Most employers today would like to have their employee’s motivated and ready to work, but do not understand what truly motivates a person. Companies could be more efficient if the employees had an invested interest in the future of the company. There are essential needs to be met for a person, specifically an employee, to succeed in the workplace. I will examine different theories of motivations, how they are relevant to the workplace, and how employers can implement the theories to ensure happy and motivated employees.
Human behaviour is as much a reflection of the differences between individuals as it is a reflection of their similarities. These individual differences are caused by a number of influences and characteristics. For example, personality traits focus on individual differences that make each person a unique human being. Our biological make-up concentrates on how we function as a result of our evolution and human inheritance. Our behaviour is largely influenced by the system of rewards and punishments that are present in our environment. Our cognitive approach focuses on how our thinking and memory affects our behaviour. The fact that we are here at this time with immediate influences, and the ability to express a free will, may present the greatest influence of all.
It broadly addresses the topic of employee relations and work motivation. It examined theories and models of motivation that strive to answer the question of what motivates and how is motivation harnessed. At the individual level of analysis, there is a plethora of different approaches, most of which have some conceptual viability, empirical support and practical use. A critical task for future thinking and research is to integrate findings from diverse sources in order to be able to produce a more coherent view of motivation, its content and mechanisms.
Any theories about motivation can be contradicted since these theories have many exceptions. It is important that these theories are considered general statements that have been confirmed through observational studies and are applicable only to the extent that they reflect and are influenced by individual behaviour. We might ask: “Why should we even pursue these topics if there are so many inconsistencies, exceptions, and variables that affect conclusions?”. If we are searching for scientific evidence that is universally applicable, we may be wasting our time, but if our goal is to better understand human behaviour and its impacts on personal performance, the insights gained from such theories and studies are invaluable.
This document provides an overview and critical analysis of several motivational theories, including:
1) Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, which organizes human needs into five categories, is criticized for assuming only one need can be satisfied at a time and for not accounting for cultural influences.
2) ERG theory and McClelland's needs theory modify Maslow's theory by proposing needs exist simultaneously rather than sequentially.
3) Criticisms of Maslow's theory challenge its key assumptions around deprivation/domination and gratification/activation of needs.
The document discusses several motivational theories including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, McClelland's acquired needs theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory. It analyzes the key elements and implications of each theory on motivating employees, such as understanding an individual's dominant needs, ensuring fair treatment and rewards, and establishing a clear link between performance and rewards. The theories provide insights for managers on evaluating what motivates different employees and how to apply motivational strategies appropriately.
This presentation provides an overview of mergers and acquisitions (M&A). It defines mergers as a combination of two firms on an equal basis, while acquisitions involve one firm purchasing a controlling stake in another. Mergers can be horizontal, vertical, congeneric, or conglomerate. Cultural and organizational fit are important factors in M&A success or failure. Human resources play a key role by managing communications, training, retention of key employees, and addressing cultural clashes post-merger. Common mistakes include lack of early HR involvement, understanding employee needs, empowering leadership, and appreciating the time required for integration.
Theories of Motivation - Overview of the Content Theories of Motivation Monica P
(MST) Advanced Administration and Supervision in Educational Practices
(class report(s)/discussion(s))
DISCLAIMER: I do not claim ownership of the photos, videos, templates, and etc used in this slideshow
RICH BAKER is a bakery located in Jaffna, Sri Lanka that has experienced rapid growth over the past few years. It pays competitive salaries but employees are demotivated due to long working hours without holidays and a gloomy work environment. The bakery uses a semi-computerized system for inventory and production records but human resource management is not computerized and consists of only one person who focuses on records and payroll. As the bakery continues growing, it needs to establish formal human resource systems and practices to support employees and manage compliance, staffing, and risk.
This document outlines several approaches to industrial relations including psychological, sociological, human relations, Gandhian, human resource management, action theory, unitary, pluralist, Marxist/radical, Weber's social action, socio-ethical, and Oxford approaches. It provides more detail on the psychological, sociological, and human resource management approaches. The psychological approach examines the perceptions and attitudes of union leaders and executives. The sociological approach looks at sociological factors that shape industrial relations. The human resource management approach recognizes that workers want various freedoms and that treating them as objects can increase tensions in the workplace.
Knowledge workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Examples include architects, engineers, scientists, and any other white-collar workers, whose line of work requires one to "think for a living".
A wisdom worker is a (mostly) creative-minded individual, who works primarily in emotional creativeness. Their main skill is their ability to weave engaging narrative into their work.
This document discusses human resource planning at both the macro and micro levels in India. At the macro level, it focuses on demographic changes, legal issues, policies, technology, population planning and control, literacy and education, health and medical care, and housing. Effective human resource planning is important at the macro level to support India's economic planning and development. It also discusses the major reasons for emphasizing manpower planning, including the employment-unemployment situation, technological change, demographic changes, legislative controls, and the impact of pressure groups.
This document provides an overview and critical analysis of several motivational theories, including:
1) Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, which organizes human needs into five categories, is criticized for assuming only one need can be satisfied at a time and for not accounting for cultural influences.
2) ERG theory and McClelland's needs theory modify Maslow's theory by proposing needs exist simultaneously rather than sequentially.
3) Criticisms of Maslow's theory challenge its key assumptions around deprivation/domination and gratification/activation of needs.
The document discusses several motivational theories including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, McClelland's acquired needs theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory. It analyzes the key elements and implications of each theory on motivating employees, such as understanding an individual's dominant needs, ensuring fair treatment and rewards, and establishing a clear link between performance and rewards. The theories provide insights for managers on evaluating what motivates different employees and how to apply motivational strategies appropriately.
This presentation provides an overview of mergers and acquisitions (M&A). It defines mergers as a combination of two firms on an equal basis, while acquisitions involve one firm purchasing a controlling stake in another. Mergers can be horizontal, vertical, congeneric, or conglomerate. Cultural and organizational fit are important factors in M&A success or failure. Human resources play a key role by managing communications, training, retention of key employees, and addressing cultural clashes post-merger. Common mistakes include lack of early HR involvement, understanding employee needs, empowering leadership, and appreciating the time required for integration.
Theories of Motivation - Overview of the Content Theories of Motivation Monica P
(MST) Advanced Administration and Supervision in Educational Practices
(class report(s)/discussion(s))
DISCLAIMER: I do not claim ownership of the photos, videos, templates, and etc used in this slideshow
RICH BAKER is a bakery located in Jaffna, Sri Lanka that has experienced rapid growth over the past few years. It pays competitive salaries but employees are demotivated due to long working hours without holidays and a gloomy work environment. The bakery uses a semi-computerized system for inventory and production records but human resource management is not computerized and consists of only one person who focuses on records and payroll. As the bakery continues growing, it needs to establish formal human resource systems and practices to support employees and manage compliance, staffing, and risk.
This document outlines several approaches to industrial relations including psychological, sociological, human relations, Gandhian, human resource management, action theory, unitary, pluralist, Marxist/radical, Weber's social action, socio-ethical, and Oxford approaches. It provides more detail on the psychological, sociological, and human resource management approaches. The psychological approach examines the perceptions and attitudes of union leaders and executives. The sociological approach looks at sociological factors that shape industrial relations. The human resource management approach recognizes that workers want various freedoms and that treating them as objects can increase tensions in the workplace.
Knowledge workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Examples include architects, engineers, scientists, and any other white-collar workers, whose line of work requires one to "think for a living".
A wisdom worker is a (mostly) creative-minded individual, who works primarily in emotional creativeness. Their main skill is their ability to weave engaging narrative into their work.
This document discusses human resource planning at both the macro and micro levels in India. At the macro level, it focuses on demographic changes, legal issues, policies, technology, population planning and control, literacy and education, health and medical care, and housing. Effective human resource planning is important at the macro level to support India's economic planning and development. It also discusses the major reasons for emphasizing manpower planning, including the employment-unemployment situation, technological change, demographic changes, legislative controls, and the impact of pressure groups.
There are many methods used to motivate the teams. However, you may still hear some complaints. Are the right motivational tools being used? Let’s apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to lean deployment and see what can be done.
This document discusses motivation strategies used by Tesco, a large British retailer. It began as a small market stall in 1919 and has since expanded internationally with over 2,200 stores. Tesco uses both financial and non-financial rewards to motivate its over 468,000 employees globally. Strategies discussed include competitive pay and benefits, training opportunities, recognition programs, flexible work schedules, and soliciting employee feedback to ensure a supportive work environment.
Motivation is important for organizations as it leads to improved employee efficiency, helps achieve goals, and builds relationships. Research found that employees are more loyal and willing to work harder when praised and thanked for their work. Factors that can motivate employees include organizational structure and culture, the role of HR managers, diversity, benefits, recognition, rewards, and respect.
Human resource management - Introduction and EvaluationNishant Pahad
This document provides an overview of course structure and evaluation components for a human resource management course. It examines 70% external examination and 30% internals made up of quizzes, group assignments, class participation and attendance. Several key topics are defined, including the changing workplace environment with technology and globalization, and definitions of human resource management, personnel management, and strategic human resource management. Objectives of HRM are outlined at the personal, functional, organizational and societal levels.
This document discusses motivation and its importance for both individuals and businesses. Motivation is defined as the drive that pushes one to work hard and achieve goals even when facing difficulties. For individuals, motivation helps achieve personal goals and increases job satisfaction. For businesses, a motivated workforce improves teamwork, productivity, and ability to adapt to changes. The document then examines various theories of motivation, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory, and discusses how rewards, leadership, empowerment, and trust can boost employee motivation.
This document summarizes several motivation theories and programs, including:
MBO focuses on setting specific and measurable goals that cascade down the organization. The Job Characteristics Model links job design to motivation through five core dimensions. Recognition programs and employee involvement programs can increase motivation through feedback and participation. Variable pay programs tie pay to performance measures.
Trade Unions, Wages and Wage DifferentialsAman Arora
Trade unions in India organized strikes to protest government policies seen as anti-labor. Issues included pay raises, inflation, social security for informal workers, and proper implementation of labor laws. Different unions marched to Parliament to protest issues like price rises, FDI in retail, and non-implementation of social security and labor laws. Wage differentials exist between industries, regions, occupations, and sectors due to factors like skills, costs of living, and levels of development. While laws aim to reduce disparities, gaps remain such as between organized and informal sector workers.
The document discusses job satisfaction, including its definition, theories, measurement, determinants, and impact. It defines job satisfaction as positive feelings about one's job based on an evaluation of its characteristics. Content theories suggest job satisfaction occurs when needs are met, while process theories examine expectancies and values. The document also discusses how satisfied employees generally perform better and are less likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors.
Work Force Diversity - Nature & Impact on BusinessTulsi Gyawali
Workforce diversity refers to a variety of differences among employees, including gender, age, culture, abilities, religion, and orientation. It creates a mixture of individual characteristics, values, and experiences within an organization. A diversity initiative aims to develop an environment where all employees can work. While diversity provides benefits like increased creativity and productivity, it also poses challenges like communication issues and conflicting viewpoints that must be addressed through effective management strategies.
The document discusses emotions in the workplace and their impact on employees and organizations. It notes that emotions can result in problems like personal issues between employees, bullying, difficulties with new employee integration, gender harassment, and stress. Management must be aware of peer pressures and groups that form in order to minimize complications and maximize efficiency. Emotions are an important factor influencing work performance and social dynamics.
Organization Behaviour - Organization Change and DevelopmentSOMASUNDARAM T
Organization Change, Importance, Reasons, Factors influencing changes, Levels of Change, Resistance to Change, Lewin's Force Field theory, Organization Development, OD Interventions (Techniques).
Theories of Motivation in Organizational BehaviorMasum Hussain
Most employers today would like to have their employee’s motivated and ready to work, but do not understand what truly motivates a person. Companies could be more efficient if the employees had an invested interest in the future of the company. There are essential needs to be met for a person, specifically an employee, to succeed in the workplace. I will examine different theories of motivations, how they are relevant to the workplace, and how employers can implement the theories to ensure happy and motivated employees.
Human behaviour is as much a reflection of the differences between individuals as it is a reflection of their similarities. These individual differences are caused by a number of influences and characteristics. For example, personality traits focus on individual differences that make each person a unique human being. Our biological make-up concentrates on how we function as a result of our evolution and human inheritance. Our behaviour is largely influenced by the system of rewards and punishments that are present in our environment. Our cognitive approach focuses on how our thinking and memory affects our behaviour. The fact that we are here at this time with immediate influences, and the ability to express a free will, may present the greatest influence of all.
It broadly addresses the topic of employee relations and work motivation. It examined theories and models of motivation that strive to answer the question of what motivates and how is motivation harnessed. At the individual level of analysis, there is a plethora of different approaches, most of which have some conceptual viability, empirical support and practical use. A critical task for future thinking and research is to integrate findings from diverse sources in order to be able to produce a more coherent view of motivation, its content and mechanisms.
Any theories about motivation can be contradicted since these theories have many exceptions. It is important that these theories are considered general statements that have been confirmed through observational studies and are applicable only to the extent that they reflect and are influenced by individual behaviour. We might ask: “Why should we even pursue these topics if there are so many inconsistencies, exceptions, and variables that affect conclusions?”. If we are searching for scientific evidence that is universally applicable, we may be wasting our time, but if our goal is to better understand human behaviour and its impacts on personal performance, the insights gained from such theories and studies are invaluable.
K.C. Alderfer proposed the ERG theory in 1969 as a simplification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The ERG theory states that there are three basic needs that motivate employees: existence needs related to physical and material well-being, relatedness needs concerning social and external esteem needs, and growth needs involving personal development. Unlike Maslow's theory, the ERG theory recognizes that multiple needs can be pursued simultaneously and that frustration with higher-level needs can cause regression to lower-level needs.
This document provides an overview of Alderfer's ERG Theory of motivation. It begins with defining motivation and listing factors that influence it. It then discusses Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and introduces Alderfer's modification called the ERG Theory. The ERG Theory categorizes motivational needs into Existence needs, Relatedness needs, and Growth needs. It describes each need level and explains the relationships between levels, including satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression.
HR practitioners have learned to add value by becoming effective facilitators of senior team strategic planning sessions. Operationally, HR units can ensure their plans and programs support and drive strategic business: Capability Assessment, Capacity Management, SWOT-FS, Importance-Performance Analysis, Benchmarking and Best Practice studies and impact evaluation using Kirkpatrick Level 3 & 4 assessment are just some of the tools.
Some employees are motivated to go to work during a snowstorm because they have high expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Employees with high expectancy believe that with effort they can complete their tasks. Those with high instrumentality believe good performance will lead to rewards. Employees with high valence highly value the potential rewards. Other employees do not go to work because they lack one or more of these factors. They may not believe effort will lead to good performance, that performance connects to rewards, or that rewards are worthwhile. According to expectancy theory, motivation is highest when all three factors - expectancy, instrumentality, and valence - are high.
The document discusses components of compensation systems including internal equity, external equity, and individual equity. It covers job evaluation methods like job ranking, grading, factor comparison, and point method. Key aspects of designing compensation for internal equity are discussed like job analysis, job description, job specification, and job evaluation process. External equity is established through compensation surveys. Individual equity considers pay ranges, broadbanding, and setting individual pay based on seniority, merit and skills.
The reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by B.F. Skinner and states that an individual's behavior is determined by the consequences of that behavior. It is based on the law of effect, where behaviors followed by positive consequences will be repeated and behaviors followed by negative consequences will not be repeated. Managers can use positive reinforcement like praise, negative reinforcement like removing undesirable tasks, punishment, or extinction without reinforcement to control employee behavior. However, the theory has been criticized for ignoring inner feelings and motivations and solely focusing on external environmental factors influencing behavior.
This document discusses motivation and motivation theories. It begins by defining motivation as the process that activates and directs goal-oriented behavior. It then discusses how motivation relates to productivity and performance, noting that motivated employees work harder and are more productive. The document also outlines the importance of motivation for both individuals and organizations. It proceeds to compare and contrast three major content theories of motivation: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Alderfer's ERG theory, and Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory. Finally, it explains Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation, which posits that motivation depends on expectations of effort leading to performance and performance leading to outcomes or rewards.
This document summarizes several theories of motivation. It discusses Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, Alderfer's ERG theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Porter and Lawler's model, equity theory, attribution theory, and goal setting theory as ways to understand what motivates individual and workplace behavior. It also covers how motivation relates to job design and performance management in organizations.
There are many methods used to motivate the teams. However, you may still hear some complaints. Are the right motivational tools being used? Let’s apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to lean deployment and see what can be done.
This document discusses motivation strategies used by Tesco, a large British retailer. It began as a small market stall in 1919 and has since expanded internationally with over 2,200 stores. Tesco uses both financial and non-financial rewards to motivate its over 468,000 employees globally. Strategies discussed include competitive pay and benefits, training opportunities, recognition programs, flexible work schedules, and soliciting employee feedback to ensure a supportive work environment.
Motivation is important for organizations as it leads to improved employee efficiency, helps achieve goals, and builds relationships. Research found that employees are more loyal and willing to work harder when praised and thanked for their work. Factors that can motivate employees include organizational structure and culture, the role of HR managers, diversity, benefits, recognition, rewards, and respect.
Human resource management - Introduction and EvaluationNishant Pahad
This document provides an overview of course structure and evaluation components for a human resource management course. It examines 70% external examination and 30% internals made up of quizzes, group assignments, class participation and attendance. Several key topics are defined, including the changing workplace environment with technology and globalization, and definitions of human resource management, personnel management, and strategic human resource management. Objectives of HRM are outlined at the personal, functional, organizational and societal levels.
This document discusses motivation and its importance for both individuals and businesses. Motivation is defined as the drive that pushes one to work hard and achieve goals even when facing difficulties. For individuals, motivation helps achieve personal goals and increases job satisfaction. For businesses, a motivated workforce improves teamwork, productivity, and ability to adapt to changes. The document then examines various theories of motivation, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory, and discusses how rewards, leadership, empowerment, and trust can boost employee motivation.
This document summarizes several motivation theories and programs, including:
MBO focuses on setting specific and measurable goals that cascade down the organization. The Job Characteristics Model links job design to motivation through five core dimensions. Recognition programs and employee involvement programs can increase motivation through feedback and participation. Variable pay programs tie pay to performance measures.
Trade Unions, Wages and Wage DifferentialsAman Arora
Trade unions in India organized strikes to protest government policies seen as anti-labor. Issues included pay raises, inflation, social security for informal workers, and proper implementation of labor laws. Different unions marched to Parliament to protest issues like price rises, FDI in retail, and non-implementation of social security and labor laws. Wage differentials exist between industries, regions, occupations, and sectors due to factors like skills, costs of living, and levels of development. While laws aim to reduce disparities, gaps remain such as between organized and informal sector workers.
The document discusses job satisfaction, including its definition, theories, measurement, determinants, and impact. It defines job satisfaction as positive feelings about one's job based on an evaluation of its characteristics. Content theories suggest job satisfaction occurs when needs are met, while process theories examine expectancies and values. The document also discusses how satisfied employees generally perform better and are less likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors.
Work Force Diversity - Nature & Impact on BusinessTulsi Gyawali
Workforce diversity refers to a variety of differences among employees, including gender, age, culture, abilities, religion, and orientation. It creates a mixture of individual characteristics, values, and experiences within an organization. A diversity initiative aims to develop an environment where all employees can work. While diversity provides benefits like increased creativity and productivity, it also poses challenges like communication issues and conflicting viewpoints that must be addressed through effective management strategies.
The document discusses emotions in the workplace and their impact on employees and organizations. It notes that emotions can result in problems like personal issues between employees, bullying, difficulties with new employee integration, gender harassment, and stress. Management must be aware of peer pressures and groups that form in order to minimize complications and maximize efficiency. Emotions are an important factor influencing work performance and social dynamics.
Organization Behaviour - Organization Change and DevelopmentSOMASUNDARAM T
Organization Change, Importance, Reasons, Factors influencing changes, Levels of Change, Resistance to Change, Lewin's Force Field theory, Organization Development, OD Interventions (Techniques).
Theories of Motivation in Organizational BehaviorMasum Hussain
Most employers today would like to have their employee’s motivated and ready to work, but do not understand what truly motivates a person. Companies could be more efficient if the employees had an invested interest in the future of the company. There are essential needs to be met for a person, specifically an employee, to succeed in the workplace. I will examine different theories of motivations, how they are relevant to the workplace, and how employers can implement the theories to ensure happy and motivated employees.
Human behaviour is as much a reflection of the differences between individuals as it is a reflection of their similarities. These individual differences are caused by a number of influences and characteristics. For example, personality traits focus on individual differences that make each person a unique human being. Our biological make-up concentrates on how we function as a result of our evolution and human inheritance. Our behaviour is largely influenced by the system of rewards and punishments that are present in our environment. Our cognitive approach focuses on how our thinking and memory affects our behaviour. The fact that we are here at this time with immediate influences, and the ability to express a free will, may present the greatest influence of all.
It broadly addresses the topic of employee relations and work motivation. It examined theories and models of motivation that strive to answer the question of what motivates and how is motivation harnessed. At the individual level of analysis, there is a plethora of different approaches, most of which have some conceptual viability, empirical support and practical use. A critical task for future thinking and research is to integrate findings from diverse sources in order to be able to produce a more coherent view of motivation, its content and mechanisms.
Any theories about motivation can be contradicted since these theories have many exceptions. It is important that these theories are considered general statements that have been confirmed through observational studies and are applicable only to the extent that they reflect and are influenced by individual behaviour. We might ask: “Why should we even pursue these topics if there are so many inconsistencies, exceptions, and variables that affect conclusions?”. If we are searching for scientific evidence that is universally applicable, we may be wasting our time, but if our goal is to better understand human behaviour and its impacts on personal performance, the insights gained from such theories and studies are invaluable.
K.C. Alderfer proposed the ERG theory in 1969 as a simplification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The ERG theory states that there are three basic needs that motivate employees: existence needs related to physical and material well-being, relatedness needs concerning social and external esteem needs, and growth needs involving personal development. Unlike Maslow's theory, the ERG theory recognizes that multiple needs can be pursued simultaneously and that frustration with higher-level needs can cause regression to lower-level needs.
This document provides an overview of Alderfer's ERG Theory of motivation. It begins with defining motivation and listing factors that influence it. It then discusses Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and introduces Alderfer's modification called the ERG Theory. The ERG Theory categorizes motivational needs into Existence needs, Relatedness needs, and Growth needs. It describes each need level and explains the relationships between levels, including satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression.
HR practitioners have learned to add value by becoming effective facilitators of senior team strategic planning sessions. Operationally, HR units can ensure their plans and programs support and drive strategic business: Capability Assessment, Capacity Management, SWOT-FS, Importance-Performance Analysis, Benchmarking and Best Practice studies and impact evaluation using Kirkpatrick Level 3 & 4 assessment are just some of the tools.
Some employees are motivated to go to work during a snowstorm because they have high expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Employees with high expectancy believe that with effort they can complete their tasks. Those with high instrumentality believe good performance will lead to rewards. Employees with high valence highly value the potential rewards. Other employees do not go to work because they lack one or more of these factors. They may not believe effort will lead to good performance, that performance connects to rewards, or that rewards are worthwhile. According to expectancy theory, motivation is highest when all three factors - expectancy, instrumentality, and valence - are high.
The document discusses components of compensation systems including internal equity, external equity, and individual equity. It covers job evaluation methods like job ranking, grading, factor comparison, and point method. Key aspects of designing compensation for internal equity are discussed like job analysis, job description, job specification, and job evaluation process. External equity is established through compensation surveys. Individual equity considers pay ranges, broadbanding, and setting individual pay based on seniority, merit and skills.
The reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by B.F. Skinner and states that an individual's behavior is determined by the consequences of that behavior. It is based on the law of effect, where behaviors followed by positive consequences will be repeated and behaviors followed by negative consequences will not be repeated. Managers can use positive reinforcement like praise, negative reinforcement like removing undesirable tasks, punishment, or extinction without reinforcement to control employee behavior. However, the theory has been criticized for ignoring inner feelings and motivations and solely focusing on external environmental factors influencing behavior.
This document discusses motivation and motivation theories. It begins by defining motivation as the process that activates and directs goal-oriented behavior. It then discusses how motivation relates to productivity and performance, noting that motivated employees work harder and are more productive. The document also outlines the importance of motivation for both individuals and organizations. It proceeds to compare and contrast three major content theories of motivation: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Alderfer's ERG theory, and Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory. Finally, it explains Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation, which posits that motivation depends on expectations of effort leading to performance and performance leading to outcomes or rewards.
This document summarizes several theories of motivation. It discusses Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, Alderfer's ERG theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Porter and Lawler's model, equity theory, attribution theory, and goal setting theory as ways to understand what motivates individual and workplace behavior. It also covers how motivation relates to job design and performance management in organizations.
The Word doc is baased on motivation, its theories and relevant topics. The PPT of this data is also uploaded by me so pls do have a look. I hope it helps.
This document provides an overview of organizational management concepts including:
1. It defines an organization and management, outlining their key purposes and functions.
2. It describes the three levels of management in organizational hierarchies - top, middle, and low level management - and their distinct roles and responsibilities.
3. It introduces several management theories, most notably scientific management theory which aims to increase productivity through efficiency, and behavioral management theory which emphasizes understanding human behavior and motivation in the workplace.
1) The document discusses Frederick Taylor's scientific management theory, which aimed to improve industrial efficiency through applying scientific analysis to management problems.
2) Taylor's key ideas included analyzing each job to determine the "one best way" to perform it, scientifically selecting and training workers, and cooperating to ensure work is done according to scientific principles.
3) Scientific management addressed routine factory work and used techniques like time and motion studies to standardize work methods. It sought to increase productivity through specialization, standardization, and paying workers based on their individual output.
The hawthorne experiments-roethlisberger1941jcpham
The Hawthorne experiments conducted in the 1920s and 1930s studied the effects of various factors on the productivity of workers at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant near Chicago. The experiments found that changes to lighting levels did not significantly impact productivity, but that social and psychological factors played a key role. One study of female relay assemblers found that productivity increased with the introduction of rest breaks, shorter hours, incentives and attention from researchers. The workers felt more satisfied and productive working in small groups where they could socialize. The experiments highlighted the importance of factors like workplace relationships, job satisfaction and group dynamics in motivating workers.
Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals.
This document discusses motivation in the workplace. It defines motivation as "the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need." It notes that job performance is a function of both ability and motivation. It lists several factors that can motivate employees, such as growth opportunities, appreciation, ideal working conditions, and high compensation. It also discusses how motivation can benefit organizations through increased employee retention, loyalty, productivity and a stress-free work environment. Finally, it provides some suggestions for motivating employees, such as promotional strategies, international training visits, and job security.
This document provides an overview of motivation from various perspectives. It begins with an introduction and outline of the topics to be covered, including theories of motivation, biological motivation, social motivation, motives to know and be effective, and more. Key points include definitions of motivation, motive, and types of motivation like biological, social, intrinsic vs extrinsic, and achievement motivation. Theories of motivation like drive theory, incentive theory, and optimal arousal theory are explained. Measurement of motivation through direct, indirect, and experimental methods is also summarized.
Motivational concepts and its application - Organizational BehaviourRaja Manzar
The document discusses various motivational theories and concepts in organizational behavior. It covers early theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory. Contemporary theories discussed include self-determination theory, goal setting theory, reinforcement theory, and equity theory. The document also explores concepts like job characteristics, employee involvement, and rewarding employees. It aims to acquaint readers with key motivational concepts and their application in organizations.
This document provides information on basic counselling skills including stages of counselling, attending and listening skills, problem identification skills, and skills for implementing interventions. It discusses models of counselling like Waehler & Lennox's five stages and Roger's seven stages. Key attending skills like eye contact and body posture are explained. Methods for identifying problems students may face like personal, academic, and social issues are outlined. Finally, the document discusses direct and indirect intervention strategies as well as teacher-centered, student-centered, and family-centered approaches.
George Elton Mayo was an Australian psychologist who conducted the famous Hawthorne Studies in the 1930s. The studies showed that factors like communication, teamwork, involvement in decision making, and acknowledging social needs improved worker motivation more than money. Mayo found that motivation depended on feeling important and having some freedom and choice. His research demonstrated the importance of understanding group dynamics in organizations to motivate different unofficial and official groups.
Elton mayo’s hawthorne experiment and it’s contributions toRajesh Pandey
Elton Mayo conducted the Hawthorne Experiments from 1924-1927 to study the impact of workplace factors like illumination on employee productivity. The experiments found that productivity increased even when illumination decreased, showing other social and psychological factors were more important. The experiments consisted of four parts: an illumination study, a relay assembly test, employee interviews, and a bank wiring test. Overall, the experiments demonstrated that factors like feeling valued, participation, and good social relations significantly increased employee motivation and productivity more than logical or economic factors alone.
George Elton Mayo (1880-1949) was an Australian psychologist and professor known for founding the Human Relations movement. He conducted research including the famous Hawthorne Studies in the 1930s, which showed that social and informal groups significantly influence individual worker behavior. Mayo concluded that worker performance depends on both social factors and job content. He believed managers should recognize employees' need to belong to groups and cater to their "social needs" to gain their cooperation. While not conducting the Hawthorne Studies himself, Mayo was skilled at publicizing the research and applying sociological theories to support its findings regarding the importance of human relationships in workplaces.
A presentation on the Father of Scientific Management, Frederick Winslow Taylor : His 4 principles, theory, plus points, the link with fordism, drawbacks and criticisms, etc, etc...
Also designed the slide templates myself...
This document provides an overview of organization theory from a textbook. It defines organization theory as the study of how organizations are structured and designed. Organization theory takes a macro view of organizations, focusing on structure and effectiveness, while organizational behavior takes a micro view of individual and group behavior. The document discusses key concepts in organization theory including structure, systems perspective, life cycles, and open vs. closed systems. It also outlines the typical stages in an organization's life cycle from entrepreneurial to decline.
David McClelland introduced the theory of achievement, affiliation, and power needs in the 1960s, building on Maslow's hierarchy of needs. According to McClelland, individuals possess three learned needs - achievement, affiliation, and power - which motivate to varying degrees. The document then describes the characteristics of individuals with high needs for each category and how managers can best motivate them, such as giving achievers challenging tasks with feedback instead of just money, allowing those with affiliation needs to work in teams, and giving power-oriented individuals leadership opportunities. In conclusion, McClelland's theory can help managers identify how to motivate individuals based on their dominant needs.
Bandura's social learning theory posits that people learn through observing others within a social context. The theory explains that learning can occur through observation of others' behaviors and the outcomes of those behaviors without direct reinforcement. Social learning theory emphasizes that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation.
Implication of motivational concepts in workplace: A study on selected privat...Masum Hussain
Most employers today would like to have their employee’s motivated and ready to work, but do not understand what truly motivates a person. Companies could be more efficient if the employees had an invested interest in the future of the company. There are essential needs to be met for a person, specifically an employee, to succeed in the workplace. We will examine different theories of motivations, how they are relevant to the workplace, and how employers can implement the theories to ensure happy and motivated employees.
Human behaviour is as much a reflection of the differences between individuals as it is a reflection of their similarities. These individual differences are caused by a number of influences and characteristics. For example, personality traits focus on individual differences that make each person a unique human being. Our biological make-up concentrates on how we function as a result of our evolution and human inheritance. Our behaviour is largely influenced by the system of rewards and punishments that are present in our environment. Our cognitive approach focuses on how our thinking and memory affects our behaviour. The fact that we are here at this time with immediate influences, and the ability to express a free will, may present the greatest influence of all.
It broadly addresses the topic of employee relations and work motivation. It examined theories and models of motivation that strive to answer the question of what motivates and how is motivation harnessed. At the individual level of analysis, there is a plethora of different approaches, most of which have some conceptual viability, empirical support and practical use. A critical task for future thinking and research is to integrate findings from diverse sources in order to be able to produce a more coherent view of motivation, its content and mechanisms.
