scurvy. It
occurs in weaned infants who are fed on diets low in vitamin
C.
34. Sources
• Guava, coriander and amarnath leaves, and cabbage are rich
• sources. Fruits like lemon, orange, pineapple, papaya, mango
and tomato are good sources.
• Apples, bananas and grapes are fair sources.
35. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A
Chemistry
• They are retinol (Vitamin A alcohol), retinal (Vitamin A
aldehyde) and retinoic acid (Vitamin A acid).
• They are composed of β−ionine ring (methyl substituted
cyclohexenyl ring) and side chain containing two isoprene
units with four conjugated double bonds.
• Due to the presence of double bonds in isoprenoid side chain
vitamin A exhibits cis-trans (geometric) isomerism.
• Due to the presence of 4 double bonds vitamin A can be
oxidized by air or light slowly.
36. VITAMIN A
In nature vitamin A occurs in two forms
• retinolesters -In the foods of animal origin.
• carotenes - in plant foods as provitamin.
Absorption of Vitamin A
• In the intestine pancreatic esterase hydrolyzes retinolesters
present in the diet to retinol and free fatty acid in presence of
bile salts. Retinol is absorbed by mucosal cells.
• Dietaryβ-carotene is cleaved into two molecules of retinal by a
dioxygenase present in the intestinal mucosal. It is
transported by lipoprotein.
37. Functions of vitamin A
The three major retinoids retinal, retinol and retinoic acid have
unique functions.
1. Retinal is required for normal and color vision.
2. Retinol is required for reproduction and growth.
3. Retinol is required for differentiation and function as steroid
hormone.
4. Retinoic acid is required for the synthesis of glycoproteins or
mucopolysaccharides.
5. Retinoic acid also act as steroid hormone. It also promote
growth and differentiation.
6. Retinol and retinoic acid are involved in regulation of gene
expression.
38. Retinal and colour vision
• Three light sensitive pigments present in cones are
responsible for colour vision. They are porphyropsin, iodopsin
and cyanopsin.
• All three pigments contain 11-cis retinal and are sensitive to
red, green and blue colours respectively.
• When the photon (light) strikes retina depending on the colour
of the light a particular pigment is bleached. This leads to
generation of nerve impulse and perception of colour by brain.
• Defective apoprotein production due to faulty genes leads to
colour blindness.
39. Deficiency of Vitamin A
1. Night blindness
• In early stages, the affected individual is not able to see
clearly in dim light or night due to block in the resynthesis of
rhodopsin.
• In the later stage of deficiency the affected individual cannot
see or read in dim light.
• Thus loss of night vision (night blindness) is the major initial
symptom of Vitamin A deficiency.
• Night blindness in adults or in preschool children is common
in countries where intake of vitamin A is low.
2. Growth of bone and formation of tooth are defective. Thick
and long bones are formed.
3. Nerve growth also affected. Degeneration of myelin sheath
occurs.
40. Deficiency of Vitamin A
4. Keratinisation of mucous secreting epithelial cells
(hyperkeratosis) lining respiratory tract and reproductive tract
occurs. Mucous secretion by salivary and lacrymal glands is
also affected.
5. Deposition of keratin in skin (xeroderma) gives rise to
characteristic toad skin appearance.
6. Reproductive disorders like testicular degeneration, resorption
of foetus or foetal malformation are observed.
7. Degenerative changes in kidneys.
41. Sources
(a) Animal sources.
• Marine fish oils like halibut liver oil, cod liver oil and shark liver
oils are excellent sources. Liver of sheep or goat is also
excellent source. Butter, egg, and milk are good sources.
Freshwater fish contain Vitamin A2 (dehydroretinol) which is
only 40% active.
(b) Plant sources. In plant foods vitamin A is present as
carotenes. Plant oil like red palm oil is excellent source.
• Leafy vegetables. coriander leaves, curry leaves, spinach and
cabbage are good sources.
• Yellow vegetables like carrot, pumpkin and sweet potato and
ripe tomatoes also contain appreciable amounts of vitamin A.
• Fruits. Yellow pigmented fruits papaya, mango, jackfruit,
banana and oranges also contain vitamin A in good amounts.
42. VITAMIN D
Chemistry
• It is also called sunshine vitamins.
• Its active forms are vitamin D2 (ergo calciferol) and vitamin D3
(cholecalciferol).
• Calcitriol is the most active form of vitamin D that acts as
steroid hormone.
• They are formed from provitamins which are sterols.
Absorption, transport and storage
• Dietary vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are absorbed in the small
intestine in presence of bile salts.
• Absorbed Vit D is incorporated into chylomicrons and enters
circulation via lymph.
• Vitamin D is stored in liver and adipose tissue.
43. Functions of calcitriol
1. Major action of calcitriol is to increase absorption of calcium
and phosphate in the intestine particularly in duodenum and
jejunum.
2. Calcitriol is required for bone formation and mineralisation of
bone. It increases synthesis of osteocalcin a calcium binding
protein of bone. Osteocalcin is involved in deposition of
calcium salts in bone.
3. Calcitriol affects calcium and phosphorus excretion by kidney.
It reduces the excretion of calcium and phosphorus.
