Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to antigens from a pathogen. This triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells that can recognize and quickly eliminate the pathogen if exposed in the future. There are several types of vaccines, including those using whole inactivated or attenuated pathogens, as well as newer subunit and vector vaccines that deliver just the antigenic components. Vaccine development and approval is a rigorous process to ensure safety and efficacy.

1. VACCINES
1

2. • Immunization: a procedure designed to increase
concentrations of antibodies and/or effector T-
cells which are reactive against infection (or
cancer).
• Immunization procedure called vaccination and the
immunizing agent called vaccine (or “serum” in
historical references)
VACCINES
2

3. Discovery of VaccinationDiscovery of Vaccination
• Discovered in 1796 by
Dr. Edward Jenner
• Tested empirical knowledge:
mild cattle disease cowpox
protects against deadly human
disease smallpox
• scratching liquid from cowpox
sores into the boy's skin -> full
protection against smallpox
3
VACCINES
Introduction

4. VACCINES
The Immune system
Interactions between the two systems
4

5. Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity
Innate versus Adaptive ImmunityInnate versus Adaptive Immunity
• No memory
5
• No time lag
• Not antigen specific
• A lag period
• Antigen specific
• Development of memory
VACCINES
The Immune system

6. The Immune system
First-line defense: physical and chemical barrier
The first-line defense includes barriers to infection, such as skin and mucus coating of the gut and
airways.
Second-line defense:
Phagocytic cells
phagocytic cells (Myeloid cells) (macrophages and neutrophil granulocytes) can destroy (phagocytose)
foreign substances. Phagocytosis involves digestion of the bacterium by using enzymes.
Anti-microbial proteins
Anti-microbial proteins are activated if a pathogen passes through the barrier offered by skin. There
are several classes of antimicrobial proteins, such as acute phase proteins (for example, proteins that
enhance phagocytosis), lysozyme, and the complement system.
The complement system is a very complex group of serum proteins, which is activated in a cascade
fashion. Three different pathways are involved in complement activation:
A cascade of protein activity follows complement activation -> destruction of the pathogen and
inflammation
Interferons are also anti-microbial proteins.
-> secreted by virus-infected cells -> diffuse rapidly to neighboring cells -> inhibit the spread of the
viral infection.
Innate Immune System
6

7. The adaptive immune system, also
called the "acquired immune
system", ensures that most mammals
that survive an initial infection by a
pathogen are generally immune to
further illness caused by that same
pathogen.
The adaptive immune system is based
on dedicated immune cells termed
leukocytes (white blood cells) that
are produced by stem cells in the
bone marrow, and mature in the
thymus and/or lymph nodes. It is in
the lymph nodes where antigen is
usually presented to the immune
system.
Adaptive Immune System
7
The Immune system

8. Cells of the Immune SystemCells of the Immune System
8

9. Development of the Immune SystemDevelopment of the Immune System
9
VACCINES
myeloid
Granulocyte
lymphoid
nk
thymus
CD8+
CD4+
CTL
TH2
TH1
Monocyte
B-Cells

10. The Immune SystemThe Immune System
10
VACCINES
What Happens during an infection?
• Innate Immunity activated
– macrophages slip between cells [extravasation] to arrive
– cytokine chemicals attract other “troops” [chemotaxis]
– histamine chemicals dilate blood vessels for easier access to injury
[vasodilatation]

11. The Immune SystemThe Immune System
11
VACCINES
Macrophages (The “big eaters”)
• Phagocytic cells -
able to ingest small foreign invaders
– neutrophils
– monocyte
• they release cytokines that enhance the immune
response
• Mast cells /basophils
– release histamine that dilates blood vessels
– causes redness [erythrema], swelling
[edema], and heat [fever]
• Call for help from the ADAPTIVE IMMUNE System
-> results in a coordinated successful defense !
• Major players . . . the B lymphocytes

12. The Immune SystemThe Immune System
12
VACCINES
The Adaptive Immune system
1. Humoral immune system: -> acts against bacteria and viruses using immunoglobulins
(also known as antibodies) -> produced by B cells.
2. Cellular immune system: -> destroys intracellular pathogens (such as virus-infected
cells and mycobacteria – causing tuberculosis) using T cells (also called "T
lymphocytes"; "T" means they develop in the thymus).
There are two major types of T cells:
Cytotoxic T cells (TC cells): -> recognize infected cells by using T cell receptors to
probe cell surfaces (-> Major Histocompatability Complex [MHC]) . If they
recognize an infected cell, they release granzymes (proteases) to trigger that
cell to become apoptotic ("commit suicide")
Helper T cells (TH cells): -> activate macrophages and also produce cytokines
(interleukins) that induce the proliferation of B and T cells.
-> recognize infected cells of the immune system by using HelperT cell
receptors to probe cell surfaces (-> Major Histocompatability Complex [MHC])

13. The Immune SystemThe Immune System
13
VACCINES
The Adaptive Immune system
Activated B cells differentiate into . . .
– Antibody producing cells [attack mode]
– Memory cells [remembers & future protection]
Antigen & T-helper cell
memory
antibodies

14. Principle of VaccinationPrinciple of Vaccination
14
VACCINES
• A vaccine renders the recipient resistant to infection.
• During vaccination a vaccine is injected or given orally.
• The host produces antibodies for a particular pathogen.
• Upon further exposure the pathogen is inactivated by the
antibodies and disease state prevented.
• Generally to produce a vaccine the pathogen is grown in culture
and inactivated or nonvirulent forms are used for vaccination.

