This document provides an overview of viruses, including their history of discovery, characteristics, components, shapes, classification, bacteriophages, replication cycles, enveloped viruses, and other related infectious agents like viroids and prions. It discusses key scientists and experiments that contributed to the understanding of viruses. The replication cycles of lytic and lysogenic bacteriophages as well as enveloped DNA and RNA viruses are described.
Classifications of Fungi
Characteristics of all Fungi
Structure of Fungi
Reproduction
Classification of Fungi
Basidiomycota
sexual reproduction occur by basidium , will be present spore is called basidiospore .
Asexual by budding ,fragementation, conidiospores.
Ascomycota
microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores.
Mostly the ascomycota is sexual but some asexual it lacks the ascospore.
Zygomycota
Two spore
mitospores ( or) sporangiospore
chlamitospore (or) zygospore
Deuteromycota
Imperfect Fungi referring to our "imperfect" knowledge of their complete life cycles.
sexual life cycle that is either unknown or absent.
Asexual reproduction is by means of conidia or may be lacking.
culture media
SDA medium – sabouraud dextrose agar
Biology I Presentation
FUNGI
We will learn
General characteristics of fungi
Structure of fungi
Economic Importance
Pathogenicity
Brief intro of some fungi
THE SIX KINGDOMS
Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom called the kingdom fungi
OF FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are NOT plants
Nonphotosynthetic
Eukaryotes
Nonmotile
Most are saprobes (live on dead organisms)
The Characteristics of Fungi
Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
Store food energy as glycogen
The Characteristics of Fungi
Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast
Lack true roots, stems or leaves
fungi as a decomposers
The Characteristics of Fungi
Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)
Body is called the Thallus
Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some fungi are internal or external parasites
A few fungi act like predators & capture prey like roundworms
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some are edible, while others are poisonous
The Characteristics of Fungi
Produce both sexual and asexual spores
Classified by their sexual reproductive structures
The Characteristics of Fungi
Grow best in warm, moist environments
Mycology is the study of fungi
Mycologists study fungi
A fungicide is a chemical used to kill fungi
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi include puffballs, yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, smuts, ringworm, and molds
The antibiotic penicillin is made by the Penicillium mold
FUNGI SIZE
NON-REPRODUCTIVE
Vegetative Structures
Hyphae
Tubular shape
ONE continuous cell
Filled with cytoplasm & nuclei
Multinucleate
Hard cell wall of chitin also in insect exoskeletons
Hyphae
Stolons – horizontal hyphae that connect groups of hyphae to each other
Rhizoids – rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Hyphae
Cross-walls called SEPTA may form compartments
Septa have pores for movement of cytoplasm
Form network called mycelia that run through the thallus (body)
Absorptive Heterotroph
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Tips of Hyphae release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Modifications of hyphae
Fungi may be classified based on cell division (with or without cytokinesis)
Aseptate or coenocytic (without septa)
Septate (with septa)
Modifications of hyphae
Hyphal growth
Hyphae grow from their tips
Mycelium is an extensive, feeding web of hyphae
Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi
ASEXUAL & SEXUAL SPORES
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
REPRODUCTION
Most fungi reproduce Asexually and Sexually by spores
ASEXUAL reproduction is most common method & produces genetically identical organisms
Fungi reproduce SEXUALLY when conditions are poor & nutrients
Viruses that infect and parsitized bacteria is known as bacteriophage.
It was discovered by Frederick.W.Twort in Great Britian (1915) and Felix d’ Herelle in France(1917).
D’ Herelle coined the term bacteriophage meaning ‘bacterial eater’ to describe the agent’s bacteriocidal activity. He observed lysis of a broth culture of a dysentry bacillus.
Classifications of Fungi
Characteristics of all Fungi
Structure of Fungi
Reproduction
Classification of Fungi
Basidiomycota
sexual reproduction occur by basidium , will be present spore is called basidiospore .
Asexual by budding ,fragementation, conidiospores.
Ascomycota
microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores.
Mostly the ascomycota is sexual but some asexual it lacks the ascospore.
Zygomycota
Two spore
mitospores ( or) sporangiospore
chlamitospore (or) zygospore
Deuteromycota
Imperfect Fungi referring to our "imperfect" knowledge of their complete life cycles.
sexual life cycle that is either unknown or absent.
Asexual reproduction is by means of conidia or may be lacking.