4. Vitamin D is involved in maintenance of normal muscle tone.
5. Calcitriol is an immuno regulatory hormone. It stimulates cell
mediated immunity. It plays a vital role in
monocyte/macrophage activation.
44. Vit D deficiency symptoms
1. Rickets
• In children vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, results in soft
bones. This leads to deformities in skull, chest, spine, legs
and pelvis.
2. Osteomalacia
• Vitamin D deficiency causes osteomalacia in adults. It is seen
in pregnant women and women with inappropriate diet.
Skeletal pain is early sign. Deformities of ribs, spine, pelvis
and legs are seen.
3. Osteoporosis
• Vitamin D deficiency causes osteoporosis in old people.
Photolysis of provitamins dcreases with age. This and
together with decreased sex hormone production may lead to
deficiency.
• Symptoms are bone pain and porous bones. Bone fractures
are common.
45. Sources
• Vitamin D is mostly present in foods of animal origin.
• Marine fish liver oils like halibut liver oil, cod liver oil and shark
liver oil are good sources.
• Sardines, egg yolk and butter contains small amounts.
However, milk is a poor source of vitamin D, Mushrooms
contain small amounts of vitamin D.
Toxicity (Hyper vitaminosis)
• Ingestion of mega doses of vitamin D results in toxicity of Vit
D.
• Signs and symptoms of vitamin D toxicity are loss of appetite,
nausae, thirst, vomiting, polyuria and calcification of lungs,
renal tubules and arteries. Muscle wasting also occurs.
Demineralisation of bone similar to vitamin D deficiency is
seen.
46. VITAMIN E
Chemistry
• Chemically they are tocopherol
• They are derivatives of tocol or 6-hydroxy chromane ring with
phytyl side chain.
• Tocopherols are alkaline sensitive and their vitamin activity is
destroyed by oxidation.
• Among all tocopherols α-tocopherol is most potent and widely
distributed in nature.
• Cooking and food processing may destroy vitamin E to some
extent.
47. Absorption, transport and storage
• Dietary tocopherols are absorbed in small intestine in the
presence of bile salts.
• Absorbed tocopherols are incorporated into chylomicrons in
mucosal cells of intestine and enters circulation via lymph.
• In plasma tocopherols are released from chylomicrons by
lipoprotein lipase.
• Liver takes up half of tocopherol and it is stored.
• Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue also stores vitamin E.
• From the liver tocopherols are transported to other tissues in
β-lipoprotein.
48. Functions of Vitamin E
1. α-tocopherol in cell membrane and cytosol function as
antioxidant. It is present in high concentration in tissues which
are exposed to high O2 pressure like erythrocytes, lungs,
retina etc.
• It acts as chain breaking antioxidant.
2. Vitamin E is involved in maintenance of muscle tone
3. Vitamin E increases synthesis of hemeproteins
4. Vitamin E prevents dietary vitamin A and carotenes from
oxidative damage.
Sources
• Cereal germ oils like wheat germ oil, corn germ oil and
vegetable oils like coconut oil, sun flower oil, peanut oil,
ricebran oil, palm oil, mustard oil, cotton seed oil and
soyabean oil are rich sources of vitamin E.
• Vegetables, fruits and meat are relatively poor sources of
vitamin E.
49. VITAMIN K
Chemistry
• Chemically they are quinones
• Vitamin K1 also called as phylloquinone, is the major form of
vitamin found in plants particularly in green leafy vegetables.
• Vitamin K2 also known as menaquinone is the vitamin K
present in animals and synthesized by intestinal flora.
• They are derivatives of naphthoquinone and differ in side
chain.
• Phylloquinone contain phytylside chain where as
• menaquinone contains polyisoprenoid side chain made up of
7 isoprene units.
50. Absorption and Transport
• Vitamin K of dietary origin is absorbed in small intestine in
presence of bile salts.
• In mucosal cells of intestine absorbed vitamin K is
incorporated into chylomicrons.
• It reaches liver after entering circulation through the lymph.
• Liver distributes vitamin K to other tissues.
• It rarely accumulates in liver and peripheral tissues.
Sources
Plant Sources
• Cauliflower, Cabbage, spinach, turnip greens, peas and
soybean are rich sources.
Animal sources
• Dairy products like cheese, butter and farm products like eggs
and liver are good sources.
51. Functions of Vitamin K
• Vitamin K is required for the synthesis of blood clotting factors
like prothrombin (factor II), cothromboplastin (factor VII),
(factor IX) and (factor X).
• It is required for the carboxylation of the γ-carbon atom of
glutamic residues of these factors. The γ-carboxylation
generates calcium binding sites which is essential for blood
clotting process.
52. Deficiency Symptoms of vitamin K
1. Haemorrhage in the new born is most common vitamin K
deficiency symptom. uncontrolled bleeding through nose
(epitaxis) and gastrointestinal tract is likely to occur. However
it can be treated successfully with intra muscular injections of
vitamin K.
2. In adults vitamin K deficiency rarely occurs. However
prolonged use of antibiotics may cause vitamin K deficiency
due to elimination of intestinal flora.