Final Paper (EFFECT OF MOTIVATION ON PERFORMANCE & JOB SATISFACTION )Kapil Dev Datta
This document discusses the effect of motivation on employee performance and job satisfaction. It begins with an abstract that outlines how motivation can improve performance when employers understand its impacts. The document then reviews several motivation theories and discusses how motivation is key to organizational success. It establishes the objectives of determining employee motivation levels, job satisfaction levels, and the effect of motivation on satisfaction. The document reviews literature on traditional motivation approaches and various motivation definitions and theories.
The document discusses several theories of motivation, including:
1. Goal setting theory which proposes that goals influence employee effort, attention, persistence and strategies to accomplish tasks.
2. Expectancy theory which suggests that motivation depends on an employee's belief that effort will lead to good performance and that performance will be rewarded.
3. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory which proposes that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving to higher-level needs of achievement and self-actualization.
The document discusses two theories of motivation:
1. Expectancy theory proposes that employees will perform based on their self-belief that effort will lead to good performance and desired rewards. It involves three key components - expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
2. Two-factor theory suggests that certain factors cause job satisfaction while other factors cause dissatisfaction. It distinguishes between motivators like achievement and recognition, and hygiene factors like salary and working conditions. Addressing hygiene factors can prevent dissatisfaction but alone does not motivate.
A Study Of Motivation How To Get Your Employees MovingSabrina Green
This document provides an overview and summary of a thesis on employee motivation. It begins with an introduction to the topic and definitions of motivation. Major theories of motivation are then discussed, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and the four motivations. Financial and non-financial motivators are examined, along with implications for managers. The document concludes by stating the research aims to help managers understand how to motivate employees to increase productivity.
The document discusses the "polynomial theory" of motivation, which proposes that an individual's motivation is determined by multiple factors that each carry different weights and change over time based on life circumstances. It uses the example of an employee, Anne, whose primary motivators are her boss and salary currently but may change to factors like work-life balance if she has a family. The document argues that organizations cannot directly motivate employees but should understand individual motivational factors and create an environment where motivation can flourish. It stresses the importance for HR and managers to continuously understand employees' motivations through communication to take appropriate actions.
Motivation at the Workplace: The Inside working of the Fantasia FactoryMonaZahran
Research paper tackling the issue of motivation of low skilled employees at the Fantasia factory, a food processing company. The research paper focuses on the application of contemporary and traditional motivation theories mainly Herzberg’s 2 factor theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and Equity theory and highlights the difference between practice and theory.
This document is a student essay discussing theories of human resource management (HRM). It covers 9 major theories: organizational behavior theory, motivation theory, AMO (ability, motivation, opportunity) theory, human capital theory, resource-based theory, institutional theory, transaction costs theory, agency theory, and contingency theory. For each theory, the document provides a brief explanation of the key concepts and how it relates to HRM practices. The document includes an introduction, conceptual framework section covering the 9 theories in detail, and a conclusion with recommendations.
This document is a student essay discussing theories of human resource management (HRM). It covers 9 major theories: organizational behavior theory, motivation theory, AMO (ability, motivation, opportunity) theory, human capital theory, resource-based theory, institutional theory, transaction costs theory, agency theory, and contingency theory. For each theory, the document provides a brief explanation of the key concepts and how it relates to HRM practices. The document is structured with an introduction, conceptual framework section covering the 9 theories in detail, and a conclusion with recommendations.
Motivation and productivity in the workplaceJorge Gawad
This document discusses motivation and productivity in the workplace. It provides an overview of various motivation theories and research studies. Key points include:
- Motivation comes from both intrinsic factors like achievement and extrinsic factors like rewards.
- Herzberg's two-factor theory found motivators like achievement and responsibility increase job satisfaction while hygiene factors like pay prevent dissatisfaction.
- Hackman and Oldham's job characteristics theory identified five job dimensions that influence motivation: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
This document provides an introduction to a study on employee motivation. It includes definitions of motivation, the importance of motivation, what motivates employees, frameworks and types of motivation. Key points discussed include the need to align employee and organizational goals, understanding what motivates each individual employee, and that supporting motivation is an ongoing process not a single task. Intrinsic motivators like empowerment, growth and purpose are highlighted as particularly effective. The document lays out the background and context for a research study on employee motivation.
This document provides an introduction to employee motivation. It begins with definitions of motivation and discusses key aspects of motivating employees, including aligning organizational and employee goals. The importance of motivation is then outlined, noting that it puts resources to work, improves efficiency, leads to achieving goals, builds relationships, and provides workforce stability. Understanding what motivates individual employees is emphasized as critical to supporting their motivation.
This document discusses employee motivation and improving employee performance through motivation. It provides an overview of motivation in the workplace, noting that motivated employees are more productive while unmotivated employees perform poorly. It also briefly summarizes some theories of motivation from researchers like Herzberg, Maslow, and Hackman and Oldham. The document aims to emphasize the importance of motivation for employee performance and will present motivation theories and techniques.
This document discusses employee motivation and improving employee performance through motivation. It provides an overview of motivation in the workplace, noting that motivated employees are more productive and creative. It also discusses different motivation theories and techniques that employers can use to motivate different types of employees, as what motivates individuals varies. The document examines the concept of motivation in more detail and reviews some relevant literature on motivation theories.
The document provides a report on employee motivation within an organization. It discusses several key points:
1) The introduction defines motivation and its importance for both employees and employers in understanding what drives performance. It also outlines some of the early research on motivation through the Hawthorne Studies.
2) The research aims and objectives are to understand the relationship between motivation and performance and analyze common motivation theories and approaches used in organizations.
3) Maslow's hierarchy of needs is discussed as one of the motivation theories, outlining the five levels of needs from physiological to self-actualization.
4) Other motivation theories mentioned include Vroom's expectancy theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and McG
Compensation Practices On Employee Motivation As Impact On Arya Systemsjournal ijrtem
ABSTRACT : In this changing scenario compensating the employees according to the performance and which motivates them is the priority and right of employees. There is a strong link between compensation practices and employee motivation. The paper is an effort to determine the relationship between compensation practices and employee motivation in Arya Systems. The variables which have impact on employee motivation are wages & salary, working hours and promotion system. The objective of this research paper is to analyze compensation practices practices required to retain employees and maintain them. The main aim of this Research paper is to study compensation practices and related aspects and to know the impact of compensation practices on employee motivation in Arya systems. The research paper makes use of structured questionnaire administered to the selected respondents for data collection has been done. The results revealed that there is positive relationship between compensation practices and employee motivation. The rank analysis showed that the factor which contributes more to the employee motivation is job security of employees whereas promotion system results in more satisfaction.
This document summarizes a university lecture on motivation theories. It defines motivation and discusses both content and process theories of motivation. It outlines several key content theories, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and McClelland's three needs theory. Process theories covered include equity theory and expectancy theory. The document provides examples and explanations of each theory. It also discusses challenges in motivating diverse groups and offers practical suggestions for motivating employees.
This document discusses employee motivation. It begins by defining motivation as the process of inspiring people to strive willingly towards organizational goals. Several theories of motivation are described, including:
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which proposes that people are motivated to fulfill basic physiological needs first before progressing to higher-level needs.
- Expectancy theory, which suggests employees will be motivated if they believe their efforts will lead to good performance and rewards.
The document emphasizes that motivation is important for organizational success as it leads to higher performance, lower turnover, and better achievement of goals. Effective motivation satisfies employee needs and desires to encourage willingness to work.
This document provides an overview of managing employee motivation and performance. It discusses various theories and perspectives on motivation, including: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal-setting theory. It also covers popular motivational strategies like empowerment and participation. Finally, it examines the effects of organizational rewards on attitudes, behaviors, and motivation. The overall purpose is to characterize the nature of motivation and identify approaches for understanding and influencing employee motivation.
Similar to Uses of Theories of Motivation in Organizational Behavior (20)
Human Resource Information System: A study on Telecommunication Industry of B...Masum Hussain
In today’s organizations Human Resource is considered as one of the key resources of business organizations. The transaction processing layer of information system (IS) in human resource function deals with routine activities like attendance recording and payroll calculations. The operational level activities also include maintaining the employee records which is used as a basis for strategic layers. With the growing importance of human resource management and increasing size of the organizations, maintenance of employee related data and generating appropriate reports are the crucial aspects of any organization. The Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is a collection of men, tools, procedures and software to perform various business tasks at various levels in the organization. Many organizations have separate MIS departments which are involved in maintaining records, performing transactions, report generations and consolidation of the important information which will be supplied to the various levels of the management. MIS has three basic levels: operational, middle management and top management where the information is passed from bottom to top. This report is an attempt to design an information system for Bangladesh telecommunication industry, which involves attendance capturing & recording system which will be used in monitoring the staff, control over the irregularities and reporting to the top management and show how it is useful in decision making. This paper is an attempt to highlights the role of information systems in Human Resource Management and show how it helps in taking management decisions related to management function especially for the top management.
Today, the world has undergone massive changes: the Internet bubble has come and gone, and emerging countries such as China and India have become prominent global users and providers of ICT equipment and services. Struggling to emerge from the financial crisis, developed economies are striving to return to higher levels of growth and competitiveness while fighting stubbornly high unemployment rates, especially among their youth. Both emerging and developed economies are focusing on innovation, competing globally for talent, resources, and market shares. Information flows and networks have spread across borders in ways that could not be imagined before the onset of the Internet, the global adoption of mobile telephony and social networks, and the rapid growth of broadband. Business models have been redefined, the workplace has been redesigned and entire functions of society (education, health, security, privacy) are being rethought. Apart from these HRIS has various advantages and the most crucial is the employee retention as employees as themselves crucial for the organizations; it is also ratified by all that an HRIS blunt the edge of staff attrition by providing HR officers with the information they need.
Managing team and organizational conflictMasum Hussain
This document discusses managing team and organizational conflict. It begins by defining team conflict and discussing its nature. It then provides a six-step procedure for dealing with conflict in teams that involves listening, understanding other perspectives, showing concern for relationships, finding common ground, generating new solutions, and reaching agreements. It also discusses types of team conflicts, sources of conflict, and effective ways to deal with team conflict. For organizational conflict, it covers types, causes, positive and negative outcomes, and effects on performance. Finally, it discusses conflict resolution, resolution of organizational conflict, and benefits of proper conflict management.
Managing team and organizational conflictMasum Hussain
This document provides an overview of organizational conflict and ways to manage it. It begins with an introduction discussing different views of conflict - the traditional view that sees it as negative, and more modern views that see proper management as key. It then discusses sources and causes of conflict within organizations, including structural issues, role conflicts, and personal disputes. The document outlines costs of conflict for both organizations and employees, including lost time and productivity. It proposes several conflict resolution strategies for managers, such as conflict management styles, structural changes, and open communication. The summary aims to provide a concise yet comprehensive overview of the main topics and arguments covered in the document.
Organizational change in transition periodMasum Hussain
As the Greek philosopher Heraclitus (525 – 475BC) pointed out: change alone is unchanging. Nowhere is this truer than in corporate North America. Globalization; quantum leaps in technology; mergers and acquisitions; shifting markets and client demands; and, significant changes in the workforce make changing to survive a strategic imperative. All organizations need to have a greater reach, be in more places, be aware of regional and cultural differences, and integrate coherent strategies for different markets and communities. (Kanter, 1999) Failure to change, to change rapidly enough, or to make the right changes, has turned corporate giants into subsidiaries, seemingly overnight. With change having been a constant for over 2500 years, why are businesses still so bad at managing it? Why do so many change initiatives wither and die leaving only confusion and mangled processes in their wake? This paper explores some of the reasons corporate change programs fail and offers some ideas as to how organizations institutionalize change to become a constantly evolving success story.
Influence of Work-life balance in employee’s performanceMasum Hussain
This document discusses work-life balance and its influence on employee performance. It defines work-life balance as achieving satisfaction in both work and personal life spheres. A history of work-life balance issues is provided dating back to labor movements in the late 1800s fighting for an 8-hour workday. Reasons for imbalance like long hours and responsibilities at work and home are explained. Risks of poor work-life balance include health issues, conflicts, and lower performance. Solutions proposed are flexible schedules, time-off, and family-friendly policies. Benefits discussed are improved productivity, retention, health and morale. Recommendations target both employers to provide support and employees to maintain boundaries and self-care.
Influence of Work-life balance in employee’s performanceMasum Hussain
Work–life balance is a concept including proper prioritizing between "work" (career and ambition) and "lifestyle" (health, pleasure, leisure, family and spiritual development/meditation. This is related to the idea of lifestyles choice. The work–leisure dichotomy was invented in the mid-1801s. Paul Krassner remarked that anthropologists use a definition of happiness that is to have as little separation as possible "between your work and your play". The expression "work–life balance" was first used in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s to describe the balance between an individual's work and personal life. In the United States this phrase was first used in 1986 The business case for work-life balance practices, as espoused by many organizations, rests on attracting better applicants and reducing work-life conflict among existing employees in order to enhance organizational performance. This review of the literature provides some evidence for the claim regarding recruitment, but there is insufficient evidence to support the notion that work-life practices enhance performance by means of reduced work-life conflict. We suggest that the business case may therefore need to be modified to reflect the number of additional routes by which work-life balance practices can influence organizational performance, including enhanced social exchange processes, increased cost savings, improved productivity, and reduced turnover. The impact of these processes may, however, be moderated by a number of factors, including national context, job level, and managerial support.
Influences of Poter’s five forces model in an industryMasum Hussain
Porter’s Five Forces model is a powerful management tool for analyzing the current industry profitability and attractiveness by using the outside-in perspective. Within the last decades, the model has attracted some criticism because of the developing Internet economy. Due to an increasing significance of Digitalization, Globalization and Deregulation, the industry structure of the ‘Old Economy’ changed fundamentally. The ‘New Economy’ is not comparable with the ‘Old Economy’, which is the basis of the Five Forces model. Moreover the last decades have shown that Information Technology became more and more important. Nowadays Technology is one of the most important drivers for change and not only important for the implementation of change. Today new technology is one of the most important drivers for change. Furthermore Porter also couldn’t take the growing significance of ‘Government Deregulation’ into account. In 1979 the government was able to regulate the market by defining and enforcing “property rights and the rules of competition”. In the past 20 years, governmental influence on industries decreased steadily. Therefore the most of the concerned industries (airlines, communication, or banking industry) were able and constrained to search for alternatives and to structure their business in a new way.
The purpose of business is to make money. However, the profit motive is sometimes viewed as less than virtuous because it emphasizes self-interest. Nevertheless, self-interest is not the same as selfishness, which emphasizes one's own interests at others' expense. Self interest is simply a concern for financial reward and is arguably necessary if society is to be maximally productive and efficiently allocate its resources. Business is an inseparable and embedded part of the society. In addition to its economic role in society, business also has several other roles and responsibilities towards society viz. responsible conduct of business activities while pursuing economic gains; the social and environmental responsibilities of the business towards its stakeholders; and business’s contributions that would benefit the society at large. Companies around the globe are recognizing the importance of engaging in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) that is crucial to their survival and growth. It is evident that when an organization integrates appropriate CSR practices in its strategy that embed the societal and environmental concerns, these practices undoubtedly bring tangible benefits to the business along with a sustainable competitive advantage.
The rate at which employees leave a company and are replaced by new Employees. One of the critically challenging issues in business world. Estimated probability that employees will stay or leave the organization. May triggered by - quits, attrition, exits, mobility, migration, succession. Obstacles toward achieving organizational objectives. Delay in innovation process & weak service consistency. Increasing pressure for the current employees in organization & Reflects poor organizational image. Overall bad impact on organizational performance & effectiveness.
Industrial relations are the relationship between management and employees or among employees and their organization. Industrial relation deal with either the relationships between the state and the employers and the workers organization or the relation between the occupational organizations themselves. The ILO uses the expression to denote such matters as freedom of association and the protection of the right to organize, the application of the principles of the right to organize, and the right of collective bargaining, collective agreements, conciliation and arbitration and machinery for cooperation between the authorities and the occupational organizations at various levels of the economy.
The term Industrial Relations refers to relationship between Management and Labor or among Employees and their organizations that characterize or grow out of employment. Theoretically speaking, there are two parties in the employment relationship labor and management. Both parties need to work in a spirit of cooperation, adjustment and accommodation. In their own mutual interest certain rules for co-existence are formed and adhered to. Over the years, the State has also come to play a major role in Industrial Relations one, as and initiator of policies and the other, as an employer by setting up an extremely large public sector.