15. Immunization:Immunization:
• When performed before exposure to an infectious agent (or
soon after exposure in certain cases), it is called
immunoprophylaxis,
• intended to prevent the infection.
• When performed during an active infection (or existing cancer),
it is called immunotherapy, intending to cure the infection (or
cancer)
15
VACCINES
Principle of Vaccination

16. Types of Immunity:Types of Immunity:
16
VACCINES
Principle of Vaccination
-> Two mechanisms by which immunization can be achieved
• Passive immunization:
– Protective Abs --> non immune recipient
– No immunological memory
• Active immunization:
– Induction of adaptive immune response, with protection and
memory.

17. Passive versus active immunization:Passive versus active immunization:
17
VACCINES
Principle of Vaccination
-> TYPE ACQUIRED THROUGH Passive Immunization –
-> Natural maternal serum/milk
-> Artificial immune serum
-> Type ACQURIED THROUGH Active Immunization –
-> Natural infection
-> Artificial infection*:
Attenuated organisms (live)
inactivated organisms (dead)
Cloned genes of microbiological antigens
Purified microbial macromolecules
Synthetic peptides
DNA
*Artificial refers to steps involving human intervention

18. Mechanism of Vaccination:Mechanism of Vaccination:
18
VACCINES
Principle of Vaccination
Establish resistance to virus/pathological organism by evoking an
immune response
1. Give host a foreign organism/protein in non-infectious form -> active
immunization
2. Antibodies are generated Ab binds to surface proteins of organism
-> passive immunization
Other vaccination components:
• Adjuvant: chemicals in the vaccine solution that enhance the immune response
– Alum – Ag in the vaccine clumps with the alum such that the Ag is released
– slowly, like a time-release capsule
– gives more time for memory cells to form

19. Principle of VaccinationPrinciple of Vaccination
19
VACCINES
• Traditional Vaccines:
– Grow in animals (vaccinia in
calves for smallpox; rabbit
brains for rabies)
– Simple bacterial culture
(Cholera vibrio) then
inactivation
– Grow in eggs (influenza,
vaccinia) then inactivate
>100 million eggs used for
influenza in the USA every year

20. Principle of VaccinationPrinciple of Vaccination
20
VACCINES
Limitations To Traditional Vaccines:
-> can’t grow all organisms in culture
-> safety to lab personnel
-> Expense
-> insufficient attentuation (living agent altered to become
harmless or less virulent)
-> reversion to infectious state
-> need refrigeration
-> do not work for all infectious agents
-> infants/children receive them – immature immunity

21. Principle of VaccinationPrinciple of Vaccination
21
VACCINES
New Generation of Vaccines:
• Recombinant DNA technology is being used to produce a new
generation of vaccines.
 Virulence genes are deleted and organism is still able to stimulate
an immune response.
 Live nonpathogenic strains can carry antigenic determinants from
pathogenic strains.
 If the agent cannot be maintained in culture, genes of proteins for
antigenic determinants can be cloned and expressed in an
alternative host e.g. E. coli.

22. Principle of VaccinationPrinciple of Vaccination
22
VACCINES
Recombinant Vaccines:
1. Subunit Vaccines
peptide vaccines
Genetic immunization
2. Attenuated Vaccines
3. Vector Vaccines
4.Bacterial Antigen Delivery Systems
-> ghosts -> delivery systems (next semester)

23. Principle of VaccinationPrinciple of Vaccination
23
VACCINES

24. Subunit/Peptide VaccinesSubunit/Peptide Vaccines
24
VACCINES
•Do NOT use entire virus or bacteria (pathogenic agent)
•Use components of pathogenic organism instead of whole organism
•Advantage: no extraneous pathogenic particles i.e. DNA
•Disadvantage: Is protein the same as in situ? -> Cost?