culture media
SDA medium – sabouraud dextrose agar
Biology I Presentation
FUNGI
We will learn
General characteristics of fungi
Structure of fungi
Economic Importance
Pathogenicity
Brief intro of some fungi
THE SIX KINGDOMS
Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom called the kingdom fungi
OF FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are NOT plants
Nonphotosynthetic
Eukaryotes
Nonmotile
Most are saprobes (live on dead organisms)
The Characteristics of Fungi
Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
Store food energy as glycogen
The Characteristics of Fungi
Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast
Lack true roots, stems or leaves
fungi as a decomposers
The Characteristics of Fungi
Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)
Body is called the Thallus
Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some fungi are internal or external parasites
A few fungi act like predators & capture prey like roundworms
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some are edible, while others are poisonous
The Characteristics of Fungi
Produce both sexual and asexual spores
Classified by their sexual reproductive structures
The Characteristics of Fungi
Grow best in warm, moist environments
Mycology is the study of fungi
Mycologists study fungi
A fungicide is a chemical used to kill fungi
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi include puffballs, yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, smuts, ringworm, and molds
The antibiotic penicillin is made by the Penicillium mold
FUNGI SIZE
NON-REPRODUCTIVE
Vegetative Structures
Hyphae
Tubular shape
ONE continuous cell
Filled with cytoplasm & nuclei
Multinucleate
Hard cell wall of chitin also in insect exoskeletons
Hyphae
Stolons – horizontal hyphae that connect groups of hyphae to each other
Rhizoids – rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Hyphae
Cross-walls called SEPTA may form compartments
Septa have pores for movement of cytoplasm
Form network called mycelia that run through the thallus (body)
Absorptive Heterotroph
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Tips of Hyphae release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Modifications of hyphae
Fungi may be classified based on cell division (with or without cytokinesis)
Aseptate or coenocytic (without septa)
Septate (with septa)
Modifications of hyphae
Hyphal growth
Hyphae grow from their tips
Mycelium is an extensive, feeding web of hyphae
Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi
ASEXUAL & SEXUAL SPORES
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
REPRODUCTION
Most fungi reproduce Asexually and Sexually by spores
ASEXUAL reproduction is most common method & produces genetically identical organisms
Fungi reproduce SEXUALLY when conditions are poor & nutrients
Viruses that infect and parsitized bacteria is known as bacteriophage.
It was discovered by Frederick.W.Twort in Great Britian (1915) and Felix d’ Herelle in France(1917).
D’ Herelle coined the term bacteriophage meaning ‘bacterial eater’ to describe the agent’s bacteriocidal activity. He observed lysis of a broth culture of a dysentry bacillus.
Bacteriophage is the most common and extensively studied virus. The life cycle of bacteriophages. The transfer of their genetic system via the process of transduction (Generalised and Specialised) and studying the gene mapping in phages. This theoretical explanation about viruses and their genetic system will help the learner in the fields of biotechnology, microbiology, basic science, life science, and various other fields of biology.
This presentation gives a detail overview on Viruses - Morphology and Classification. The presentation is helpful for students of B. Pharm Second Year and those who wants to gain basic knowledge about Viruses.
Subject - Microbiology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field composed of many specialized disciplines that study the structure, function, growth, distribution, evolution, or other features of living organisms
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
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We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
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Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. Learning objectives
i. Describe the history of virus discovery.
ii. Contrast the characteristic of a virus as
compared to a living cell.
iii. Understand the origin of virus.
iv. Explain virus component and shape.
v. Characterize a bacteriophage.
vi. Contrast bacteriophage lytic and lysogenic
life cycle.
vii. Describe the life cycle of an enveloped DNA
and RNA virus.
viii.State the characteristic of viriods and
prions.
3. History of virus discovery
In the late 1800s,
botanists had been trying
to find the cause of
tobacco mosaic disease.
In 1892, D. IWANOWSKI
tried to filter the sap of
infected tobacco plants
(Filter capable of
removing particles the
size of all known
bacteria).
5. History of virus discovery
The filtrate was FULLY CAPABLE
of producing the ORIGINAL
DISEASE in new hosts.
Nothing could be seen in the
filtrates using the most powerful
microscopes, nor could anything
be cultivated from the filtrates.
Iwanowski concluded that the
bacteria was so small / or they
made a filterable toxin.
6. History of virus discovery
A Dutch botanist named Martinus
Beijerink ruled out the filterable toxin
conclusion because the filtered sap
are capable of causing undiluted
infection.
The agent cannot be cultivated on
nutrient media (need a host)
In 1935, Stanley
discovered this agent
after crystallization
7. Virus characteristics
Viruses are not classified into any of the
biological classification system.
They lie in the threshold of life and
nonlife.
8. Virus characteristics
Non-Life Life
They are acellular, They could only
with no cell nucleus, reproduce within the
organelles or living cells that they
cytoplasm. Therefore, infect. They use their
they do not have the genetic information to
components necessary force the host cell to
to carry metabolic replicate themselves
activities (obligate intracellular
independently. parasite) .
Viruses cannot move
and reproduce on
their own.
9. Virus size Viruses are smaller
than bacteria.
Viruses are too small
even to be seen by a
light microscope.
The biggest size virus is
about 240-300nm
(1/10 of red blood
cells/ size of the
smallest bacteria)
The tiniest virus is
20nm – smaller than a
ribosome
10. Virus origin According to a hypothesis,
viruses are bits of nucleic
acid that ‘escaped’ from
cellular organism.
Some traces are from
animal cells, plant cells
and bacterial cells.
Their multiple origins
explain why viruses are
species-specific.
However, some other have
broader range of host cells
11. Virus component
Virus consist of only
I) Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) The DNA /RNA
could be single or double stranded.
II) A capsid or a protein coat which functions in
protecting the genetic material during the viral
infection process.
III) In some viruses, there is an outer envelope
that encloses the coat, and is made of parts of
the previously infected cells.
(A complete virus that consist of the genetic material,
the protein coat and an envelope is called the virion)
13. Virus shape
Virus shape can be based on the capsid
i. Helical (rod-shaped) e.g. tobacco
mosaic virus
ii. Polyhedral / Icosahedral (many-
sided shaped) e.g. adenovirus.
iii. Complex combination of both by
having structures like tail (helical
and polyhedral) e.g. bacteriophage
iv. Most enveloped virus have spherical
shape e.g. influenza virus
14.
15. Virus classification
Before, viruses are classified according to the type of
host that they infected.
The current system reflect phenotypic
characteristics.
The Baltimore classification system distinguish
viruses based on their
- Method of replication
- Genome type (DNA or RNA)
The International Committee on Taxonomy of
Viruses devised and implemented several rules on
the naming and classification of viruses early in the
1990s.
It started at the level of order and ends at genus
17. Bacteriophage
Much of the knowledge comes from
studying bacteriophage, because they can
be cultured easily within living bacteria.
Bacteriophage possess dsDNA inside their
capsid (protein head). The capsid functions
as protection of their genetic material.
Their tail fibers are the base used to attach
themselves to bacterial host cell
The tail is the channel for their genetic
material to be injected to the host cell.
20. Bacteriophage replication
There are two types of bacteriophage
replication, LYTIC and LYSOGENIC
cycles.
In a lytic cycle, the virus destroys the
host cell. It is a rapid process where
the host cell undergoes lysis.
In a lysogenic cycle, the viral genome
usually becomes integrated into the
host cell.
21. Virus lytic cycle
There are five steps in a typical
bacteriophage lytic reproduction,
i. Attachment-A virus will attach to a
suitable host cell
ii. Penetration- The whole virus or only
the genetic material (nucleic acid) will
penetrate the cell’s cytoplasm. A
bacteriophage capsid remains on the
outside of the bacterial cell whereas
many viruses that infect animal cell
enter a host cell intact.
23. Virus lytic cycle
iii.Replication and synthesis - The viral
DNA/RNA directs the host cell to
produce many copies of viral nucleic
acids and proteins necessary for its
replication.
iv. Assembly - The viral nucleic acids
and proteins are assembled together
to form new infectious particles.
v. Release - Newly generated viral
particles are released from the host
cell.
24.
25. Virus lysogenic cycle
The infection will enter a latent period. The
host cell is not killed in this process, but
the viral nucleic acid will undergo genetic
recombination with the host cell’s
chromosome. This integrated structure is
called a prophage.
When the bacterial DNA replicates, the
prophage also replicates.
Certain external condition such as UV light
and x-rays cause viruses to revert to a lytic
cycle and then destroy their hosts.
27. Replication of an enveloped DNA
virus
Enveloped virus has a different way of infecting
eukaryotic cells.
After attachment to a host-cell receptor, some
enveloped viruses fuse with the animal cell’s
plasma membrane. The viral capsid and nucleic
acid will then be released into the animal cell.
28. Enveloped virus penetration step
Some virus enter the cell through endocytosis.
In this process, the plasma membrane of the
animal cell invaginates to form a membrane-
bounded vesicle that contains a virus.
29. Replication of an enveloped DNA
virus
The viral DNA will be replicated and
transcribed by the host cell.
After the viral genes are transcribed, the viral
structural proteins are synthesized through
translation outside nucleus.
The new virus particles are then assembled.
Enveloped viruses obtain their glycoprotein
spikes on the envelopes by picking up a
fragment of the host plasma membrane as
they leave the infected cell.
30. Replication of an enveloped RNA
virus
The viral genome (single stranded RNA)
function as a template for synthesis of
complementary RNA strand
Some complementary strands became
mRNA that will translated
Viral genome RNA are made using
complementary strands
After translation, assembly and release step
be done in proper sequence
31. Replication of an RNA virus (retrovirus)
Virus attach through specific glycoprotein and
enter through endocytosis
Digestion of capsid through cellular enzyme
Viral RNA ia a template for complementary
DNA sense by reverse transcriptase
Second DNA strand will be synthesized by
reverse transcriptase
Ds DNA incorporated with the cell’s DNA as a
provirus
The genes are replicated, transcribed and
translated to build the components for the
RNA virus assembly before being released
32. H1N1 virus
H1N1 virus isolated
from patients found
that it is made up of
genetic elements
from four different
flu viruses – North
American Mexican
influenza, North
American avian
influenza, human
influenza, and swine
influenza virus
33. Viruslike agents
Viruses is considered as the
smallest living / nonliving microbe.
However, there are even smaller
infectious agents found – viroids
and prions.
34. Viroids
In 1961, an infective agent in potatoes has
been discovered. The agent is called viroid
and it is smaller than viruses with no
protein coats.
Viroids are infectious RNA particle that
may cause plant diseases by interfering
with mRNA processing.
35. Prions
Prions are infectious particles made of protein.
Research indicates that prions are normal
proteins that become folded incorrectly.
Prions could cause neurological degenerative
diseases such as mad cow disease and Scrapie.