Importance of information system in raising public awareness about domestic v...Masum Hussain
Across the globe, information system tools have helped fuel social movements. Information system has been shown to strengthen social actors’ ability to challenge and change power relations in society, providing platforms for debate, reflection, influencing and mobilizing people. To better understand the potential of information system to engage especially young people in efforts to prevent domestic violence the Partners for Prevention regional project, Engaging Young Men Through Information system for the Prevention of Domestic violence’ which supported information system awareness campaigns designed to raise awareness and motivate young people to take action to prevent domestic violence has revealed practical lessons from three awareness campaigns on the effective use of information system tools for violence protection.
Use of technologies in the banking sector of BangladeshMasum Hussain
Among the financial service industry, the banking sector was one of the first to embrace rapid globalization and benefits significantly from technology development. The technological revolution in banking started in the 1950s, with the installation of the first automated bookkeeping machines at banks. This was well before the other industries became tech savvy. The first Automated Teller Machine (ATM) is reported to have been introduced in the USA in 1968 with only a cash dispenser. Automation in banking have become widespread over the past few decades as banks quickly realized that much of their labor intensive information-handling processes could be automated the use of computers. Against this background the paper examines the technology driven banking services reference to the present and future of Technology driven banking in Bangladesh.
Use of technologies in the banking sector of BangladeshMasum Hussain
Among the financial service industry, the banking sector was one of the first to embrace rapid globalization and benefits significantly from technology development. The technological revolution in banking started in the 1950s, with the installation of the first automated bookkeeping machines at banks. This was well before the other industries became tech savvy. The first Automated Teller Machine (ATM) is reported to have been introduced in the USA in 1968 with only a cash dispenser. Automation in banking have become widespread over the past few decades as banks quickly realized that much of their labor intensive information-handling processes could be automated the use of computers. Against this background the paper examines the Technology driven banking services reference to the present and future of Technology driven banking in Bangladesh.
Importance of information system in raising public awareness about domestic v...Masum Hussain
Across the globe, information system tools have helped fuel social movements. Information system has been shown to strengthen social actors’ ability to challenge and change power
relations in society, providing platforms for debate, reflection, influencing and mobilizing people. To better understand the potential of information system to engage especially young
people in efforts to prevent domestic violence the Partners for Prevention regional project, Engaging Young Men Through Information system for the Prevention of Domestic violence’
which supported information system awareness campaigns designed to raise awareness and motivate young people to take action to prevent domestic violence has revealed practical
lessons from three awareness campaigns on the effective use of information system tools for violence protection.
Role of compensation practices on employees’ motivation: A study on Prime Ban...Masum Hussain
Workforce today is more expressive about their needs. Employees desire the best of everything competitive salaries, comfortable & inspirational lifestyles, job security, career enhancement options, work-life balance, and so on. Competition for talent is ever increasing and organizations need to have well-defined philosophies and strategies to help them develop innovative ways of tapping intrinsic motivation of employees by engaging their hearts and minds. The focus should be given on how managers are able to implement these types of motivation into their specific work place. This will show how motivation is important to all industries, and how it can change and impact the amount sales a bank performs. Motivated employees will in turn create a successful bank.
Development of internet technology in BangladeshMasum Hussain
Bangladesh is a developing country of South Asia with a huge population of 160 million living within a small geographical boundary of 1,47,570 square kilometers. Bangladesh is popularly known as one of the most densely populated countries of the world where the density rate is 1015 per sq. km. So it's a great challenge for the Bangladesh government to feed up the increasing population as the cultivable lands are decreasing day by day. Moreover providing cloths, accommodation facilities, giving education and health care facilities to the people which are the primary duties of the government are also becoming difficult for the increasing population. Apart from these being a developing country the government can't also affords to set up new industries and create employment opportunities for the people. So it's very difficult for the country to compete with the rising economic powers in the global arena with the burden of this population. But it's a matter of concern that there is no chance of decreasing these problems in upcoming days rather these are turning into a devastating shape. Proper and planned utilization of internet technology can be a nice solution in this regard. Somebody may be surprised to hear this. They may argue that how it's possible to change the overall scenario of the country through using internet technology. Rather they may show the logic against this theory and say that use of technology will accelerate unemployment problems of the country, high cost is involved to use this and expert knowledge is required to avail this facility of modern science. But the reality doesn't match with their imagination. Here I'll try my level best to prove the fact that use of internet technology can be a great medium for the sustainable development of the country through logical explanation from different points of view.
The story behind the first concerted effort to make financing accessible to the world’s poorest is the stuff of folklore. Befitting the goal of poverty alleviation, the setting for this early experiment was a time of great tragedy in Bangladesh, one of the poorest countries in the world. A small country in the Indian subcontinent with a population of 130 million, a gross national product (GNP) per capita of about $300 and a literacy rate of only 38 percent for those over 15 years of age, 1 Bangladesh experienced drought and famine in 1974 that killed 1.5 million people (Macfarlane 2002). Having recently completed studies as a Fulbright scholar in the United States, Professor Mohammad Yunus was lecturing on economic theory at Chittagong University and growing increasingly frustrated at his inability to ease his neighbours’ suffering.
Understanding barriers to youth entrepreneurship as a career choice for youthMasum Hussain
People say this is the age of business as it is backed by sophisticated technologies, blessed by loads of relevant information. & in this business age the young people are leading from the front as entrepreneurs. Wherever you go from Silicon Valley to Middle East young talents are making significant marks in creating new businesses even sometime more efficiently than the older experienced people. Think of Mark Zukerbourgh, or Michael Yung, they are shaking the world with their innovational business ventures, & people like them are at speed in growing. Different studies provide proof that the young people are the greatest contributors in the arena of business.
Sylhet is a division & a major city of North Eastern area of Bangladesh. This city is rapidly growing than the other cities of this country because of her peoples increasing purchasing power as the area is booming with business projects, a lots of liquid money is in the hands of the peoples as a result of remittance provided by the people living abroad. As we know many people of this area lives in different wealthy country of the world mainly in the United Kingdom (as we know in London there is a town named ‘ Bangla Town’ mainly inhabited by the Sylheties) & middle east many families have enough money in hand almost all the time. Problem with the Sylheti’s is that though they have money they are not interested in investing them in the country for business purpose as most of them are risk averse , & do not know the ABC of business.
Walton Hi-Tech Industries Ltd. is the one and only manufacturer of multi-staged Refrigerator, Freezer, Air Conditioner, Television and Motorcycle technology and is treated as one of the sophisticated manufacturing plant in Bangladesh and South Asia. R.B. Group (Parent Company) is one of the top business groups in the country operating with a great reputation since 1977. Walton has become a sensation all over Bangladesh and in the world of electronics, electrical and automobile industries.
Corporate Social Responsibilities and Managerial EthicsMasum Hussain
The document provides an introduction and objectives for an assignment on corporate social responsibility and managerial ethics. It discusses key topics like the definition of ethics, factors that influence ethical behavior, ethical issues in global management, and recurring challenges in integrating business and ethics research. The primary objective is to gain knowledge about social responsibility and why managers should follow ethical practices. The secondary objective is to understand concepts like evaluating corporate social performance and balancing stakeholder interests. It outlines the methodology used, which involved reviewing books, magazines, journals, newspapers, and websites on the topic.
Neal Elbaum Shares Top 5 Trends Shaping the Logistics Industry in 2024Neal Elbaum
In the ever-evolving world of logistics, staying ahead of the curve is crucial. Industry expert Neal Elbaum highlights the top five trends shaping the logistics industry in 2024, offering valuable insights into the future of supply chain management.
m249-saw PMI To familiarize the soldier with the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon ...LinghuaKong2
M249 Saw marksman PMIThe Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW), or 5.56mm M249 is an individually portable, gas operated, magazine or disintegrating metallic link-belt fed, light machine gun with fixed headspace and quick change barrel feature. The M249 engages point targets out to 800 meters, firing the improved NATO standard 5.56mm cartridge.The SAW forms the basis of firepower for the fire team. The gunner has the option of using 30-round M16 magazines or linked ammunition from pre-loaded 200-round plastic magazines. The gunner's basic load is 600 rounds of linked ammunition.The SAW was developed through an initially Army-led research and development effort and eventually a Joint NDO program in the late 1970s/early 1980s to restore sustained and accurate automatic weapons fire to the fire team and squad. When actually fielded in the mid-1980s, the SAW was issued as a one-for-one replacement for the designated "automatic rifle" (M16A1) in the Fire Team. In this regard, the SAW filled the void created by the retirement of the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) during the 1950s because interim automatic weapons (e.g. M-14E2/M16A1) had failed as viable "base of fire" weapons.
Early in the SAW's fielding, the Army identified the need for a Product Improvement Program (PIP) to enhance the weapon. This effort resulted in a "PIP kit" which modifies the barrel, handguard, stock, pistol grip, buffer, and sights.
The M249 machine gun is an ideal complementary weapon system for the infantry squad platoon. It is light enough to be carried and operated by one man, and can be fired from the hip in an assault, even when loaded with a 200-round ammunition box. The barrel change facility ensures that it can continue to fire for long periods. The US Army has conducted strenuous trials on the M249 MG, showing that this weapon has a reliability factor that is well above that of most other small arms weapon systems. Today, the US Army and Marine Corps utilize the license-produced M249 SAW.
Originally presented at XP2024 Bolzano
While agile has entered the post-mainstream age, possibly losing its mojo along the way, the rise of remote working is dealing a more severe blow than its industrialization.
In this talk we'll have a look to the cumulative effect of the constraints of a remote working environment and of the common countermeasures.
From Concept to reality : Implementing Lean Managements DMAIC Methodology for...Rokibul Hasan
The Ready-Made Garments (RMG) industry in Bangladesh is a cornerstone of the economy, but increasing costs and stagnant productivity pose significant challenges to profitability. This study explores the implementation of Lean Management in the Sampling Section of RMG factories to enhance productivity. Drawing from a comprehensive literature review, theoretical framework, and action research methodology, the study identifies key areas for improvement and proposes solutions.
Through the DMAIC approach (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control), the research identifies low productivity as the primary problem in the Sampling Section, with a PPH (Productivity per head) of only 4.0. Using Lean Management techniques such as 5S, Standardized work, PDCA/Kaizen, KANBAN, and Quick Changeover, the study addresses issues such as pre and post Quick Changeover (QCO) time, improper line balancing, and sudden plan changes.
The research employs regression analysis to test hypotheses, revealing a significant correlation between reducing QCO time and increasing productivity. With a regression equation of Y = -0.000501X + 6.72 and an R-squared value of 0.98, the study demonstrates a strong relationship between the independent variables (QCO downtime and improper line balancing downtime) and the dependent variable (productivity per head).
The findings suggest that by implementing Lean Management practices and addressing key productivity inhibitors, RMG factories can achieve substantial improvements in efficiency and profitability. The study provides valuable insights for practitioners, policymakers, and researchers seeking to enhance productivity in the RMG industry and similar manufacturing sectors.
Designing and Sustaining Large-Scale Value-Centered Agile Ecosystems (powered...Alexey Krivitsky
Is Agile dead? It depends on what you mean by 'Agile'. If you mean that the organizations are not getting the promised benefits because they were focusing too much on the team-level agile "ways of working" instead of systemic global improvements -- then we are in agreement. It is a misunderstanding of Agility that led us down a dead-end. At Org Topologies, we see bright sparks -- the signs of the 'second wave of Agile' as we call it. The emphasis is shifting towards both in-team and inter-team collaboration. Away from false dichotomies. Both: team autonomy and shared broad product ownership are required to sustain true result-oriented organizational agility. Org Topologies is a package offering a visual language plus thinking tools required to communicate org development direction and can be used to help design and then sustain org change aiming at higher organizational archetypes.
Small Business Management An Entrepreneur’s Guidebook 8th edition by Byrd tes...ssuserf63bd7
Small Business Management An Entrepreneur’s Guidebook 8th edition by Byrd test bank.docx
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This presentation, "The Morale Killers: 9 Ways Managers Unintentionally Demotivate Employees (and How to Fix It)," is a deep dive into the critical factors that can negatively impact employee morale and engagement. Based on extensive research and real-world experiences, this presentation reveals the nine most common mistakes managers make, often without even realizing it.
The presentation begins by highlighting the alarming statistic that 70% of employees report feeling disengaged at work, underscoring the urgency of addressing this issue. It then delves into each of the nine "morale killers," providing clear explanations and illustrative examples.
1. Ignoring Achievements: The presentation emphasizes the importance of recognizing and rewarding employees' efforts, tailored to their individual preferences.
2. Bad Hiring/Promotions & Broken Promises: It reveals the detrimental effects of poor hiring and promotion decisions, along with the erosion of trust that results from broken promises.
3. Treating Everyone Equally & Tolerating Poor Performance: This section stresses the need for fair treatment while acknowledging that employees have different needs. It also emphasizes the importance of addressing poor performance promptly.
4. Stifling Growth & Lack of Interest: The presentation highlights the importance of providing opportunities for learning and growth, as well as showing genuine care for employees' well-being.
5. Unclear Communication & Micromanaging: It exposes the frustration and resentment caused by vague expectations and excessive control, advocating for clear communication and employee empowerment.
The presentation then shifts its focus to the power of recognition and empowerment, highlighting how a culture of appreciation can fuel engagement and motivation. It provides actionable takeaways for managers, emphasizing the need to stop demotivating behaviors and start actively fostering a positive workplace culture.
The presentation concludes with a strong call to action, encouraging viewers to explore the accompanying blog post, "9 Proven Ways to Crush Employee Morale (and How to Avoid Them)," for a more in-depth analysis and practical solutions.
9 Ways Managers Kill Morale (and What to Do Instead)
Uses of Theories of Motivation in Organizational Behavior
1. 1
Surma Tower, Sylhet
An Assignment on
““““Uses of Theories of Motivation in Organizational BehaviorUses of Theories of Motivation in Organizational BehaviorUses of Theories of Motivation in Organizational BehaviorUses of Theories of Motivation in Organizational Behavior””””
Course title: Organizational Behavior
Course code: MGT-310
Submitted to:
Shantono HasanShantono HasanShantono HasanShantono Hasan
Lecturer
Department of Business Administration
Leading University, Sylhet
Prepared by:
Torch Bearer’s
IDIDIDID NameNameNameName
1201010247 Abu Ahmed Shahib
1201010230 Ehsan Ahmed Chowdhury
1201010205 Mahmudul Karim Newaz
1201010248 Syed Ali Hasan
1201010219 Abdul Motin
1201010202 Masum Hussain
Section: E
Semester: 7th
Batch: 30th
Department of Business Administration
Leading University, Sylhet
Date of Submission:Date of Submission:Date of Submission:Date of Submission: 12 May12 May12 May12 May, 2014, 2014, 2014, 2014
2. 2
Acknowledgement
At first, we are grateful to Almighty Allah for creating us in such a beautiful
country like Bangladesh and also for controlling our life. For the mercy of him,
we got such courage to start this assignment on ““““Uses of Theories of Motivation inUses of Theories of Motivation inUses of Theories of Motivation inUses of Theories of Motivation in
Organizational BehaviorOrganizational BehaviorOrganizational BehaviorOrganizational Behavior””””
After that we want to give thanks to our honorable Head of the Department Dr.
Bashir Ahmed Bhuyian for giving us the opportunity to study in this subject.
We would like to express our thanks to the Librarian of Leading University for
all of his help that we have received.
Our respected parents who gave us mental support and inspiration for our
assignment, there is a special thanks for them.
We also want to give a lot of thanks to our honourable course teacher, ShantonoShantonoShantonoShantono
HasanHasanHasanHasan for giving us mental support and a clear concept about this assignment.
Without the help of our friends and classmates it was quite impossible to
prepare such kind of assignment. They give us some necessary information
about this topic which is unknown to us. So, we would like to give thanks to all
of them.
3. 3
Abstract
Most employers today would like to have their employee’s motivated and ready to work, but
do not understand what truly motivates a person. Companies could be more efficient if the
employees had an invested interest in the future of the company. There are essential needs to
be met for a person, specifically an employee, to succeed in the workplace. I will examine
different theories of motivations, how they are relevant to the workplace, and how employers
can implement the theories to ensure happy and motivated employees.
Human behaviour is as much a reflection of the differences between individuals as it is a
reflection of their similarities. These individual differences are caused by a number of
influences and characteristics. For example, personality traits focus on individual differences
that make each person a unique human being. Our biological make-up concentrates on how
we function as a result of our evolution and human inheritance. Our behaviour is largely
influenced by the system of rewards and punishments that are present in our environment.
Our cognitive approach focuses on how our thinking and memory affects our behaviour. The
fact that we are here at this time with immediate influences, and the ability to express a free
will, may present the greatest influence of all.
It broadly addresses the topic of employee relations and work motivation. It examined
theories and models of motivation that strive to answer the question of what motivates and
how is motivation harnessed. At the individual level of analysis, there is a plethora of
different approaches, most of which have some conceptual viability, empirical support and
practical use. A critical task for future thinking and research is to integrate findings from
diverse sources in order to be able to produce a more coherent view of motivation, its content
and mechanisms.
Any theories about motivation can be contradicted since these theories have many
exceptions. It is important that these theories are considered general statements that have
been confirmed through observational studies and are applicable only to the extent that they
reflect and are influenced by individual behaviour. We might ask: “Why should we even
pursue these topics if there are so many inconsistencies, exceptions, and variables that affect
conclusions?”. If we are searching for scientific evidence that is universally applicable, we
may be wasting our time, but if our goal is to better understand human behaviour and its
impacts on personal performance, the insights gained from such theories and studies are
invaluable.
The most important theories include: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor
theory, Aristotle’s seven causes, and the different types of motivation. Each theory is related
in the fact that there are needs for all people to meet. Every employee is at a different stage in
their lives, which requires different management techniques. It is shown that motivation must
come from within the employee. The theories investigated will help describe how managers
can influence their employees to self motivate and produce the best work possible.
There are two specific types of motivation: financial and non-financial. I will focus on ways
the employers can motivate their employees using financial means as well as non-financial
recognitions. In this day in time, there is not always a plentiful amount of money to spend on
motivation, so it is important to understand how managers can make their employees feel
important without breaking the bank. Both types need to be executed in a strategic way to
provide the best results.
Lastly, I will focus on how managers are able to implement these types of motivation into
their specific work place. This will show how motivation is important to all industries, and
how it can change and impact the amount sales a company performs. Motivated employees
will in turn create a successful company.
4. 4
Contents
Subjects pages
1. Motivation 5
2. Significance of motivation in the workplace 5
3. Motivating by meeting basic human needs 6
4. Maslow's need hierarchy theory 7
5. Alderfer’s ERG theory 8
6. Equity theory: the importance of being fair 8
7. Balancing Outcomes and Inputs 9
8. Balancing Outcomes and Inputs 10
9. Expectancy theory: believing you can get what you want 10
10. Three Components of Motivation 11
11. The Role of Motivation in Performance 12
12. Procedural justice theory 12
13. Goal setting: taking aim at performance targets 12
14. Designing jobs that motivate 14
15. Job Enlargement: Doing More of the Same Kind of Work 14
16. Job Enrichment: Increasing Required Skills and Responsibilities 14
17. The job characteristics model 15
18. Assessing the Motivating Potential of Jobs 16
19. Suggestions for Enhancing the Motivating Potential of Jobs 17
20. The Motivating Potential Score 17
21. Job design: the social information processing model 17
22. Fear and Punishment Theory 18
23. Rewards and Incentives theories 19
24. The total reward system 20
25. The Carrot and Stick Approach to Motivation 20
26. Is money the best ‘carrot’? 21
27. Motivation-Hygiene Theory 22
28. Theory X of McGregor 24
29. Theory Y of McGregor 24
30. Theory X and Theory Y combined 24
31. Theory Z of Ouchi 25
32. Practical applications of Theories of 25
33. Employee motivation 25
34. Employee recognition programs 25
35. Education 26
36. Self-determination in education 26
37. Physical activity in education 26
38. Healthy sleeping habits in education 27
39. Reference 28
5. 5
Motivation:
Scientists have defined motivation as the process of arousing, directing, and maintaining
behavior toward a goal. As this definition suggests, motivation involves three components.
The first component, arousal, has to do with the drive, or energy behind our actions. For
example, when we are hungry, we are driven to seek food. The direction component involves
the choice of behavior made. A hungry person may make many different choices--eat an
apple, have a pizza delivered, go out for a burger, and so on. The third component,
maintenance, is concerned with people's persistence, their willingness to continue to exert
effort until a goal is met. The longer you would continue to search for food when hungry, the
more persistent you would be.
Putting it all together, it may help to think of motivation by using the analogy of driving a
car. In this manner, arousal may be likened to the energy generated by the car's engine and
fuel system. The direction it takes is dictated by the driver's manipulation of the steering
wheel. And finally, maintenance may be thought of as the driver's determination to stay on
course until the final destination is reached.
While motivation, in general, can be described by this simple analogy, it is really a highly
complex concept. This is reflected by the fact that people often are motivated by many things
at once, sometimes causing internal conflicts. For example, a factory worker may be
motivated to make a positive impression on his supervisor by doing a good job, but at the
same time he may be motivated to maintain friendly relations with his co-workers by not
making them look bad. This example has to do with job performance, and indeed, motivation
is a key determinant of performance. However, it is important to note that motivation is not
synonymous with performance. In fact, as we will explain later, even the most highly
motivated employee may fall short of achieving success on the job--especially if he or she
lacks the required skills or works under unfavorable conditions. Clearly, while motivation
does not completely account for job performance, it is an important factor. More importantly,
it is a factor that managers may have some control over. This chapter covers the different
approaches for motivating people on the job.
Significance of motivation in the workplace:
Motivation is the bunch of “internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in
people to be continually interested in and committed to a job, role, or subject and to exert
persistent effort in attaining a goal”. Being motivated intrinsically means that you take
pleasure from what you are doing, and are less concerned with the external rewards.
We have seen employees doing as little as they can, mostly miss deadlines and whatever they
do, needs supervision and corrections, while on the other side, there are some who are trying
to do their best, putting into their work 100% of effort, do not complain about difficulties,
and take them as challenge. Those people are not aliens at all, they are motivated employees.
There are many theories or approaches to motivation: some claim that the role of social
processes in the organization is vital, as long as the need of belongingness is more important
than money, others consider organizational rewards system as a possibility to motivate
employees. There is not one correct approach to motivation, every individual has its own
“needs theory”, that is why knowing how to motivate your employees is very important
managerial skill.
From the title of this article, you see that this is not about discussion whether motivation is
essential or not, but about the positive outcome that is lead by the motivated employees. For
me as an employee it has always been interesting, why most of the managers are less
concerned whether their workers are trying to do their best or they are just following the
6. 6
stream of the river. In this article I want to go through this issue and discuss different
situations and points of view.
In the countries where the business competition is low and the level of unemployment is high,
motivation is mainly considered to be a luxurious tool. The managers of the companies have
the approach that employers are obligated to work and motivation for them should be the
money they are paid for their job. Whenever the unmotivated worker decides to quit the job,
it turns out to be a surprise for the management, but they do not take it as an alarm, that
something needs to be changed. Fact that there are many people looking for the job, gives
them the right not to pay attention even to the high index of employee turnover.
“Figures prove that usually it is the talented employees that are difficult to retain”. If an
appreciated worker decides to quit, you do not only loose knowledge but you need to recruit
new personnel and you have to train them as well. In short, it costs you time and money,
sometimes over several months pay for that one employee.
The significance of motivation in the workplace is high because of the following benefits it
provides. Firstly, motivation puts human resources into action and improves level of
efficiency of employees. Every concern requires financial and human resources to
accomplish the goals. Having the employees only physically, does not mean that you manage
to make full use of it. You need their desire and wish to be there where actually are.
The performance of motivated employees is high, which results into: increased productivity
and reduced cost of operations. Motivated employee will not try to get by with little effort;
will be more oriented on his job. If those workers, who spend most of their time on facebook
or other pages, use their potential and keep instead themselves busy with their job, increased
productivity will be very conspicuous.
Secondly, motivation leads to the stability of workforce that is very important from the point
of view of reputation and goodwill of the company. In order to keep employees loyal, they
should feel themselves as part of the organization, feel that they are needed and appreciated.
The longer the person works in the organization, more experience he gathers, as say “Old is
gold”. When people are willing to work for one organization for a long time, and they do not
consider the company as one of the steps of staircase, it will prevent the organization from
the high index of turnover and the positive image that will be created from the word of mouth
marketing, will attract competent and qualified people into a concern.
Thirdly, motivated people are not resistant to the changes taken into the organizations.
Change is the law of nature and companies have to incorporate different essential ones.
With the help of effectively motivated workforce, those changes will be accepted, introduced
and implemented without negative attitude and the organization will be kept on the right track
of progress.
Fourthly, Motivation brings employees closer to organization. As long as needs of employees
are met through attractive rewards, promotional opportunities, etc. employees begin to take
more interest in their company. They begin to think that there is no difference between the
interests of the enterprise and their interests. This helps in developing cordial relations
between management and workers.
These are the main reasons why the motivation is important to the business. But of course
this is significant for both parties: motivation is essential for an individual as it helps him
achieve his personal goals, develop and what is very important, be satisfied with his job.
Motivating by meeting basic human needs:
As our definition suggests, people are motivated to fulfill their needs—whether it is a need
for food, as in our example, or other needs, such as the need for social approval. Companies
that help their employees in this quest are certain to reap the benefits. Organizational
7. 7
behaviorists claim that companies that strive to meet the needs of their employees attract the
best people and motivate them to do excellent work.
Maslow's need hierarchy theory
Some insight into how to achieve this is provided by Abraham Maslow's need hierarchy
theory. Maslow's basic idea was simple: People will not be healthy and well-adjusted unless
they have all of their basic needs met. This idea applies whether we're talking about
becoming a functioning member of society, Maslow's original focus, or a productive
employee of an organization, a later application of his work. Specifically, Maslow identified
five different types of needs which, he claimed, are activated in a hierarchy, beginning at the
lowest, most basic needs, and working upward to the next level. Furthermore, these needs are
not aroused all at once or in random fashion. Rather, each need is triggered step by step, only
after the one beneath it in the hierarchy has been satisfied. Each of Maslow's five categories
of needs is explained below.
Physiological Needs
The lowest-order is defined by physiological needs, those that satisfy fundamental biological
drives, such as the need for air, food, water, and shelter. These are understandably primary to
humans, as even newborn babies express these basic needs. There are many things that
companies do to help meet their employees' basic physiological needs. Probably the simplest
involves paying them a living wage, money that can be exchanged for food and shelter. But,
there's more to satisfying physiological needs than giving employees a paycheck. There are
also coffee breaks and opportunities to rest. Even the cruelest, slave-driving bosses know the
importance of giving workers time to relax and recharge their systems.
Staying physically healthy involves more than just resting; it also requires exercise,
something that the sedentary nature of many of todays technologically advanced jobs does
not permit. With this in mind, thousands of companies are providing exercise facilities for
their employees. By keeping the workforce healthy and fit they are paving the way for people
to become productive. Some companies, such as Southern California Edison and Hershey
Foods, have gotten creative with this concept. They offer insurance rebates to employees who
live healthy lifestyles (e.g., physically fit nonsmokers) and raise the premiums of those at
greater risk for illness. In this manner, not only are the insurance burdens distributed fairly,
but the incentives encourage wellness activities that promise to benefit both employers and
employees.
Safety Needs
After physiological needs have been satisfied, the next level of needs is triggered safety
needs. These are concerned with the need to operate in an environment that is physically and
psychologically safe and secure one free from threats of harm. Organizations help satisfy
their employees' safety needs in several ways. For example, they protect shop workers from
hazards in the environment by fitting them with goggles and hard hats. Even seemingly safe
work settings, such as offices, can be swamped with safety hazards. This is why efforts are
made to spare office workers from eyestrain, wrist injuries (such as the increasingly prevalent
carpal tunnel syndrome), and back pain, by using specially designed computer monitors,
desks, and chairs. Physical safety may also involve such basic tools as security and fire-
prevention. Today's organizations show considerable interest in protecting the safety of their
employees. Although government regulations dictate many safety practices, it is safe to say
that employers independently recognize the motivational benefits related to providing safe
work environments.
8. 8
Social Needs
Once physiological and safety needs have been satisfied, the social needs are activated. These
refer to the need to be liked and accepted by others. As social animals, we want to be with
others and to have them approve of us. Many companies provide health club facilities for
their employees. Besides keeping employees healthy, it's easy to see how such opportunities
also help satisfy social needs. "Playing hard" with those whom we also "work hard" provides
good opportunities to fulfill social needs on the job.
Esteem Needs
Not only do we need to be liked by others socially, but we also need to gain their respect and
approval. In other words, we have a need for self-esteem—that is, to achieve success and have
others recognize our accomplishments. Consider, for example, reserved parking spots or
plaques honoring the "employee of the month." Both are ways of promoting esteem within
individual employees. So too are awards banquets in which worthy staff members'
contributions are recognized. The same thing is frequently done in print by recognizing one's
organizational contributions on the pages of a corporate newsletter.
The practice of awarding bonuses to people making suggestions for improvement is another
highly successful way to help employees' satisfy their esteem needs. A genuine “thank you”
can be enough recognition to foster respect and esteem. Or, as Mark Twain said, "I can live
for two months on a good compliment." Some companies are highly creative in their efforts
to show recognition.
Self-Actualization Needs
What happens after all an employee's lower-order needs are met? According to Maslow,
people will strive for self-actualization—that is, they will work to become all they are capable
of being. When people are self-actualized they perform at their maximum level of creativity
and become extremely valuable assets to their organizations. For this reason, companies are
interested in paving the way for their employees to self-actualize by meeting their lower-
order needs. As this discussion clearly suggests, Maslow's theory provides excellent guidance
with respect to the needs that workers are motivated to achieve. Indeed, many organizations
have taken actions directly suggested by the theory, and have found them to be successful.
For this reason, the theory remains popular with organizational practitioners. Scientists,
however, have noted that specific elements of the theory—notably, the assertion that there are
only five needs and that they are activated in a specific order—have not been supported fully.
Despite this shortcoming, the insight that Maslow's theory provides into the importance of
recognizing human needs in the workplace makes it a valuable approach to motivation.
Alderfer’s ERG theory
Clayton Alderfer’s existence-relatedness-growth (ERG) theory builds on some of Maslow’s
thinking but reduces the number of universal needs from five to three—growth needs,
relatedness needs, and existence needs—and is more flexible on movement between levels.
Alderfer lifts the restriction imposed by Maslow in which lower-order needs must be
addressed before a higher level need becomes a motivator. Alderfer breaks with Maslow on
the consequence of need frustration. Needs at more than one level can be motivators at any
time. Alderfer proposes that when an individual is motivated to satisfy a higher-level need
but has difficulty doing so, the person’s motivation to satisfy lower-level needs will increase.
Equity theory: the importance of being fair
There can be little doubt about the importance of money as a motivator on the job. However,
it would be overly simplistic and misleading to say that people only want to earn as much
9. 9
money as possible. Even the highest-paid executives, sports figures, and celebrities
sometimes complain about their pay despite their multi-million-dollar salaries. Are they being
greedy? Not necessarily.
Often, the issue is not the actual amount of pay received, but rather, pay fairness, or equity.
Organizational scientists have been actively interested in the difficult task of explaining
exactly what constitutes fairness on the job, and how people respond when they believe they
have been unfairly treated. The major concept addressing these issues is known as equity
theory.
Balancing Outcomes and Inputs
Equity theory proposes that people are motivated to maintain fair, or equitable, relationships
between themselves and others, and to avoid those relationships that are unfair, or
inequitable. To make judgments of equity, people compare themselves to others by focusing
on two variables: outcomes—what we get out of our jobs (e.g., pay, fringe benefits, prestige,
etc.)—and inputs—the contributions made (e.g., time worked, effort exerted, units produced).
It helps to think of these judgments as ratios—that is, the outcomes received relative to the
inputs contributed (e.g., $1,000 per week in exchange for working 40 hours). It is important
to note that equity theory deals with outcomes and inputs as they are perceived by people, not
necessarily by objective standards. As you might imagine, well-intentioned people sometimes
disagree about what constitutes equitable treatment. According to equity theory, people make
equity judgments by comparing their own outcome/input ratios to the outcome/input ratios of
others. This so-called "other" may be someone else in one's work group, another employee in
the organization, an individual working in the same field, or even oneself at an earlier point in
time – in short, almost anyone against whom we compare ourselves. These comparisons can
result in one of three different states: overpayment inequity, underpayment inequity, or
equitable payment.
Let's consider an example. Imagine that Andy and Bill work together as copywriters in an
advertising firm. Both men have equal amounts of experience, training and education, and
work equally long and hard at their jobs. In other words, their input is equivalent. But,
suppose Andy is paid an annual salary of $60,000 while Bill is paid only $50,000. In this
case, Andy's ratio of outcomes/input is higher than Bill's, creating a state of overpayment
inequity for Andy (since the ratio of his outcomes/input is higher), but underpayment inequity
for Bill (since the ratio of his outcomes/input is lower). According to equity theory Andy,
realizing that he is paid more than an equally qualified person doing the same work, will feel
guilty in response to his overpayment. By contrast, Bill, realizing that he is paid less than an
equally qualified person for doing the same work, will feel angry in response to his
underpayment. Guilt and anger are negative emotional states that people are motivated to
change. As a result, they will seek to create a state of equitable payment, in which their
outcome/input ratios are equal; leading both of them to feel satisfied.
How can inequitable states be turned into equitable ones? The answer lies in adjusting the
balance of outcomes and/or input. Among people who are underpaid, equity can be created
by raising one's outcomes and/or lowering. Likewise, those who are overpaid may either raise
their inputs or lower their outcomes. In both cases, either action would effectively make the
two outcome/input ratios equivalent. For example, the underpaid person, Bill, might lower his
inputs such as by slacking off, arriving at work late, leaving early, taking longer breaks,
doing less work, or lowering the quality of his work – or, in an extreme case, quit his job. He
also may attempt to improve his outcome, such as by asking for a raise, or even taking home
company property, such as tools or office supplies. In contrast, the overpaid person, Andy,
may do the exact opposite—raise his input or reduce his outcome. For example, he might put
forth much more effort, work longer hours, and try to make a greater contribution to the
10. 10
company. He also might lower his outcome, such as by working while on a paid vacation or
by not taking advantage of fringe benefits the company offers.
These are all specific behavioral reactions to inequitable conditions—that is, actions people
may take to turn inequitable states into equitable ones. However, people may be unwilling to
do some of the things necessary to respond with typical behaviors toward inequities. In
particular, they may be reluctant to steal from their employers, or unwilling to restrict their
productivity, for fear of getting caught "goofing off." In such cases, people may attempt to
resolve inequity cognitively, by changing the way they think about the situation. As noted
earlier, because equity theory deals with perceptions, inequitable states may be redressed by
altering one's thinking about their own, and others', outcomes and input. For example,
underpaid people may rationalize that others' input is really higher than their own (e.g., "I
suppose she really is more qualified than me"), thereby convincing themselves that those
individual's higher outcomes are justified. Similarly, overpaid people may convince
themselves that they really are better, and deserve their relatively higher pay. So, by
changing the way they see things, people can come to perceive inequitable situations as
equitable, thereby effectively relieving their feelings of guilt and anger, and transforming
them into feelings of satisfaction.
Balancing Outcomes and Inputs
There is a great deal of evidence to suggest that people are motivated to redress inequities at
work, and that they respond much as equity theory suggests. Consider two examples from the
world of sports. Research has shown that professional basketball players who are underpaid
(i.e., ones who are paid less than others who perform as well or better) score fewer points
than those who are equitably paid. Similarly, among baseball players, those paid less than
others who play comparably well tend to change teams or even leave the sport when they are
unsuccessful at negotiating higher pay. Cast in terms of equity theory, the underpaid players
may be said to have lowered their inputs.
We also know that underpaid workers attempt to raise their outcomes. For example, in an
organization studied by the author, workers at two manufacturing plants suffered an
underpayment created by the introduction of a temporary pay cut of 15 percent. During the
10- week period under which workers received lower pay, company officials noticed that
theft of company property increased dramatically, approximately 250 percent. However, in
another factory in which comparable work was done by workers paid at their normal rates,
the theft rate remained low. This pattern suggests that employees may have stolen property
from their company in order to compensate for their reduced pay. Consistent with this
possibility, it was found that when the normal rate of pay was reinstated in the two factories,
the theft rate returned to its normal, low level. These findings suggest that companies that
seek to save money by lowering pay may merely be encouraging their employees to find
other ways of making up for what they believe they are due.
Expectancy theory: believing you can get what you want
Beyond seeking fair treatment on the job, people are also motivated by the expectation that
they will achieve certain desired rewards by working hard. If you've ever put in long hours
studying in the hopes of receiving an "A" in one of your classes, then you understand
expectancy theory. This is one of the basic ideas behind the popularity of pay systems known
as merit pay plans, or pay for- performance plans, which formally establish links between job
performance and rewards.
However, a recent survey found that only 25 percent of employees see a clear link between
good job performance and their rate of pay. Clearly, companies are not doing enough to
11. 11
affect motivation. To get an understanding of why companies are failing to significantly
increase motivation, let's take a closer look at expectancy theory.
Three Components of Motivation
Expectancy theory claims that people will be motivated to exert effort on the job when they
believe that doing so will help them achieve the things they want. It assumes that people are
rational beings who think about what they have to do to be rewarded and how much the
reward means to them before they perform their jobs. Specifically, expectancy theory views
motivation as the result of three different types of beliefs that people have. These are:
expectancy—the belief that one's effort will affect performance, instrumentality—the belief
that one's performance will be rewarded, and valence—the perceived value of the expected
rewards. For a summary of these components and their role in the overall theory.
Expectancy:
Sometimes people believe that putting forth a great deal of effort will help them get a lot
accomplished. However, in other cases, people do not expect that their efforts will have much
effect on how well they do. For example, an employee operating a faulty piece of equipment
may have a very low expectancy. Someone working under such conditions probably would
not continue to exert much effort. After all, there is no good reason to go on trying to fill a
bucket riddled with holes. Accordingly, good managers will do things that help their
subordinates believe that their hard work will lead them to do their jobs better. With this in
mind, training employees to do their jobs better can be very effective in helping enhance
expectancy beliefs. Indeed, a large part of working more effectively involves making sure
that one's efforts will pay off. Some companies have taken a more direct approach by
soliciting and following their employees' suggestions about ways to improve their work
efficiency. For example, United Electric Controls (a manufacturer of industrial temperature
and pressure controls located in Watertown, Massachusetts) routinely asks its employees for
ways it can help them do their jobs more effectively. Since instituting this approach, not only
have individual employees become more productive, but the company as well. In fact,
important indicators revealed that the company's performance improved dramatically after it
began following its employees' suggestions (For instance, on-time deliveries rose from 65
percent to 95 percent).
Instrumentality:
Even if an employee performs at a high level, his or her motivation may suffer if that
performance is not appropriately rewarded – that is, if the performance is not perceived as
instrumental in bringing about the rewards. So, for example, an extremely productive
employee may be poorly motivated if he or she has already reached the top level of pay given
by the company. Recognizing this possibility, several organizations have crafted pay systems
that explicitly link desired performance to rewards.
Consider, for example, the newly instituted pay plan for IBM's 30,000 sales representatives.
Previously, most of the pay these reps received was based on flat salary; their compensation
was not linked to how well they did. Now, however, their pay is carefully tied to two factors
that are essential to the company's success – profitability and customer satisfaction. So,
instead of receiving commissions on the amount of the sale, as so many salespeople do, 60
percent of IBMers' commissions are tied to the company's profit on that sale. As a result, the
more the company makes the more the reps make. And, to make sure that the reps don't push
only high profit items that customers might not need, the remaining 40 percent of their
commissions are based on customer satisfaction. Checking on this, customers are regularly
surveyed about the extent to which their sales representatives helped them meet their business
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objectives. The better the reps have done in this regard, the greater their commissions. Since
introducing this plan, IBM has been effective in reversing its unprofitable trend. Although
there are certainly many factors that may have assisted in this turnaround, experts are
confident that the practice of clearly linking desired performance to individual rewards is a
key factor.
The Role of Motivation in Performance
Thus far, we have discussed the three components of motivation identified by expectancy
theory. However, expectancy theory views motivation as just one of several determinants of
job performance. Motivation combines with a person's skills and abilities, role perceptions,
and opportunities to influence job performance.
It's no secret that the unique characteristics, special skills, and abilities of some people
predispose them to perform their jobs better than others. For example, a tall, strong, well
coordinated person is likely to make a better professional basketball player than a very short,
weak, uncoordinated one—even if the shorter person is highly motivated to succeed.
Recognizing this, it would be a mistake to assume that someone performing below par is
poorly motivated. Instead, some poor performers may be very highly motivated, but lacking
the knowledge or skills needed to succeed. With this in mind, companies often make big
investments in training employees so as to ensure that they have what it takes to succeed,
regardless of their levels of motivation.
Expectancy theory also recognizes that job performance will be influenced by people's role
perceptions—that is, what they believe is expected of them on the job. To the extent that
there are uncertainties about what one's job duties may be, performance is prone to suffer. For
example, a shop foreman who believes his primary job duty is to teach new employees how
to use the equipment may find that his performance is downgraded by a supervisor who
believes he should be spending more time doing routine paperwork instead. In this case the
foreman's performance wouldn't suffer due to any deficit in motivation, but because of
misunderstandings regarding what the job entails.
Finally, expectancy theory recognizes the role of opportunities to perform one's job. Even the
best employees may perform at low levels if their opportunities are limited. This may occur,
for example, if there is an economic downturn in a salesperson's territory, or if the company's
available inventory is insufficient to meet sales demand.
Procedural justice theory
Procedural justice theory is concerned with the perceived fairness of the procedures used to
make decisions about inputs, performance, and the distribution of outcomes. How managers
treat their subordinates and the extent to which they provide explanations for their decisions
influence employees’ perceptions of procedural justice. When procedural justice is perceived
to be low, motivation suffers because employees are not sure that their inputs and
performance levels will be accurately assessed or that outcomes will be distributed in a fair
manner. Perceptions by employees are key to this theory. Reactions to procedures depend on
how employees perceive the procedures rather than on what the actual procedures actually
are. Employees will be more motivated if they perceive that procedures used to make
decisions are fair.
Goal setting: taking aim at performance targets
Suppose that you are a word processing operator. You are performing quite well, but your
boss believes that you can do even better. She asks you to try to enter 70 words per minute
(wpm) from now on instead of the 60 wpm you've been working at. Would you work hard to
meet this goal, or would you simply give up?
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Organizational scientists have found that under certain conditions goal setting can lead to
marked improvements in performance, primarily, under three conditions--when goals are:
(1) Specific;
(2) Difficult, but achievable; and
(3) Accompanied by feedback.
Assign Specific Goals
In our word processing example, the supervisor set a goal that was very specific (70 wpm)
and also somewhat difficult to attain (10 wpm faster than current performance). Would you
perform better under these conditions than if the supervisor merely said something general,
like "do your best to improve"? Decades of research on goal setting suggests that the answer
is yes. Indeed, we know that people perform at higher levels when asked to meet specific
high performance goals than when they are directed simply to "do your best," or when no
goal at all is assigned. People tend to find specific goals quite challenging, and are motivated
to try to meet them – not only to fulfill management's expectations, but also to convince
themselves that they have performed well. Scientists have explained that attaining goals
enhances employees' faith in their self-efficacy. And, when people believe that they can, in
fact, succeed at a given task, they will be motivated to work hard to prove their belief. For
this reason people will be motivated to pursue specific goals, ones that readily enable them to
define their accomplishments, thus enhancing their self-efficacy beliefs.
Assign Difficult, But Achievable, Performance Goals
The goal set should be difficult to attain, but achievable. Obviously, a goal that is too easy to
attain will not bring about the desired increments in performance. For example, it you already
type at 60 wpm, a goal of 50 wpm, although specific, would probably lower your
performance. The key point is that a goal must be difficult as well as specific for it to raise
performance. At the same time, however, people will work hard to reach challenging goals so
long as these are within the limits of their capability. As goals become too difficult,
performance suffers because people reject the goals as unrealistic and unattainable. For
example, you may work much harder as a student in a class that challenges your ability than
in one that is very easy. In all likelihood, however, you would probably give up trying if the
only way of passing was to get perfect scores on all exams—a standard you would reject as
being unacceptable. In short, specific goals are most effective if they are set neither too low
nor too high. How should goals be set in a manner that strengthens employees' commitment
to them? One obvious way of enhancing goal acceptance is to involve employees in the goal-
setting process. Research on workers' participation in goal setting has demonstrated that
people better accept goals that they have been involved in setting than goals that have been
assigned by their supervisors – and, they work harder as a result. Participation in the goal-
setting process may produce these beneficial effects for several reasons. One, people are
more likely to understand and appreciate goals they had a hand in setting themselves than
those that are merely presented to them. In addition, employees are likely to be committed to
attaining such goals, in large part because they must psychologically rationalize their
decisions to set those goals. (After all, one can hardly justify setting a specific goal and then
not working hard to attain it.) Finally, because workers often have more direct knowledge
about what it takes to do a job than their supervisors, they are in a good position to come up
with goals that are acceptably high, but not unreasonable. Further capitalizing on workers'
experiences, executives generally agree that it is a good idea to let employees figure out the
best way to meet new goals.
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Provide Feedback Concerning Goal Attainment
The final condition for setting effective goals would seem quite obvious, however, it is not
followed in practice as often as you might expect: provide feedback about the extent to which
goals have been met. Just as golfers can improve their games when they learn where their
balls have landed, so too do workers benefit by feedback about how closely they are
approaching their performance goals. Extending our golf analogy, when it comes to setting
work goals effectively, "hooks" and "slices" need to be corrected.
In sum, goal setting is a very effective tool managers can use to motivate people. Setting a
specific, acceptably difficult goal, and providing feedback about progress toward that goal
greatly enhances job performance.
Designing jobs that motivate
Recall that Frederick W. Taylor's approach to stimulating work performance was to design
jobs so that people worked as efficiently as possible. No wasted movements and no wasted
time added up to efficient performance, or so Taylor believed. However, Taylor failed to
consider one important thing: The repetitive machine-like movements required of his workers
were highly routine and monotonous. And, not surprisingly, people became bored with such
jobs and frequently quit. Fortunately, today's organizational scientists have found several
ways of designing jobs that can not only be performed very efficiently, but are also highly
pleasant and enjoyable. This is the basic principle behind job design, the process of creating
jobs that people enjoy performing because they are so inherently appealing.
Job Enlargement: Doing More of the Same Kind of Work
Job enlargement is increasing the number of tasks an employee performs but keeping all of
the tasks at the same level of difficulty and responsibility. It is also called horizontal job
loading because the content of a job is expanded but the difficulty remains constant.
Proponents of this approach thought that job enlargement might increase intrinsic motivation.
There's no higher responsibility involved, nor any greater skills, just a wider variety of the
same types of tasks. The idea behind job enlargement is simple: you can decrease boredom
by giving people a greater variety of jobs to do.
Do job enlargement programs work? To answer this question, consider the results of a study
comparing the job performance of people doing enlarged and unenlarged jobs. In the
unenlarged jobs, different employees performed separate paperwork tasks such as preparing,
sorting, coding, and keypunching various forms. The enlarged jobs combined these various
functions into larger jobs performed by the same people. Although it was more difficult and
expensive to train people to perform the enlarged jobs than the separate jobs, important
benefits resulted. In particular, employees expressed greater job satisfaction and less
boredom. And, because one person followed the whole job all the way through, greater
opportunities to correct errors existed. Not surprisingly, customers were satisfied with the
result.
Although job enlargement may help improve job performance, its effects may be short-lived.
It appears that the problem with enlarging jobs is that after a while, people get bored with
them, and they need to be enlarged even further. Because it is impractical to continue
enlarging jobs all the time, the value of this approach is rather limited.
Job Enrichment: Increasing Required Skills and Responsibilities
As an alternative, consider another approach taken to redesign jobs—job enrichment. Job
enrichment is the designing of jobs to provide opportunities for employee growth by giving
employees more responsibility and control over their work. It is often referred to as vertical
job loading because employees are given some of the responsibilities that used to belong to
15. 15
their supervisors. Herzberg’s motivator – hygiene theory – was a driving force in the
movement to enrich jobs. Job enrichment is aimed at increasing intrinsic motivation.
Although job enrichment programs have also been successful in many organizations, several
factors limit their popularity. First, there is the difficulty of implementation. Redesigning
existing facilities so that job can be enriched is often prohibitively expensive. Besides, the
technology needed to perform certain jobs makes it impractical for them to be redesigned.
Another impediment is the lack of universal employee acceptance. Although many relish it,
some people do not desire the additional responsibility associated with performing enriched
jobs.
Managers can enrich jobs in a variety of ways:
• Allow employees to plan their own work schedules.
• Allow employees to decide how the work should be performed.
• Allow employees to check their own work.
• Allow employees to learn new skills.
The job characteristics model
Thus far, we have failed to specify precisely how to enrich a job. What elements of a job need
to be enriched for it to be engaging to an employee? An attempt to expand the idea of job
enrichment, known as the job characteristic model, provides an answer to this important
question.
Basic Elements of the Job Characteristics Model. This approach assumes that jobs can be
designed so as to help people get enjoyment out of their jobs and care about the work they do.
The model identifies how jobs can be designed to help people feel that they are doing
meaningful and valuable work. In particular, it specifies that enriching certain elements of
jobs alters people's psychological states in a manner that enhances their work effectiveness.
The model identifies five core job dimensions that help create three critical psychological
states, leading, in turn, to several beneficial personal and work outcomes.
According to the job characteristic model, the five core job dimensions listed create three
critical psychological states, which in turn influence the personal and work outcomes shown.
The model also acknowledges that these relationships are strongest among those individuals
highest in growth need strength.
The five critical job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
and feedback. Let's take a closer look at these.
• Skill variety is the extent to which a job requires using several different skills and talents
that an employee has. For example, a restaurant manager with high skill variety will perform
many different tasks (e.g., maintaining sales records, handling customer complaints,
scheduling staff, supervising repair work, and the like).
• Task identity is the degree to which a job requires doing a whole task from beginning to
end. For example, tailors will have high task identity if they do everything associated with
making an entire suit (e.g., measuring the client, selecting the fabric, cutting and sewing it,
and altering it to fit)
• Task significance is the amount of impact a job is believed to have on others. For example,
medical researchers working on a cure for a deadly disease surely recognize the importance
of their work to the world at large. Even more modest contributions to the company can be
recognized as being significant to the extent that employee understand the role of their jobs in
the overall mission of the organization.
• Autonomy is the extent, to which employees have the freedom and discretion to plan,
schedule, and carry out their jobs as desired. For example, in 1991 a team of Procter &
Gamble employees was put in charge of making all the arrangements necessary for the
building of a new $5 million facility for making concentrated Downy.
16. 16
• Feedback is the extent to which the job allows people to have information about the
effectiveness of their performance. For example, telemarketing representatives regularly
receive information about how many calls they make per day and the monetary values of the
sales made.
The job characteristic model specifies that these various job dimensions have important
effects on various critical psychological states. Specifically, skill variety, task identity, and
task significance jointly contribute to a task's experienced meaningfulness. A task is
considered to be meaningful insofar as it is experienced as being highly important, valuable,
and worthwhile. Jobs that provide a great deal of autonomy are said to make people feel
personally responsible and accountable for their work. When they are free to decide what to
do and how to do it, they feel more responsible for the results, whether good or bad. Finally,
effective feedback is said to give employees knowledge of the results of their work. When a
job is designed to provide people with information about the effects of their actions, they are
better able to develop an understanding of how effectively they have performed--and, such
knowledge improves their effectiveness. The job characteristics model specifies that the three
critical psychological states affect various personal and work outcomes—namely: people's
feelings of motivation; the quality of work performed; and satisfaction with work,
absenteeism, and turnover. The higher the experienced meaningfulness of work,
responsibility for the work performed, and knowledge of results, the more positive the
personal and work benefits will be. When they perform jobs that incorporate high levels of
the five core job dimensions, people should feel highly motivated, perform high-quality
work, be highly satisfied with their jobs, be absent infrequently, and be unlikely to resign
from their jobs.
We should also note that the model is theorized to be especially effective in describing the
behavior of individuals who are high in growth need strength—that is, people who have a
high need for personal growth and development. People not particularly interested in
improving themselves on the job are not expected to experience the theorized psychological
reactions to the core job dimensions, nor consequently, to enjoy the beneficial personal and
work outcomes predicted by the model. By introducing this variable, the job characteristic
model recognizes the important limitation of job enrichment noted earlier – not everyone
wants and benefits from enriched jobs.
Assessing the Motivating Potential of Jobs:
Based on the proposed relationship between the core job dimensions and their associated
psychological reactions, the model claims that job motivation will be highest when the jobs
performed rate high on the various dimensions. To assess this, a questionnaire known as the
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) has been developed to measure the degree to which various job
characteristics are present in a particular job. Based on responses to the JDS, we can make
predictions about the degree to which a job motivates people who perform it.
The job characteristics model has been the focus of many empirical tests, most of which are
supportive of many aspects of the model. One study conducted among a group of South
African clerical workers found particularly strong support. The jobs of employees in some of
the offices in this company were enriched in accordance with techniques specified by the job
characteristics model. Specifically, employees performing the enriched jobs were given
opportunities to choose the kinds of tasks they perform (high skill variety), do the entire job
(high task identity), receive instructions regarding how their job fit into the organization as a
whole (high task significance), freely set their own schedules and inspect their own work
(high autonomy), and keep records of their daily productivity (high feedback). Another group
of employees, equivalent in all respects except that their jobs were not enriched, served as a
control group.
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After employees performed the newly designed jobs for 6 months, comparisons were made
between them and their counterparts in the control group. With respect to most of the
outcomes specified by the model, individuals performing redesigned jobs showed superior
results. Specifically, they reported feeling more internally motivated and more satisfied with
their jobs.
There also were lower rates of absenteeism and turnover among employees performing the
enriched jobs. The only outcome predicted by the model that was not found to differ was
actual work performance; people performed equally well in enriched and unenriched jobs.
Considering the many factors that are responsible for job performance (as discussed in
connection with expectancy theory), this finding should not be too surprising.
Suggestions for Enhancing the Motivating Potential of Jobs:
The job characteristics model specifies several ways in which jobs can be designed to
enhance their motivating potential. For example, instead of using several workers, each of
whom performs a separate part of a whole job, it would be better to have each person perform
the entire job. Doing so helps provide greater skill variety and task identity.
The job characteristic model also suggests that jobs should be set up so that the person
performing a service (such as an auto mechanic) comes into contact with the recipient of the
service (such as the car owner). Jobs designed in this manner will not only help the employee
by providing feedback, but also enhancing skill variety (e.g., talking to customers in addition
to fixing cars), and building autonomy (by giving people the freedom to manage their own
relationships with clients). This suggestion has been implemented at Sea-Land Service, the
large containerized ocean-shipping company. After this company's mechanics, clerks, and
crane operators started meeting with customers, they became much more productive. Having
faces to associate with the once-abstract jobs they did clearly helped them take the jobs more
seriously.
Another implication of the job characteristics model is that jobs should be designed so as to
give employees as much feedback as possible. The more people know how well they're doing
(be it from customers, supervisors, or co-workers), the better equipped they are to take
appropriate corrective action.
The Motivating Potential Score
To measure employees’ perceptions of their jobs on each of the core dimensions, the Job
Diagnostic Survey is used. Once an employee completes each of these scales for his or her
job, it is possible to compute the job’s motivating potential score. The motivating potential
score (MPS) is a measure of the overall potential of a job to foster intrinsic motivation.
MPS is equal to the average of the first three core characteristics (skill variety, task identity,
and task significance) multiplied by autonomy and feedback. Scores will range from 1 (low)
to 7 (high) for each core dimension. An average motivating potential score for jobs in the
U.S. corporations is around 128.
Job design: the social information processing model
The social information processing model was developed in 1978 by Salancik and Pfeffer.
According to the social information processing model, factors other than the core dimensions
influences how employees respond to the design of their jobs. Salancik and Pfeffer propose
that the way employees perceive and respond to the design of their jobs is influenced by
social information (information from other people) and by employees’ own past behaviors.
The model proposes that the social environment provides employees with information
regarding which aspects of their job design and work outcome they should pay attention to
and which they should ignore. Social environment refers to the other individuals with whom
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employees come into contact with at work. The model suggests that the social environment
provides employees with information about how they should evaluate their jobs and work
outcomes. The increasing reliance of organizations on contingent employees has some
interesting implications for social environments at work.
Fear and Punishment Theory
Fear is the result of numerous different types of activators. It has been observed that various
stimuli, events or procedures strengthen the behavior of living organisms, whether they
produce a particular form of behavior or not. At one time the word “drive” was used as a
collective name for these activating factors. Probably because the simplest and most effective
ways of Theory of Fear as a Motivation activating an organism have obvious biological
accompaniments, drive has come to be linked exclusively with procedures like food
deprivation, water deprivation and noxious stimulation. It is therefore suggested that the term
“activator” be used as a name for anything that affects the general energy level at which an
organism operates. It means that drives are species of activator but allows for other sources
of activation as well.
Activation may be formally defined as an observed or an observable relation between a
known activator, as an independent variable and some measure of performance, as a
dependent variable. It has been already noted that a noxious stimulus is activating and that its
offset is reinforcing. Any strong stimulus is noxious in the sense that it is actually or
potentially harmful to the organism.
A good example of noxious stimulus working into this theory, along with the learning aspect,
would be stating to children: “You may get a spanking and go to bed or just go to bed.”
The distinction between drives and other activators largely reflects degree of knowledge
about the physiological processes involved and probably has little psychological significance.
One of the most important of these other activators is frustration, defined as the procedure in
which a reward or attractive reinforcer is withheld after it has been given a number of times
under constant conditions or a physical barrier is used to prevent a response from occurring
under its usual conditions. It will be noted that the term “frustration” is not being used here as
a name for any feeling an animal or person may have nor for any particular form of behavior.
It simply refers to the directly observable process of thwarting.
Wagner (1965) trained rats in a runway on a partial reinforcement schedule. On non
reinforced (frustration) trials a combined light-noise stimulus was presented as Ss in the
experimental group approached the empty goal box. Control subjects received the same
training except that the light-noise stimuli were presented while they were in a cage away
from the runway. Later tests showed that, compared with the control group, the experimental
group gave a larger startle response in the presence of the light-noise and gave superior
performance in a hurdle-jumping situation with offset of light-noise as reinforcement. The
light-noise appeared to have taken on activating and reinforcing properties for the
experimental rats, effects which persisted in the absence the primary activator that gave rise
to them (frustration).
Egger and Miller (1960) have reported that a response, specifically an escape response, is
engaged in when made available in approach-avoidance conflict. The strategy of this study
was to further test behavioral predictions to support a theory of conflict-produced drive. The
positive results obtained clearly support the predictions and demonstrate that conflict-
produced drive cues can mediate the generalization of escape from conflict and avoidance of
conflict acquired in an initial conflict to a new and different conflict.
Since removal or prevention of the conflict inducing stimulus reinforced original learning and
the generalized responses accomplished the same purpose, it can be inferred that the state of
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conflict itself had aversive properties which motivated Ss to make the responses learned to
the earlier but different conflict. Even children are likely to have sufficient past learning of
conflict to affect behavior in conflict situations.
Just as with forcing and reinforcing stimuli, so there are primary and secondary activators.
Deprivation, noxious stimulation, frustration and conflict all raise the energy level of
behavior without the need for any intervening process; they therefore qualify as primary
activators. If a neutral stimulus with no general activating properties is consistently paired
with one of these primary activators in action, then it takes on activating properties and
becomes a secondary activator for the organism concerned
It is because an organism feels in complete control of the situation, that is, because there is no
appraised threat, that avoidance behavior is not associated with the activation of fear. This
does not imply that the threat or its bases must be in full awareness, since it is evident that
objects which the person consciously regards as benign can stimulate fear. The fact that the
reaction seems to contradict, however, what the person seems to believe is irrelevant to the
argument that threat is always implicated in negatively toned emotions, such as anger, fear,
grief, depression, disgust, guilt, shame, etc. The point is that only when and if the organism
actually appraises danger does one experience a negatively toned activation. When the
adaptive response is automatized and performed without appraisal of danger, as many are, the
avoidance is not associated with fear. The organism may go its entire lifetime, adaptively
avoiding many dangers, precisely because one may not consider harm as a very likely
prospect. If one should lose this confidence or seem to lose control of the situation, the other
components of activation will then accompany the avoidance behavior, a change or shift in
behavior occurs. Thus, the configuration of fear includes not only the behavioral impulse of
avoidance as a necessary condition to give the impulse its special Theory of Fear as a
Motivation urgency and vigor but it also includes the appraisal of threat and the
physiological arousal pattern which such a vigorous impulse requires.
In conclusion then it may be said that fear (activator) is a motivational factor involved in
behavior and that its offset is reinforcing. Organisms are not always active, they must be
motivated and their activity directed.
Motivational properties of fear possess this quality and in given situations activate the
organism direct the activity experienced and is capable of turning the organism off in regards
to that activity. It should be made clear at this point that this theory is dealt with within the
micro theory approach and not a general behavior theory of motivation. The properties of fear
will be effective in given situations with the proper contingencies of reinforcement and
motivation.
Rewards and Incentives theories
“Reward is the benefits that arise from performing a task, rendering a service or discharging a
responsibility.” Pay is the most significant and motivating benefit that is received in return
for performing a task or service. It is pay that motivates individuals to go out and seek work.
Pay is also one of the few ways to set a mutually acceptable common value to the
individual’s work contribution. Pay can also be a powerful demotivator, if employees are not
satisfied with the reward package, it will be hard for the company to recruit and retain good
individuals.
Advocates of the expectancy theory believe that employees will change their behavior by
working harder or prioritizing their actions if they know that by doing so they will be
rewarded with something of value to them. Hence, incentives are a great way to reward effort
and behaviors which the organization wishes to encourage. If the incentive is paid in return
for behavior that contributes to the organizations goals, it will in the long run enhance
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organizational effectiveness and productivity and hence generates a positive outcome for both
employer and employee.
The principle reward for performing work is pay, many employees however offer also reward
packages of which wages and salaries are only a part of. The packages typically include;
bonuses, pension schemes, health insurance, allocated cars, beneficial loans, subsidized
meals, profit sharing, share options and much more.
There are various things to think about before making decisions about what kind of payment
system is most appropriate for an organization. Managers should start by asking what
objectives they are seeking to achieve. These are likely to include the following:
i. To minimize expenditure on wages and salaries over the long term.
ii. To attract and retain staff of the desired caliber, experience and qualifications.
iii. To motivate the workforce so as to maximize organizational performance.
iv. To direct effort and enthusiasm in specific directions and to encourage particular
types of employee behavior.
v. To underpin and facilitate the management of organizational change.
There is no one payments system that can achieve all the above mentioned features for all
employees in an organization. Managers are required to weigh up the advantages and
disadvantages of each payment system and decide where to put the emphasis on
The total reward system
Total reward describes a reward strategy that brings components such as learning and
development together with aspects of the work environment, into the benefits package.
In the total reward system both tangible and intangible rewards are considered valuable.
Tangible rewards arise from transactions between the employer and employee and include
rewards such as pay, personal bonuses and other benefits. Intangible rewards have to do with
learning, development and work experience. Examples of these types of rewards are
opportunity to develop, recognition from the employer and colleagues, personal achievement
and social life. The aim of total reward is to maximize the positive impact that a wide range
of rewards can have on motivation, job engagement and organizational commitments.
The purpose of total reward is to create a cluster where all the different reward processes are
connected, complementary and mutually reinforcing each other. In order to achieve internal
consistency, the total reward strategies are horizontally integrated with human resource
activities and vertically integrated with business strategies.
Greater impact – when different types of rewards are combined, they will have a deep
and long-lasting affect on the motivation, commitment and engagement of employees.
Enhancing the employment relationship – total reward appeals more to employees due
to the fact that it makes the maximum use of relational as well as transactional rewards.
Enhancing cost-effectiveness – because total reward communicates effectively the value
of the whole reward package, it minimizes the undervaluing of the true costs of the packages.
Flexibility to meet individual needs – due to the variety of rewards, the total reward is
able to answer the individual needs of the employees and hence bind them more strongly to
the organization.
Winning the war for talent – because relational reward processes are more difficult to
replace than individual pay practices, total reward gives the organization the ability to attract
and retain talented employees by differentiating their recruitment process and hence
becoming “a great place to work.”
The Carrot and Stick Approach to Motivation
A very widely known motivational concept is the ‘Carrot and Stick’ approach. Many
managers see motivation in terms of this notion and so their efforts to motivate is limited to
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asking the question; should I bribe people or simply threaten them? However when put into
practice, this concept is found to be more complicated than this. To motivate is to change
behaviour. How can you change the behaviour of people, both as individuals and as a group
or team? Using the carrot and stick approach, there are basically two ways; behaviour is
changed by force or by choice through the use of incentives.
The ‘stick’ or fear is a good motivator and when used at the correct times can be very helpful.
In that context, fear has always been the ‘convenient’ choice of Malaysian managers and
organisations. When all else fails, the stick approach is somehow most attractive as it usually
produces instantaneous compliance and hence immediate results. Fear is also attractive as in
the short term; an employee’s performance may be improved without any need for incentives
or financial remuneration.
Fear however has its weaknesses in that an organisation motivated by fear is prone to mutiny.
It can also be stressful for employees. It is extrinsic, which means that the motivation only
works while the motivator is present. When the motivator goes, the motivation also usually
goes. Fear is also only useful on a short-term basis, as it needs to be applied in ever-
increasing doses. In a worst case scenario, fear motivation can backfire and could even lead
to cases of sabotage.
On the other hand, people contribute or become more productive because they are offered
incentives i.e. the carrot approach. The major advantage with this is that it can work very well
as long as the incentive is attractive enough. A good illustration of this concept is by using
the well-known analogy of a donkey with a carrot dangling in front, and with a cart behind.
In this instance the carrot serves as the incentive. However, the carrot will only serve as an
incentive if:
The donkey is hungry enough.
The carrot is sweet enough.
The load is light enough.
A combination of the above.
If any of the above is not satisfied, then the carrot will not serve as an incentive. On the
assumption that the conditions are satisfied, there is still the question of letting the donkey
take a bite of the carrot from time to time, otherwise it is going to get discouraged. A new
scenario will then develop in that if the donkey gets to eat the whole carrot and is now not
hungry anymore; putting another carrot in front of it will not serve as an incentive, until it
gets hungry again. This is very often seen in organisations where salesmen on meeting their
quota, stop working as their motivation is only limited to meeting that target.
Once the donkey has eaten the carrot, the next carrot may not be as attractive an incentive as
the first. On the other hand changing the incentive to another vegetable may not necessarily
motivate unless the donkey perceives it as a better incentive than the carrot. This is another
very important element in motivation and that is the reward must be perceived as attractive
enough. Otherwise it will not serve its purpose effectively, and may in fact backfire. For
example, if someone is elected the employee of the month and is then given RM 10/ as a
reward, this will serve to de-motivate as it is considered to be below perceived expectations.
Is money the best ‘carrot’?
There is also the often asked question of what is the best ‘carrot’? The obvious answer to this
seems to be money. People need money to feed, clothe, and house themselves and their
families: this being the basic assumption of Maslow’s theory. Hence, organisations have
always based their motivational schemes on this premise that the more money you give to
employees, the harder they will work. But is this true?
In her article ‘Managing People: Lessons from Matsushita Konosuke, “ Professor Etsu Inaba
of the Asian Institute of Management, spoke of a survey that she conducted of middle
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managers working in well-managed companies in four ASEAN countries i.e. Malaysia, the
Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. All the respondents of this survey received salaries
slightly higher than the industry average. They could join their company’s competitors at
salaries of between 30 and 50% more. When asked ‘What would make you stay with the
company you are working for now?” their replies were:
Clear growth potential for the company. A career development plan for employee’s
professionalism in management.
Money was important but it did not appear to be the only concern for the respondents as they
were proud of the company that they were working for. The findings of the above survey
were complemented by a survey carried out by New York based consulting firm Towers
Perrin. In that survey one of the main questions asked was "What is the biggest long-term
motivator for you?" The results were different from the survey done in Asia, but money was
still not the number one factor. The responses in ranking were as follows:
1. Working for a leader with vision and values.
2. Pay raises and bonuses.
3. Being given greater responsibility.
4. Developing the respect of subordinates and peers.
5. Being given recognition from supervisors and managers.
Simply put, money is not the reason why these respondents want to work. In that context, a
billionaire like Bill Gates and two generations after him could live very comfortably with all
the money that he presently has, and yet he is known to be a workaholic. Quite clearly, a
monthly paycheque is not the main motivation for people like him or the people mentioned
previously, to go to work.
Money is important, but it does not override the fact that there are other factors that may be
better motivators at the appropriate times. In that context, no motivating factor can be looked
at in isolation. No factor by itself will serve to motivate perpetually. There must be a
combination of factors which when used together will serve to achieve the overall objective
of increasing or at least sustaining the motivational levels of employees. Organisations, which
recognise this, will be well on their way to having motivated employees.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg's findings revealed that certain characteristics of a job are consistently related to job
satisfaction, while different factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. These are:
Factors for
Satisfaction
Factors for
Dissatisfaction
Achievement
Recognition
The work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Company policies
Supervision
Relationship with
supervisor and peers
Work conditions
Salary
Status
Security
From 'One More Time: How do You Motivate Employees?' by Frederick Herzberg.
The conclusion he drew is that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposites.
The opposite of Satisfaction is No Satisfaction.
The opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction.
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Remedying the causes of dissatisfaction will not create satisfaction. Nor will adding the
factors of job satisfaction eliminate job dissatisfaction. If you have a hostile work
environment, giving someone a promotion will not make him or her satisfied. If you create a
healthy work environment but do not provide members of your team with any of the
satisfaction factors, the work they're doing will still not be satisfying.
According to Herzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are "separate and distinct from
those that lead to job dissatisfaction." Therefore, if you set about eliminating dissatisfying job
factors you may create peace, but not necessarily enhance performance. This placates your
workforce instead of actually motivating them to improve performance.
The characteristics associated with job dissatisfaction are called hygiene factors. When these
have been adequately addressed, people will not be dissatisfied nor will they be satisfied. If
you want to motivate your team, you then have to focus on satisfaction factors like
achievement, recognition, and responsibility.
Despite its wide acceptance, Herzberg's theory has its detractors. Some say its methodology
does not address the notion that when things are going well people tend to look at the things
they enjoy about their job. When things are going badly, however, they tend to blame
external factors.
Another common criticism is the fact that the theory assumes a strong correlation between
job satisfaction and productivity. Herzberg's methodology did not address this relationship,
therefore this assumption needs to be correct for his findings to have practical relevance.
To apply Herzberg's theory, you need to adopt a two stage process to motivate people.
Firstly, you need eliminate the dissatisfactions they're experiencing and, secondly, you need
to help them find satisfaction.
Step One: Eliminate Job Dissatisfaction
Herzberg called the causes of dissatisfaction "hygiene factors". To get rid of them, you need
to:
1. Fix poor and obstructive company policies.
2. Provide effective, supportive and non-intrusive supervision.
3. Create and support a culture of respect and dignity for all team members.
4. Ensure that wages are competitive.
5. Build job status by providing meaningful work for all positions.
6. Provide job security.
All of these actions help you eliminate job dissatisfaction in your organization. And there's no
point trying to motivate people until these issues are out of the way!
You can't stop there, though. Remember, just because someone is not dissatisfied, it doesn't
mean he or she is satisfied either! Now you have to turn your attention to building job
satisfaction.
Step Two: Create Conditions for Job Satisfaction
To create satisfaction, Herzberg says you need to address the motivating factors associated
with work. He called this "job enrichment". His premise was that every job should be
examined to determine how it could be made better and more satisfying to the person doing
the work. Things to consider include:
1. Providing opportunities for achievement.
2. Recognizing workers' contributions.
3. Creating work that is rewarding and that matches the skills and abilities of the worker.
4. Giving as much responsibility to each team member as possible.
5. Providing opportunities to advance in the company through internal promotions.
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Offering training and development opportunities, so that people can pursue the positions they
want within the company.
Theory X of McGregor:
In this theory, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if
they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of this, management believes that
workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. A
hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each and every level.
According to this theory, employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive
program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. According to Michael J. Papa, if
the organizational goals are to be met, Theory X managers rely heavily on threat and coercion
to gain their employees' compliance. Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive
supervision, and a punitive atmosphere. The Theory X manager tends to believe that
everything must end in blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are
only out for themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employee's
interest in the job is money. They will blame the person first in most situations, without
questioning whether it may be the system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame.
A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that they
would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to structure the work and
energize the employee. One major flaw of this management style is it is much more likely to
cause diseconomies of scale in large picture.
Theory Y of McGregor:
In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and
exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work
duties. According to them work is as natural as play. They possess the ability for creative
problem solving, but their talents are underused in most organizations. Given the proper
conditions, Theory Y managers believe that employees will learn to seek out and accept
responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing objectives to
which they are committed. A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions,
most people will want to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good
job is a strong motivation. Many people interpret Theory Y as a positive set of beliefs about
workers. A close reading of The Human Side of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply
argues for managers to be opened to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that
this creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X managers to
develop the climate of trust with employees that are required for employee development. It's
employee development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. This would include
managers communicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the difference between
superior-subordinate relationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates
can develop and use their abilities. This environment would include sharing of decision
making so that subordinates have a say in decisions that influence them.
Theory X and Theory Y combined:
For McGregor, Theory X and Y are not different ends of the same continuum. Rather they are
two different continua in themselves. McGregor had identified Theory X and Theory Y
differently for the basic characteristics stated previously in the above sections of what these
theories represent. Theory Xassumptions are that individuals dislike their careers. Theory X
people have to be supervised. As for Theory Y assumptions are that individuals like their
careers and are willing to take part in responsibility. Theory Y people don't need supervision
and can be expected to turn good productive value in their jobs.'
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Theory Z of Ouchi:
Dr. William Ouchi's so-called "Japanese Management" style popularized during the Asian
economic boom of the 1980s.For Ouchi, Theory Z focused on increasing employee loyalty to
the company by providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the
employee, both on and off the job. According to Ouchi, Theory Z management tends to
promote stable employment, high productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction.
Ironically, "Japanese Management" and Theory Z itself were based on Dr. W. Edwards
Deming's famous "14 points". Deming, an American scholar whose management and
motivation theories were more popular outside the United States, went on to help lay the
foundation of Japanese organizational development during their expansion in the world
economy in the 1980s. Deming's theories are summarized in his two books, Out of the
Crisis and The New Economics, in which he spells out his "System of Profound Knowledge".
He was a frequent advisor to Japanese business and government leaders, and eventually
became a revered counselor. Deming was awarded the Second Order of the Sacred
Treasures by the former Emperor Hirohito, and American businesses tried to use his
"Japanese" approach to improve their competitive position.
Practical applications of Theories of Motivation in Organizational Behavior
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different
approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by
critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many
people lack motivation.
Employee motivation:
Workers in any organization need something to keep them working. Most of the time,
the salary of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organization. An
employee must be motivated to work for a company or organization. If no motivation is
present in an employee, then that employee’s quality of work or all work in general will
deteriorate. People differ on a personality dimension called locus of control. This variable
refers to individual's beliefs about the location of the factors that control their behavior. At
one end of the continuum are high internals who believe that opportunity to control their own
behavior rests within themselves. At the other end of the continuum there are high externals
who believe that external forces determine their behavior. Not surprisingly, compared with
internals, externals see the world as an unpredictable, chancy place in which luck, fate, or
powerful people control their destinies. When motivating an audience, you can use general
motivational strategies or specific motivational appeals. General motivational strategies
include soft sell versus hard sell and personality type. Soft sell strategies have logical appeals,
emotional appeals, advice and praise. Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering, pressure
and rank. Also, you can consider basing your strategy on your audience personality. Specific
motivational appeals focus on provable facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and
audience threats.
Employee recognition programs:
Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. It's about changing the corporate
culture in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to
the company's core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most
important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation but also to
positively influence the financial situation. The difference between the traditional approach
(gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business
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influencer that can advance a company’s strategic objectives in a measurable way. "The vast
majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models
and better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO
cannot just order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so that,
over time, innovations will emerge.
Education:
Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it
plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the
specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of
motivation studied by psychologists in other fields. Motivation in education can have several
effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter. It can:
1. Direct behavior toward particular goals
2. Lead to increased effort and energy
3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
4. Enhance cognitive processing
5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing
6. Lead to improved performance.
Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated
motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student behaviors, they may find it
difficult to extricate themselves from that path. Consequently student dependency on
extrinsic rewards represents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom.
Self-determination in education:
Self-determination is the ability to make choices and exercise a high degree of control, such
as what the student does and how they do it Self-determination can be supported by providing
opportunities for students to be challenged, such as leadership opportunities, providing
appropriate feedback and fostering, establishing and maintaining good relationships between
teachers and students. These strategies can increase students' interest, competence, creativity
and desire to be challenged and ensure that students are intrinsically motivated to study. On
the other hand, students who lack of self-determination are more likely to feel their success is
out of their control. Such students lose motivation to study, which causes a state of "helpless
learning". Students who feel helpless readily believe they will fail and therefore cease to try.
Over time, a vicious circle of low achievement develops.
Physical activity in education:
Physical activity is body movement that works your muscles and requires more energy than
resting. According to a blog by the American Intercontinental University, college students
should make time for exercise to maintain and increase motivation. AIU states that regular
exercise has impeccable effects on the brain. With consistent running routines, there are more
complex connections between neurons, meaning the brain is able to access its brain cells
more flexibly. By performing well physically, motivation will be present in education
because of how well the brain is performing. After exercising, the brain can have more desire
to obtain knowledge and better retain the information. In addition, exercise can relieve stress.
Exercising can ease anxiety and relieve negative effects of stress on the body. Without stress
factors, individuals can perform better and more efficiently, since their minds will have a
more positive outlook. This positive mood will help keep students motivated and more open
and willing to succeed academically. Lastly, exercise increases focus and concentration that
could also help students maintain their motivation and focus on their studies. AIU claims that
exercise may have improved the students’ ability to participate and retain information during
the class after they had exercised. Being able to retain information and being willing to
participate keeps students motivated and performing well academically.
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Healthy sleeping habits in education:
Sleep is a natural periodic state of rest for the mind and body. According to the American
Academy of Sleep Medicine, it is important and essential for students to obtain the right
amount of sleep in order to succeed in academics. AASM states that getting good nights of
sleep is one of the best ways to maximize performance on finals. It is possible that the more
chaotic and sporadic one’s sleeping schedule is, the harder it will be for that individual to get
an A or B on an exam. Dr. Kushida from AASM proclaims that sleep loss may lead to
learning and memory impairment. In addition, she also comments that lack of sleep can lead
to decreased attention and vigilance. So, with small amounts of sleep, individuals cannot
maintain all their memory or focus needed to score well in their classes. Therefore, sleep is a
requirement in education if the individual wants to succeed academically. The right amount
of sleep will enable individuals to keep their motivation and good grades in education.
Without sleep, students and individual’s memory capacity can become so minimal that it is
possible for them not to even remember what they are supposed to do in a day’s time. In
addition, with a lack of sleep, students cannot physically withhold and function for a long
time, since their bodies will not have the energy. So, with enough sleep, students’ minds will
be clearer and have more potential to contain information. At the same time, students would
be granted with more motivation and energy since their minds and bodies will be more
willing to obtain information.