25. Subunit/Peptide VaccinesSubunit/Peptide Vaccines
25
VACCINES
• It has been showed that the capsid or envelope proteins are enough to
cause an immune response:
 Herpes simplex virus envelop glycoprotein O.
 Foot and mouth disease virus capsid protein (VP1)
 Extracellular proteins produced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Subunit Vaccines
• Antibodies usually bind to surface proteins of the pathogen or proteins
generated after the disruption of the pathogen.
• Binding of antibodies to these proteins will stimulate an immune response.
• Therefore proteins can be use to stimulate an immune response.
Development of Subunit vaccines based on the following observation:

26. Subunit/Peptide VaccinesSubunit/Peptide Vaccines
26
VACCINES
Example for a subunit vaccine -> Tuberculosis
• Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• The bacterium forms lessions in the tissues and organs -> causing cell death.
Often the lung is affected.
• About 2 billion people are infected and there are 3 million deaths/year.
• Currently tuberculosis is controlled by a vaccine called BCG (Bacillus Calmette-
Guerin) which is a strain of M. bovis.
• M. bovis often responds to diagnostic test for M. tuberculosis.
• Six extracellular proteins of M. tuberculosis were purified.
• Separately and in combinations these proteins were used to immunized guinea
pigs.
• These animals were then challenged with M. tuberculosis.
• After 9-10 weeks examination showed that some combinations of the purified
proteins provided the same level of protection as the BCG vaccine.

27. Subunit/Peptide VaccinesSubunit/Peptide Vaccines
27
VACCINES
Selection & delivery of vaccine peptides:
Use discrete portion (domain) of a surface
protein as Vaccine
These domains are ‘epitopes’ (antigenic
determinants) -> are recognized by antibodies
CARRIER PROTEINS
Problem -> Small Peptides are often Digested
-> no strong immune response
-> Carrier Proteins Make more Stable + stronger
immune response
Make fusion protein of carrier + vaccine peptide
-> inert carrier or highly immunogenic carrier
(hepatitis B core protein)

28. Attenuated VaccinesAttenuated Vaccines
28
VACCINES
• Attenuated vaccines often consists of a pathogenic strains in
which the virulent genes are deleted or modified.
• Live vaccines are more effective than a killed or subunit (protein)
vaccines.
Example -> Vaccine against Cholera
• cholera is caused by infection withVibrio cholerae and is transmitted through
contaminated water.
• V. cholerae produces a enterotoxin with an A1 subunit and 5 B subunits -> causes
disease
• Presently the cholera vaccine consist of a phenol-killed V. cholerae and it only last
3-6 months.
• A live vaccine would be more effective.

29. Attenuated VaccinesAttenuated Vaccines
29
VACCINES
Example -> Vaccine against Cholera
550 bases deleted
of A1 peptide The final result is V. cholerae with a 550 bp of the A peptide
deleted.
-> Currently being tested.

30. Vector VaccinesVector Vaccines
30
VACCINES
Virus as Antigen Gene Delivery System !!!
Vaccinia good candidate for a live recombinant viral vaccine
•benign virus
•replicate in cytoplasm (viral replication genes)
•easy to store
-> The vaccinia virus is generally nonpathogenic.
The procedure involves:
• The DNA sequence for the specific antigen is inserted into a plasmid
beside the vaccinia virus promoter in the middle of a non-essential gene
e.g. thymidine kinase.

31. Vector VaccinesVector Vaccines
31
VACCINES
The procedure involves:
• The plasmid is used to transform thymdine
kinase negative cells which were previously
infected with the vaccinia virus.
• Recombination between the plasmid and vaccinia
virus chromosomal DNA results in transfer of
antigen gene from the recombinant plasmid to
the vaccinia virus.
• Thus virus can now be used as a vaccine for the
specific antigen.
-> Recombinant Virus

32. Vector VaccinesVector Vaccines
32
VACCINES
• A number of antigen genes have been inserted into the vaccinia
virus genome e.g.
 Rabies virus G protein
 Hepatitis B surface antigen
 Influenza virus NP and HA proteins.
• A recombinant vaccinia virus vaccine for rabies is able to elicit
neutralizing antibodies in foxes which is a major carrier of the
disease.

33. Vector VaccinesVector Vaccines
33
VACCINES
Control of Viral Vaccines Post Innoculation
•Vaccinia virus is resistant to
interferon -> due to presence of
K3L protein
•Use an interferon-sensitive
strain of vaccinia virus -> delete
K3L gene to create mutant

34. Bacterial Antigen Delivery SystemsBacterial Antigen Delivery Systems
34
VACCINES
Antigen Gene
Bacterium
Antigen Proteins made on Bacterial cell
Vaccinate Patient
-> Use live nonpathogenic bacterium
which contains antigen (Salmonella or
epitope from cholera)
•Insert antigen gene into flagellin gene
•Epitope is expressed on the flagellum
surface
-> Flagellin-engineered bacteria is
VACCINE
Advantage - Oral Administration

35. Vaccine ApprovalVaccine Approval
35
VACCINES
• Done by CBER (Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research),
an arm of the FDA
• Generally same clinical trial evaluation as other biologics and
drugs
• Site to learn more about vaccines: