Leveling techniques, including the use of levels, theodolites and GPS are less applicable
under forest canopies. In addition, the “Light Detection and Ranging” (LIDAR) technique is sophisticated,
expensive and not readily available in developing countries. The current study therefore attempted the use of
water table as an alternative method for leveling the Jozani groundwater forest (JGWF) of Zanzibar,
Tanzania. The “Height of Instrument” method was used to determine reduced level (RL) of the water table
(RLWT) of JGWF from local wells. Then, through temporary wells (TWs), RLWT was used as a wide
benchmark to determine other RLs on the ground surface along 32 transect lines. The height from the water
table to the ground surface (floating height (FH)) was then measured. Benchmark number 205 and SOKKIA
C.3.2 level were used to determine the RLWT. Soil auger was used to open TWs, and cellphone timer and
floating rod tape were used respectively to determine time of water settlement, and FH in a TW. GARMIN
GPS Model Etrex 10 and ArcGIS 10.1 were used for geo-referencing and mapping. Elevations of ground
surfaces were computed by summing the RLWT and FH at a particular point and were then used to produce
digital elevation model (DEM) of JGWF. It is concluded that, use of water table for leveling the
groundwater forest is feasible and an alternative method.
Identification of Groundwater Potential Zones in Vaippar Basin, Tamil Nadu, I...SagarChougule11
Groundwater is prominent part of the earth’s fresh water as well as main source of drinking water and survival source for many lives on earth. Groundwater potential zone identification can be done using advanced as well as recently developed geospatial technology such as Remote Sensing and GIS. GIS technology is useful for capturing, storing, and analyzing spatial data with the help of computer programming techniques. Here in identification of groundwater potential zone using of spatial elements which are related for infiltration of water into ground. For the groundwater potential zone analysis using of spatial layers like geology, geomorphology, rainfall, lineament, land use/land cover, drainage density, soil texture, soil depth etc.
Geological surveys are normally undertaken by private agencies, state government departs of mines and geology, and national geological survey organizations. They maintain the geological inventory of various formations, mineral deposits and resources. They keep all records for the advancement of knowledge of geosciences for the benefit of the nation. Geological mapping are parts of a geological survey. It involves certain procedures. This lesson highlights the methods and procedures of geological mapping.
Identification of Groundwater Potential Zones in Vaippar Basin, Tamil Nadu, I...SagarChougule11
Groundwater is prominent part of the earth’s fresh water as well as main source of drinking water and survival source for many lives on earth. Groundwater potential zone identification can be done using advanced as well as recently developed geospatial technology such as Remote Sensing and GIS. GIS technology is useful for capturing, storing, and analyzing spatial data with the help of computer programming techniques. Here in identification of groundwater potential zone using of spatial elements which are related for infiltration of water into ground. For the groundwater potential zone analysis using of spatial layers like geology, geomorphology, rainfall, lineament, land use/land cover, drainage density, soil texture, soil depth etc.
Geological surveys are normally undertaken by private agencies, state government departs of mines and geology, and national geological survey organizations. They maintain the geological inventory of various formations, mineral deposits and resources. They keep all records for the advancement of knowledge of geosciences for the benefit of the nation. Geological mapping are parts of a geological survey. It involves certain procedures. This lesson highlights the methods and procedures of geological mapping.
Geohydrological study of weathered basement aquifers in Oban Massif and envir...iosrjce
The focus of this research is to model the geohydrology of the precambrian Oban Massif using
geospatial techniques. Groundwater control indicators such as geology, geomorphology, drainage density,
lineament density, land use / land cover and slope steepness were derived from landsat ETM+
imagery, ASTER
DEM and SRTM DEM. Image processing software such as ENVI 3.2, ARC GIS9.2 and PCI Geomatica were
used for image processing , digitizing and lineament density computation respectively. Weighted averages of the
groundwater controlling factors were used to produce thematic maps of geology, lineament density, drainage
density, slope steepness, land use/land cover and geomorphological units. The thematic maps were overlaid in a
GIS environment to model the ground water potential map of the area. Arc GIS, Arc View and Map Info were
used for geographic Information System analysis. ERDAS imagine 8.6 and ENVI 4.2 were used for
georeferencing, image analysis and coordinate transformation. ASTER DEM was used for analysis of
geomorphology. For vegetation, discrimination in land cover / land use mapping band 4: 3: 2 for landsat ETM+
was used. Unsupervised was used to have a general idea of the area. Supervised classification was used for
final land use/ land cover mapping. Result show that geology, lineament density, and slope steepness are the
most influential groundwater controlling factors of groundwater potential. Their degree of influence can be
summarized as geology > lineament density> slope>geomorphology>drainage density>land use / land cover.
From the groundwater potential map, four groundwater potential zones: very good, moderately good, fair and
poor. Successful boreholes drilled in the groundwater favourable potential areas should be reticulated to the
neighbourhood with poor groundwater potentials to salvage groundwater problem in the study area.
Water-Body Area Extraction From High Resolution Satellite Images-An Introduct...CSCJournals
Water resources play an important role in region planning, natural disaster, industrial and agricultural production and so on. Surveying of water-bodies and delineate its features properly is very first step for any planning, especially for places like India, where the land-cover is dominated by water-bodies. Recording images, such as from satellite, sometimes does not reflect the distinguished characteristics of water with non-water features, e.g. shadows of super structures. Image of water body is confused easily with the shadow of skyscraper, since calm water surface induces mirror reflection when it gives birth to echo wave. Over the past decade, a significant amount of research been conducted to extract the water body information from multi-resolution satellite image. The objective of this paper is to review methodologies applied for water body extraction using satellite remote sensing. First, studies on water body detection are treated. Methodological issues related to the use of these methods were summarized. Results from empirical studies, applying water-body extraction techniques are collected and discussed. Important issues for future research are also identified and discussed.
To prevent losing water resources and wetlands, and conserve existing wetlands
ecosystem for ecosystem and biodiversity services, good, wetlands habitats forstart
any sustainable development programs, it is necessary to detect, monitor and
inventory water resources and their surround uplands. Recently, AL-Razaza Lake
suffer from a critical situation because of the decreasing in the water level and
increase a salinity. We have propose a method to monitor and model the spatial and
multi-temporal changes of AL-Razaza Lake in the period 1992–2018. This study
includes pre-processing, processing and post-processing stages. In Addition, a
supervised classification was used to classify the satellite images. Validation result
reveals that the overall accuracies and kappa coefficients of the supervised
classifications were 88, 90.79, 95.94 and 87.67 respectively, and 82%, 86%, 93% and
79% respectively. The results showed that the percentage change was significant
during this period, such that the decreased surface area was from 1313.87 km2 in
1992 to 224.85 km2 in 201.The noticeable results show the rapidly decreasing in the
Lake area by 82.8% with area about 1089.02 km2 over the last three decades. All the
dehydration extended area of the Lake was replaced by soil.
The integration of space born and ground remotely sensed dataoilandgas24
The integration of space born and ground remotely sensed data in exploring the environmental stresses and deterioration in ras gharib area, gulf of suez, egypt
Assesment of groundwater_potential_zones_for_bruhat_bangalore_mahanagara_pali...Mohammed Badiuddin Parvez
Groundwater is an important natural resource in present day, but of limited use due to frequent failures in monsoon, undependable surface water, and rapid urbanization and industrialization have created a major threat to this valuable resource. The present work is an attempt to integrate RS and GIS based analysis and methodology in groundwater potential zone identification in the BBMP study area with an aerial extent of 715.95 km2. By Mohammed Badiuddin Parvez
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, Greece. Mid-Term Pr...Universität Salzburg
Research problem focuses on studying dynamics of spatial distribution of the seagrass meadows with a case study of P. oceanica, using aerial and satellite imagery over the 10-years period. Characteristics of the spectral reflectance of seagrass enables its discrimination from other seafloor types. Raster images processing using RS methods is suitable for seagrass mapping. Current MSc research is based on various sources of data: fieldwork in-situ measurements, satellite imagery, aerial imagery and GIS layers (maps of Crete). Technically, research is based on using GIS and RS methods: ENVI and ArcGIS software.
Evaluation of morphometric parameters derived from Cartosat-1 DEM using remot...Dr Ramesh Dikpal
The quantitative analysis of drainage system is
an important aspect of characterization of watersheds.
Using watershed as a basin unit in morphometric analysis
is the most logical choice because all hydrological and
geomorphic processes occur within the watershed. The
Budigere Amanikere watershed a tributary of Dakshina
Pinakini River has been selected for case illustration.
Geoinformatics module consisting of ArcGIS 10.3v and
Cartosat-1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) version 1 of
resolution 1 arc Sec (*32 m) data obtained from Bhuvan
is effectively used. Sheet and gully erosion are identified in
parts of the study area. Slope in the watershed indicating
moderate to least runoff and negligible soil loss condition.
Third and fourth-order sub-watershed analysis is carried
out. Mean bifurcation ratio (Rb) 3.6 specify there is no
dominant influence of geology and structures, low drainage
density (Dd) 1.12 and low stream frequency (Fs) 1.17
implies highly infiltration subsoil material and low runoff,
infiltration number (If)1.3 implies higher infiltration
capacity, coarse drainage texture (T) 3.40 shows high
permeable subsoil, length of overland flow (Lg) 0.45
indicates under very less structural disturbances, less runoff
conditions, constant of channel maintenance (C) 0.9 indicates
higher permeability of subsoil, elongation ratio (Re)
0.58, circularity ratio (Rc) 0.75 and form factor (Rf) 0.26
signifies sub-circular to more elongated basin with high
infiltration with low runoff. It was observed from the
hypsometric curves and hypsometric integral values of the
watershed along with their sub basins that the drainage
system is attaining a mature stage of geomorphic development.
Additionally, Hypsometric curve and hypsometric
integral value proves that the infiltration capacity is high as
well as runoff is low in the watershed. Thus, these mormometric
analyses can be used as an estimator of erosion
status of watersheds leading to prioritization for taking up
soil and water conservation measures.
Geohydrological study of weathered basement aquifers in Oban Massif and envir...iosrjce
The focus of this research is to model the geohydrology of the precambrian Oban Massif using
geospatial techniques. Groundwater control indicators such as geology, geomorphology, drainage density,
lineament density, land use / land cover and slope steepness were derived from landsat ETM+
imagery, ASTER
DEM and SRTM DEM. Image processing software such as ENVI 3.2, ARC GIS9.2 and PCI Geomatica were
used for image processing , digitizing and lineament density computation respectively. Weighted averages of the
groundwater controlling factors were used to produce thematic maps of geology, lineament density, drainage
density, slope steepness, land use/land cover and geomorphological units. The thematic maps were overlaid in a
GIS environment to model the ground water potential map of the area. Arc GIS, Arc View and Map Info were
used for geographic Information System analysis. ERDAS imagine 8.6 and ENVI 4.2 were used for
georeferencing, image analysis and coordinate transformation. ASTER DEM was used for analysis of
geomorphology. For vegetation, discrimination in land cover / land use mapping band 4: 3: 2 for landsat ETM+
was used. Unsupervised was used to have a general idea of the area. Supervised classification was used for
final land use/ land cover mapping. Result show that geology, lineament density, and slope steepness are the
most influential groundwater controlling factors of groundwater potential. Their degree of influence can be
summarized as geology > lineament density> slope>geomorphology>drainage density>land use / land cover.
From the groundwater potential map, four groundwater potential zones: very good, moderately good, fair and
poor. Successful boreholes drilled in the groundwater favourable potential areas should be reticulated to the
neighbourhood with poor groundwater potentials to salvage groundwater problem in the study area.
Water-Body Area Extraction From High Resolution Satellite Images-An Introduct...CSCJournals
Water resources play an important role in region planning, natural disaster, industrial and agricultural production and so on. Surveying of water-bodies and delineate its features properly is very first step for any planning, especially for places like India, where the land-cover is dominated by water-bodies. Recording images, such as from satellite, sometimes does not reflect the distinguished characteristics of water with non-water features, e.g. shadows of super structures. Image of water body is confused easily with the shadow of skyscraper, since calm water surface induces mirror reflection when it gives birth to echo wave. Over the past decade, a significant amount of research been conducted to extract the water body information from multi-resolution satellite image. The objective of this paper is to review methodologies applied for water body extraction using satellite remote sensing. First, studies on water body detection are treated. Methodological issues related to the use of these methods were summarized. Results from empirical studies, applying water-body extraction techniques are collected and discussed. Important issues for future research are also identified and discussed.
To prevent losing water resources and wetlands, and conserve existing wetlands
ecosystem for ecosystem and biodiversity services, good, wetlands habitats forstart
any sustainable development programs, it is necessary to detect, monitor and
inventory water resources and their surround uplands. Recently, AL-Razaza Lake
suffer from a critical situation because of the decreasing in the water level and
increase a salinity. We have propose a method to monitor and model the spatial and
multi-temporal changes of AL-Razaza Lake in the period 1992–2018. This study
includes pre-processing, processing and post-processing stages. In Addition, a
supervised classification was used to classify the satellite images. Validation result
reveals that the overall accuracies and kappa coefficients of the supervised
classifications were 88, 90.79, 95.94 and 87.67 respectively, and 82%, 86%, 93% and
79% respectively. The results showed that the percentage change was significant
during this period, such that the decreased surface area was from 1313.87 km2 in
1992 to 224.85 km2 in 201.The noticeable results show the rapidly decreasing in the
Lake area by 82.8% with area about 1089.02 km2 over the last three decades. All the
dehydration extended area of the Lake was replaced by soil.
The integration of space born and ground remotely sensed dataoilandgas24
The integration of space born and ground remotely sensed data in exploring the environmental stresses and deterioration in ras gharib area, gulf of suez, egypt
Assesment of groundwater_potential_zones_for_bruhat_bangalore_mahanagara_pali...Mohammed Badiuddin Parvez
Groundwater is an important natural resource in present day, but of limited use due to frequent failures in monsoon, undependable surface water, and rapid urbanization and industrialization have created a major threat to this valuable resource. The present work is an attempt to integrate RS and GIS based analysis and methodology in groundwater potential zone identification in the BBMP study area with an aerial extent of 715.95 km2. By Mohammed Badiuddin Parvez
Seagrass mapping and monitoring along the coast of Crete, Greece. Mid-Term Pr...Universität Salzburg
Research problem focuses on studying dynamics of spatial distribution of the seagrass meadows with a case study of P. oceanica, using aerial and satellite imagery over the 10-years period. Characteristics of the spectral reflectance of seagrass enables its discrimination from other seafloor types. Raster images processing using RS methods is suitable for seagrass mapping. Current MSc research is based on various sources of data: fieldwork in-situ measurements, satellite imagery, aerial imagery and GIS layers (maps of Crete). Technically, research is based on using GIS and RS methods: ENVI and ArcGIS software.
Evaluation of morphometric parameters derived from Cartosat-1 DEM using remot...Dr Ramesh Dikpal
The quantitative analysis of drainage system is
an important aspect of characterization of watersheds.
Using watershed as a basin unit in morphometric analysis
is the most logical choice because all hydrological and
geomorphic processes occur within the watershed. The
Budigere Amanikere watershed a tributary of Dakshina
Pinakini River has been selected for case illustration.
Geoinformatics module consisting of ArcGIS 10.3v and
Cartosat-1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) version 1 of
resolution 1 arc Sec (*32 m) data obtained from Bhuvan
is effectively used. Sheet and gully erosion are identified in
parts of the study area. Slope in the watershed indicating
moderate to least runoff and negligible soil loss condition.
Third and fourth-order sub-watershed analysis is carried
out. Mean bifurcation ratio (Rb) 3.6 specify there is no
dominant influence of geology and structures, low drainage
density (Dd) 1.12 and low stream frequency (Fs) 1.17
implies highly infiltration subsoil material and low runoff,
infiltration number (If)1.3 implies higher infiltration
capacity, coarse drainage texture (T) 3.40 shows high
permeable subsoil, length of overland flow (Lg) 0.45
indicates under very less structural disturbances, less runoff
conditions, constant of channel maintenance (C) 0.9 indicates
higher permeability of subsoil, elongation ratio (Re)
0.58, circularity ratio (Rc) 0.75 and form factor (Rf) 0.26
signifies sub-circular to more elongated basin with high
infiltration with low runoff. It was observed from the
hypsometric curves and hypsometric integral values of the
watershed along with their sub basins that the drainage
system is attaining a mature stage of geomorphic development.
Additionally, Hypsometric curve and hypsometric
integral value proves that the infiltration capacity is high as
well as runoff is low in the watershed. Thus, these mormometric
analyses can be used as an estimator of erosion
status of watersheds leading to prioritization for taking up
soil and water conservation measures.
Delineation of potential groundwater recharge zones plays a vital role in sustainable management of groundwater resources. The present study is carried out to identify the groundwater potential recharge zones in Multan, Pakistan by using Remote Sensing (RS) & Geographical Information System (GIS) for augmenting groundwater resources. In Multan district (Punjab, Pakistan), the increasing population and expansion of land use for agriculture have severely exploited the regional ground water resources. Land Use Land Cover (LULC) change is an accelerating phenomenon on the surface of earth driven by anthropogenic activities including urban expansion, deforestation, and climatic variations. Intensive pumping has resulted in a rapid decline in the level of water table as well as its quality. Better management practices and artificial recharge are needed for the development of sustainable groundwater resources. In order to address these issues Geographic information system (GIS) and Remote sensing (RS) are the most efficient methods for the identification and detection of Land Use patterns. All of these techniques are used for mapping and identification of groundwater potential analysis. This groundwater potential information will be useful for the effective identification of appropriate locations for extraction of water. This study should be done to delineate groundwater potential recharge zones by using different thematic layers that were overlaid in ArcGIS. In the overlay analysis, the weights (for various thematic layers) are allocated based on a review of published literature or by expert opinion. The assigned weights are then normalized and modified using the analytical hierarchical process (AHP). The potential recharge map thus obtained and divided into four zones (poor, moderate, good, and very good) based on their influence to groundwater recharge.
Remote sensing and Geographical Information System using for Water Resources ...AI Publications
Nowadays, studies on water resources management are quite important. This study on a subwatershed of the Bandama River in Côte d’Ivoire got a better understanding of the geomorphological characteristics of the study area. The use of satellite images and geographic information systems tools allowed to respond appropriately the management of water resources. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Farandougou subwatershed, the Bandama river hydrographic network and the geostatistical analysis of this subwatershed have been shown and interpreted in this study. The area’s elevation is between 0 and 700 meters approximatively. The value of river length minimum is around 11273.091 meters and the value of river length maximum is around 44415.180 meters, the coefficient of variation is around 0.462 for example. The geostatistic of Kohoua at Farandougou has given also mean of 449.621 meters, mediane of 441 meters, variance of 3040.996 meters and standard deviation of 55.145 meters. The majority of the Kohoua subwatershed area has an elevation around 410 meters versus the minority around 715 meters.
Evaluation of Groundwater Resource Potential using GIS and Remote Sensing App...IJERA Editor
Environment and Development are the two wheels of the cart. However, they become antagonists at some
points. It has been witnessed many a times that development is done at the cost of environment. Analysis and
assessment tools like GIS along with Remote Sensing have proved to be very efficient and effective and hence
useful for management of natural resources. Groundwater is a precious resource of limited extent. In order to
ensure a judicious use of groundwater, proper evaluation is required. There is an urgent need of planned and
optimal development of water resources. An appropriate strategy is required to develop water resources with
planning based on conjunctive use of surface and subsurface water resources. Integrated remote sensing and GIS
can provide the appropriate platform for convergent analysis of diverse data sets for decision making in
groundwater management and planning. Sustainable water resources development and management necessarily
depends on proper planning, implementation, operation and maintenance. The interpretation of remote sensing
data in conjunction with conventional data and sufficient ground truth information makes it possible to identify
and outline various ground features such as geological structures, geomorphic features and their hydrologic
characters that may serve as direct or indirect indicators of the presence of ground and surface water. Remotely
sensed data provides unbiased information on geology, geomorphology, structural pattern and recharging
conditions, which logically define the groundwater regime of an area. Groundwater resource potential has been
evaluated in Pulivendula-Sanivaripalli, Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh, India, using remote sensing and
Geographic information system. Under this study, three thematic maps viz. Geological map (Lithology and
Structure), Geomorphological map and Hydro morphological maps were prepared. These thematic maps have
been integrated with the help of GIS. Appropriate weightage has been assigned to various factors controlling
occurrence of groundwater to assess the groundwater potential in each segment of the study area. The area has
been classified into high potential, moderate potential, low potential and non-potential zones landforms ground
water development on the basis of hydromorphological studies. Some of the favorable locations have been
suggested to impound the excessive run off so as to augment the ground water resources of the area.
Evaluation of Groundwater Resource Potential using GIS and Remote Sensing App...IJERA Editor
Environment and Development are the two wheels of the cart. However, they become antagonists at some
points. It has been witnessed many a times that development is done at the cost of environment. Analysis and
assessment tools like GIS along with Remote Sensing have proved to be very efficient and effective and hence
useful for management of natural resources. Groundwater is a precious resource of limited extent. In order to
ensure a judicious use of groundwater, proper evaluation is required. There is an urgent need of planned and
optimal development of water resources. An appropriate strategy is required to develop water resources with
planning based on conjunctive use of surface and subsurface water resources. Integrated remote sensing and GIS
can provide the appropriate platform for convergent analysis of diverse data sets for decision making in
groundwater management and planning. Sustainable water resources development and management necessarily
depends on proper planning, implementation, operation and maintenance. The interpretation of remote sensing
data in conjunction with conventional data and sufficient ground truth information makes it possible to identify
and outline various ground features such as geological structures, geomorphic features and their hydrologic
characters that may serve as direct or indirect indicators of the presence of ground and surface water. Remotely
sensed data provides unbiased information on geology, geomorphology, structural pattern and recharging
conditions, which logically define the groundwater regime of an area. Groundwater resource potential has been
evaluated in Pulivendula-Sanivaripalli, Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh, India, using remote sensing and
Geographic information system. Under this study, three thematic maps viz. Geological map (Lithology and
Structure), Geomorphological map and Hydro morphological maps were prepared. These thematic maps have
been integrated with the help of GIS. Appropriate weightage has been assigned to various factors controlling
occurrence of groundwater to assess the groundwater potential in each segment of the study area. The area has
been classified into high potential, moderate potential, low potential and non-potential zones landforms ground
water development on the basis of hydromorphological studies. Some of the favorable locations have been
suggested to impound the excessive run off so as to augment the ground water resources of the area.
Morphometric Studies of Fourth order Sub-Basins (FOSB’s) in North Bangalore M...Dr Ramesh Dikpal
The quantitative analysis of drainage system is an important aspect of characterization of watersheds. Using watershed as a basic unit in morphometric analysis is the most logical choice because all hydrologic and geomorphic processes occur within the watershed. The North Bangalore Metropolitan Region is constitutes a part of North Pennar, South Pennar and Cauvery Basins has been selected for the case illustration. Geo-informatics module consists of GIS mapping for location map, drainage map, surface water body map, sub-basin map etc are generated. Morphometric module consists of morphometric analysis for several drainage basin parameters include stream order, stream length, bifurcation ratio, drainage density, drainage frequency, form factor, elongation ratio, circularity ratio, texture ratio, length of overland flow and constant of channel maintenance are also calculated. An attempt has been made to utilize the interpretation capabilities of GIS to find out the relationship between the morphometric parameters at sub basin level.
Groundwater Potential Zone Identification of Karwi Area, Mandakini River Basi...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Identification Of Ground Water Potential Zones In Tamil Nadu By Remote Sensin...IJERA Editor
A case study was conducted to find out the groundwater potential zones in Salem, Erode and Namakkal districts, Tamil Nadu, India with an aerial extent of 360.60 km2. The thematic maps such as geology, geomorphology, soil hydrological group, land use / land cover and drainage map were prepared for the study area. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) has been generated from the 10 m interval contour lines (which is derived from SOI, Toposheet 1:25000 scale) and obtained the slope (%) of the study area. The groundwater potential zones were obtained by overlaying all the thematic maps in terms of weighted overlay methods using the spatial analysis tool in Arc GIS 9.3. During weighted overlay analysis, the ranking has been given for each individual parameter of each thematic map and weights were assigned according to the influence such as soil −25%, geomorphology − 25%, land use/land cover −25%, slope − 15%, lineament − 5% and drainage / streams − 5% and find out the potential zones in terms of good, moderate and poor zones with the area of 49.70 km2, 261.61 km2 and 46.04 km2 respectively. The potential zone wise study area was overlaid with village boundary map and the village wise groundwater potential zones with three categories such as good, moderate and poor zones were obtained. This GIS based output result was validated by conducting field survey by randomly selecting wells in different villages using GPS instruments. The coordinates of each well location were obtained by GPS and plotted in the GIS platform and it was clearly shown that the well coordinates were exactly seated with the classified zones.
Integrated application of HEC-RAS and GIS and RS for flood risk assessment i...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Watershed delineation and LULC mappingKapil Thakur
Watershed Delineation - a watershed as an enormous bowl. As water falls onto the bowl’s rim, it either flows down the inside of the bowl or down the outside of the bowl. The rim of the bowl or the watershed boundary is sometimes referred to as the ridgeline or watershed divide. This ridge line separates one watershed from
another.
Topographic maps created by the United States Geological Survey can help you to determine a watershed’s boundaries.
Land use and land cover map (LULC Mapping) -
Land cover indicates the physical land type such as forest or open water whereas land use documents how people are using the land. … Land cover maps provide information to help managers best understand the current landscape. To see change over time, land cover maps for several different years are needed.
7 Journal of Life Sciences and Biomedicine (2710-4915 2710-3447).pdfPublisherNasir
Research article: Mapping of LC/LU changes inside the Agdam district of the Karabakh economics region applying object-based satellite image analysis
Author (s): A.A. Rasouli, M.M. Asgarova, S.H. Safarov pdf, doi.org/10.29228/jlsb.22
MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF SUKE SUB-WATERSHED OF TAWA RESERVOIR CATCHMENT AREA ...Journal For Research
The study area covers 732.95 Km2 in suke sub-watershed of Tawa reservoir catchment area of Hoshangabad, Bhopal (M.P.). the drainage network of suke sub watershed and measurement of Linear, Aereal and Relief aspects of basin by digitized using remote sensing and GIS techniques. The drainage network shows that the terrain exhibits dendritic drainage pattern. Stream order ranges from one to sixth order. The drainage density in the area 2.06km/km.2 belong to moderate category.Stream frequency in the area 2.82 and texture ratio 4.08 is range to belong moderate condition. The form factor indicate the sub watershed are less elongated in shape. The high value of circulatory ration the sub watershed is characterize by high to moderate relief and drainage system structurally controlled but the study area Rc is less than .50 indicating they are less elongated in shape.
Similar to Use of water table as a benchmark for leveling groundwater forest: The case of Jozani Groundwater Forest, Zanzibar, Tanzania (20)
Efforts made in many countries to stop the COVID-19 pandemic include vaccinations. However,
public skepticism about vaccines is a pressing issue for health authorities. With the COVID-19 vaccine
available,
SARS-CoV-2, as the causative agent of COVID-19, has spread throughout the world after becoming
a pandemic in March 2020. In the midst of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, we are also faced with another
serious health problem
This paper discusses the construction and implementation of a system for the measurement of
electrical power parameters; amperage and voltage of the hybrid system photovoltaic solar-wind, to evaluate
the system parameters and performance. The basis of the development of the measuring apparatus is the use of
an Arduino Mega 2560 to provide the interface between the electrical circuits of the sensors and the dynamics
of the voltage-amperage as well as collect data in an analog format as well as development of functional
dependence relationships. The collected data is converted into digital format and stored it in an Excel format
through the "PLX-DAQ Spreadsheet" that connects the Arduino and the PC for display and analysis of the
system parameters. The proposed technique for power measurements of AC and DC proved to be reliable and
can predict the power amperage and voltage within relative error of 1.63 % for AC and 4.16% for DC,
respectively.
The optimum speed required for mass-size reduction of shells to produce most sizes that are small
comparable with kernel sizes; coupled with retention of kernel wholeness in cracked palm nut mixture under
repeated impact was investigated. This is to enhance whole kernel separation by dry method, reduce maintenance
and production cost of palm kernel oil (PK0); and lower the risk of oil rancidity associated with split kernel
production and wet method of separation. A static nut cracker and centrifugal nut cracker were used in this study as
Test Rigs while sieves were used to grade cracked shells and whole kernels. The data generated were evaluated. A
model was developed for energy via speed required to retain kernels wholeness following repeated impact in the
crackers. Technical analysis revealed that the maximum allowable speed to retain kernel wholeness is 27.93 m/s;
the minimum allowable average speed to fragment cracked shells is 24.95 m/s. Further analysis showed that the
optimum speed and energy required for cracked nut mixture under repeated impact to have kernel wholeness
retention and production of small sizes of cracked shells relative to kernel sizes are 25.71 m/s and 0.4 J,
respectively.
This review was written to provide a comprehensive summary of the suggested etiologies of Chronic Kidney
Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. In this review, Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is explained
in detail and its known etiologies are discussed. CKDu is defined and its epidemiology is discussed, with the
compilation of statistic from over 15 research papers through the years 2000 to present.
This work contributes to the monitoring of water pollution of some selected Dams in Katsina
State, North western Nigeria by assessing the degree of heavy metal pollution in the Dams sediment samples.
The study was conducted in the year 2017 within some selected Dams in the State (Ajiwa, Zobe,
Sabke/Dannakola) that are beehives of fishing and Agricultural activities in Katsina State. Analysis for the
concentration of these heavy metals; Cr, Cd, Fe, Ni, Mn, Pb and Zn was conducted by the use of AAS (by
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry) method. Several indices were used to assess the metal contamination
levels in the sediment samples, namely; Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo), Enrichment Factor (EF),
Contamination Factor (CF), Degree of Contamination (Cd), Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Potential
Ecological Risk Index (PERI). The result of this study has shown that generally among the heavy metals
evaluated, the highest concentration was observed for Fe (range: 2.6718-4.2830 ppm), followed by Zn (range:
0.4265-0.7376 ppm), Cr (range: 0.1106-0.1836 ppm), Cd (range: 0.1333-0.1273 ppm) and Mn (range: 0.1136-
0.1271 ppm). While Pb has the lowest concentration (range: 0.0472-0.0598 ppm). For all the site sampled the
heavy metal Ni was below detection level (BDL). From the results of heavy metals I-geo values, according to
Muller’s classification, all the sediment samples from the selected dams were unpolluted (class 0). The result for
the enrichment factor has shown that for all the selected dam sediment samples the heavy metals show
deficiency to minimal enrichment. Also based on the contamination factors for all sediment samples the heavy
metal Cd has a CF values range of 0.5430-0.6665 (~1), indicating that the sediment samples are moderately
contaminated with Cd. In contrast, the rest of the heavy metals exhibit low contamination in general. The value
of PLI ranges from 0.2408 to 0.4935, indicating unpolluted to moderate pollution. The Eri values for all
samples are all < 40, presenting low ecological risk. The results suggest that the sediment samples from the
selected dams in Katsina state has low contamination by the heavy metals evaluated.
Using QR Decomposition to calculate the sum of squares of a model has a limitation that the number of rows,
which is also the number of observations or responses, has to be greater than the total number of parameters used in the
model. The main goal in the experimental design model, as a part of the Linear Model, is to analyze the estimable function
of the parameters used in the model. In order not to deal with generalized invers, partitioned design matrix may be used
instead. This partitioned design matrix method may be used to calculate the sum of squares of the models whenever the total
number of parameters is greater than the number of observations. It can also be used to find the degrees of freedom of each
source of variation components. This method is discussed in a Balanced Nested-Factorial Experimental Design.
Introduction:It has been proven twice that the Hambantota District has the highest life expectancy in male
population. This study focused to find and identify reasons for Hambantota District people to have high life
expectancy at birth.
Methodology: Research was carried out in both qualitative and quantitative phases in five MOH (Medical
Health Officer) divisions in HambantotaDistrict. Study focused on 3 age categories, 55-65 Years, 66-75 Years,
and above 76 Years. Main objectives and key information areas are Life Style and Social Behaviors, Food
Consumption and Diet, Familial Trait and Physical and Mental Health.
Findings: Majority of the male population have educated up to grade 5and most are engaged in the agriculture
while others engaged in fishery and self-employment etc. Almost everyone reachestheir workplaces by foot or by
bicycle. Many of them work less than six hours. They spend their free time with their family members and watch
TV. Most of them do not consume alcohol and smoke. Almost everyone take part in social activities. Majority eat
red rice for all three meals. Almost everyone eats fish every day. They have a high salt intake. Their parents and
ancestors have also have had a high life expectancy. Only a minority suffer from chronic illnesses. They all have
a good physical and mental health condition. They spend happy and relaxed lifestyle.
Conclusion: Healthy diet, low alcohols consumption and smoking, high iodine intake, physical activeness and
their social wellbeing effect for high life expectancy within the male population of selected five MOH divisions
in Hambantota District. They have a free and happy life. Genetics of these people also may contribute for high
life expectancy. Abundance of neem trees in this area also may effect on their high life expectancy.
A clay deposit in Chavakali of western Kenya was evaluated for its potential as refractory raw
material. The collected clay sample was crushed, sieved and the chemical composition determined in
percentage weight (wt %) of (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, etc) using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The
samples were moulded into rectangular shaped bricks of 40mm height, 40mm width and 80mm length, allowed
to dry and later fired up to a temperature of 10000C. Refractory properties like Compressive strength,
Hardness, Linear shrinkage on firing, Apparent porosity and Density were determined using standard
techniques. The result of chemical analysis indicated that the clay was composed of Silica (SiO2), 67.3%;
Alumina (Al2O3), 16.67%; Iron Oxide (Fe2O3), 3.87%; Calcium Oxide (CaO), 0.37%; Potassium Oxide (K2O),
2.30%; Sodium Oxide (Na2O), 1.39%; and other traces. The physical and mechanical tests show that the clay
has Cold Crushing Strength of 10.36MPa, Hardness of 40.080 GPa, Linear shrinkage of 6.17%, Apparent
Porosity of 32.71% and Bulk Density of 2.77g/cm3
. Chavakali clay can make better local refractory
Nihon University challenged world record of the human-powered aircraft flight based on the
regulation of Fédération Aérionautique Internationale in Kasumigaura Lake, Japan, 2014. The wing fell off in
midair immediately after take-off, the pilot landed to the lake for safety. So, the challenge failed. It guessed the
operational errors were correlated with the wing falling in midair, which had not happened in our experience.
The flight recording camera and the salvaged airplane were investigated. The fault tree analysis was conducted
for cause investigation. The wing falling was the result as the chain destruction starting from the coupling parts
being damaged in take-off. The defective take-off was caused by composite factors on only operational errors.
The risk that the ultralight airplane might disintegrate in midair by only operational error became apparent.
Due to the large-scale exploitation of mineral resources and the unreasonable human activities, the
geological disasters in Jiaozuo City have become increasingly prominent and the degree of harm increased. This
leds to a tremendous threat to human life and property safety. Jiaozuo City, the main types of geological
disasters, landslides, ground subsidence, debris flow and ground fissures. It has great significance to the
development of the city and the protection of people's life and property to explore the hidden dangers of
geological disasters and actively take preventive and control measures. The establishment of geological
hazard group measurement system of prevention and control to achieve the timely detection of geological
disasters, rapid early warning and effective avoidance.
Dangerous gas explosion accidents result in considerable amount of casualties and property damage.
Hence, an investigation on the generation of poisonous gases in gas explosions exerts important implications
for accident prevention and control and in the decision-making processes of fire rescue. Therefore, a gas
explosion piping test system is established in this paper. Experimental research on gas explosion is conducted by
selecting methane/air premixed gases with concentrations of 7%, 9%, 11%, 13%, and 15% in the gas explosive
range. This research aims to reveal the regularity of CO generation after gas explosion in pipelines.
Experimental results showed that when the gas concentration is small (< 9%), 1500–3000 ppm CO will be
produced. When the gas concentration is large (> 9%), the CO amount will reach 3000–40000 ppm. The
variation trend in CO concentration and the quantity of explosive gas are also obtained.
To evaluate the influence of the entry speed to flow field above the water surface on an object
high-speed entering into water, the flow field was measured experimentally by using an optical visualization
method. The entry speed was ranging from 0.2 to 1.5 km/s. In case that the entry speed was higher than the
sound speed of gas above the water surface, the vertical velocity of the tip of a water splash was linear to the
vertical location of the tip. The ratio between the initial vertical velocity of a water splash and the entry speed
was independent from the entry speed and was constant.A shock wave was driven above the water surface by the
entry even thoughthe entry speed was lower than the sound speed of gas above the water surface.A scaling law
for the propagation of a shock wave driven by explosion of an explosive was applicable to the propagation of
the shock wave driven by the water entry by using the kinetic energy of the entry object instead of the explosive
energy.
Pingdingshan Coal Mine district is one of the six mining areas of Henan Province, which is a
large coal base in China. After 60 years of exploitation, it has brought great benefits, at the same time,
serious geological disasters have been occurred. It has seriously damaged the normal production of the
masses, life, restricting the development of Pingdingshan coal mine economy. In this paper, the
geological disasters such as ground collapse, ground fissures and ground subsidence in Pingdingshan coal
mine are analyzed, and the degree of geological disasters in the mining area is analyzed in combination
with the severely affected mining area. Finally, reasonable and feasible countermeasures have been put
forward.
Kelud volcano is located in East Java Province, Indonesia. According to Geochemical study of
Kelud Volcano, it could be divided into 3 periods which are Kelud I (older than 100 ky BP), Kelud II (40 – 100
ky BP), and Kelud III (younger than 40 ky BP). A specific petrogenesis of Kelud are dominatad by magma
mixing and fractional crystalization. New petrological data from Kelud volcano was taken through products of
the eruption in 1990 (Vulkanian type), 2007 (Lava plug forming) and 2014 (Plinian type). Petrographic study
on these rocks showed that reverse and oscilatory zoning on plagioclases, Shieve-like and corroded textures on
plagioclases and pyroxenes are common. However, normal zoning textures were also found on plagioclases and
pyroxenes. Whole rock study on these rocks showed all rocks were classified into Basalt to Andesite in
composition with calc-alkaline group. The study indicated that their magma origin derrived from slab with
fractional crystallization during in the magma reservoir, and magma mixing processes are dominant expecially
in magma pockets. Concequently, the magma origin and petrogenesis of Kelud magma after the 1966 eruption
are still the same as those of old magma of Kelud.
Black cotton soils are among a group of soils termed as problematic soils. These soils have
undesirable characteristics in relation to construction works and therefore need some form of improvement
when encountered in construction projects. Techniques for improvement of black cotton soils include
replacement, moisture control or adding a stabilizer. Cement and/or lime has been commonly used in soil
stabilization for ages. However, due to the associated cost, required quality control and the need to utilize waste
materials in construction, new stabilizing materials are emerging. This paper presents a study on application of
quarry dust for improving properties of black cotton soil in Mbeya region, Tanzania. The targeted improvement
was to achieve minimum acceptable characteristics for road subgrade as per Tanzania standards. It was
determined that 40% by weight of quarry dust added to the black cotton soil was able to improve the
characteristics by increasing CBR value from 3.8 to 15.7 and reducing PI from 32% to 15%. It will be worthy
studying the cost implication of the suggested improvement in relation to other techniques before application of
the study findings.
High intensity rain and morphometri in Padang city cause at Arau. Morphometri
geomorphologi that is related to wide of, river network, stream pattern and gradien of river. The form wide
of DAS will be by stream pattern and level.This will influence to the number of rain. Make an index to
closeness of stream depict closeness of river stream at one particular DAS. Speed of river stream influenced
by storey, level steepness of river. Steepness storey, level is comparison of difference height of river
downstream and upstream. Ever greater of steepness of river stream, excelsior speed of river stream that
way on the contrary. High to lower speed of river stream influence occurence of floods, more than anything
else if when influenced by debit big. By using rainfall from year 2005 to year 2015, and use Thiessen method
got a rainfall. Use the DEM IFSAR, analysed sofware ARGIS, and with from earth map, the result got DAS
in at condition of floods gristle and sedimentation. There are band evakuasi for resident which data in
floods area.
The chemical (extractives and lignin) content and histological property (microscopic structure)
of tissues of Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill, Pierre ex Pax), an angiosperm, were investigated for its potential
as a fibrous raw material for pulp and paper production. Bolts of about 70 cm were cut from the felled trees at
three different merchantable height levels of 10%, 50%, and 90% to obtain: corewood, middlewood and
outerwood samples. The fiber characteristics of the selected trees viz: the fiber length, fibre diameter and lumen
diameter were measured while the cell wall thickness was derived from the measured fibre dimensions. The
average fiber length, cell wall thickness, and lumen width, were 1.40 mm, 4.6 µm, and 32.3 µm, respectively.
The extractive and lignin contents were determined. Klason lignin content was about 30%. Extractive content of
R. heudelotii ranged from 0.41 to 0.5%. Based on these findings R. heudelotii is suitable for pulp and paper
production.
The prolific Niger Delta Basin is a mature petroleum province. Therefore, further prospectivity in
the basin lies within deeper plays which are high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) targets. One of the
main characteristics of the Niger Delta is its unique diachronous tripartite stratigraphy. Its gross onshore and
shallow offshore lithostratigraphy consists of the deep-seated Akata Formation and is virtually exclusively
shale, the petroliferous paralic Agbada Formation in which sand/shale proportion systematically increases
upward, and at the top the Benin Formation composed almost exclusively of sand. This stratigraphic pattern is
not exactly replicated in the deep offshore part of the delta.
A low-carbon steel wire of AISI 1022 is used to easily fabricate into self-drilling tapping screws,
which are widely used for construction works. The majority of carbonitriding activity is performed to improve
the wear resistance without affecting the soft, tough interior of the screws in self-drilling operation. In this
study, Taguchi technique is used to obtain optimum carbonitriding conditions to improve the mechanical
properties of AISI 1022 self-drilling tapping screws. The carbonitriding qualities of self-drilling tapping screws
are affected by various factors, such as quenching temperature, carbonitriding time, atmosphere composition
(carbon potential and ammonia level), tempering temperature and tempering time. The quality characteristics of
carbonitrided tapping screws, such as case hardness and core hardness, are investigated, and so are their
process capabilities. It is experimentally revealed that the factors of carbonitriding time and tempering
temperature are significant for case hardness. The optimum mean case hardness is 649.2HV. For the case
hardness, the optimum process-capability ratio increases by about 200% compared to the original result. The
new carbonitriding parameter settings evidently improve the performance measures over their values at the
original settings. The strength of the carbonitrided AISI 1022 self-drilling tapping screws is effectively improved.
More from International journal of scientific and technical research in engineering (IJSTRE) (20)
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
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Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
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A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
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Use of water table as a benchmark for leveling groundwater forest: The case of Jozani Groundwater Forest, Zanzibar, Tanzania
1. International journal of scientific and technical research in engineering (IJSTRE)
www.ijstre.com Volume 1 Issue 5 ǁ August 2016.
Manuscript id. 371428253 www.ijstre.com Page 49
Use of water table as a benchmark for leveling groundwater
forest: The case of Jozani Groundwater Forest, Zanzibar,
Tanzania
Masoud S. Said1
, Balthazar M. Msanya1
, Johnson M.R. Semoka1
, Salim M.
S. Maliondo2
1
(Department of Soil and Geological Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania)
2
(Department of Forest Biology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania)
mcheju9miano@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Leveling techniques, including the use of levels, theodolites and GPS are less applicable
under forest canopies. In addition, the “Light Detection and Ranging” (LIDAR) technique is sophisticated,
expensive and not readily available in developing countries. The current study therefore attempted the use of
water table as an alternative method for leveling the Jozani groundwater forest (JGWF) of Zanzibar,
Tanzania. The “Height of Instrument” method was used to determine reduced level (RL) of the water table
(RLWT) of JGWF from local wells. Then, through temporary wells (TWs), RLWT was used as a wide
benchmark to determine other RLs on the ground surface along 32 transect lines. The height from the water
table to the ground surface (floating height (FH)) was then measured. Benchmark number 205 and SOKKIA
C.3.2 level were used to determine the RLWT. Soil auger was used to open TWs, and cellphone timer and
floating rod tape were used respectively to determine time of water settlement, and FH in a TW. GARMIN
GPS Model Etrex 10 and ArcGIS 10.1 were used for geo-referencing and mapping. Elevations of ground
surfaces were computed by summing the RLWT and FH at a particular point and were then used to produce
digital elevation model (DEM) of JGWF. It is concluded that, use of water table for leveling the
groundwater forest is feasible and an alternative method.
Key words: Benchmark, groundwater forest, leveling, reduced level, water table, Zanzibar
I. Introduction
Topographic maps show a wide range of land information, and for decades, they have been used broadly for
land planning, management and development [1]. Information on the terrain conditions and topography beneath
trees canopy is important to the forestry industry and natural resources management [2]. The Jozani
groundwater forest (JGWF); the dense canopy’s multi-storey forest [3], needed such information not only for
what [1] and [2] listed, but as a tool for studying soil, water, flora and fauna conditions and their distributions
within the forest.
The JGWF is located within the 62 km2
of Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park (JCBNP) [4]. The forest is on a
trough lying between Uzi and Chwaka bays and is the lowest inland point in Zanzibar [5]; [6]. The trough was
first observed in the Zanzibar topographic maps of Department of Survey (DOS). The maps were among the
series of DOS 208 of 1980s sheets no. 10/4404 and 10/4410 of Pete and Charawe, respectively. In the said area,
there were few randomly spotted points with less than 5 m elevation above mean sea level (AMSL). Since there
were a number of features and conditions that differ within the JGWF and with its surrounding areas, the DOS
maps were of little use in revealing the underlying factors affecting soils and water, and their interrelationships
which influence the distribution of plant species and communities in the forest. Therefore, study of generating
digital elevation model (DEM) and related features of JGWF is key to a number of pressuring agendas related to
management and research in the forest.
The use of dump levels, theodolites and related surveying techniques for production of contours and DEM
requires a series of instruments’ setup along the surveying route using sensitive levels and geo-referencing
systems [7]; [8]. Surveys with the use of levels are valid only if the instruments’ setups were linked to each
other and all of them were referred to a datum [8]. On unstable grounds of multi-storey high canopy forests,
2. Use of water table as a benchmark for leveling groundwater forest: The case of Jozani……
Manuscript id. 371428253 www.ijstre.com Page 50
leveling with the said instruments and GPS receivers were highly obstructed and poorly signaled [9]; [10]; [11].
Such scenarios were experienced during surveying operations along Jozani-Wangwa trail to characterize the
water table of the JGWF. Surveying operations were tedious as they were carried out while upholding the
“Zanzibar Forest Policy” cautions [4], [12] insisting that any activity in the JGWF shall be carried out in a
manner that ensures intact maintenance of the flora, fauna and environment. Therefore, surveying with such
technologies for elevation of the JGWF was not possible.
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technique is most useful for mapping-out heights of vegetation and
elevation of ground surfaces under forest canopies [2]; [13]. Therefore, the use of LIDAR outweighs the use of
levels and theodolites [14]. However, LIDAR requires sophisticated equipment and highly qualified expertise; it
is expensive and yet has limitations [15]. Hence, in developing countries even with the need of the use of
LIDAR, it is yet economically inappropriate and unaffordable. When such conditions are in place, as it is the
case for JGWF; an alternative way of making the topographic information available is inevitable.
A number of survey technologies are used to prepare maps of water tables and static water levels from
measurements obtained from well-log records of private wells [16]; [17]. Such measurements result into a
production of depth-to-water table maps, such as isobaths [16]. For decades, many, if not all publications used
the word “water table” (WT) to express the top/upper surface/level beneath in-land earth surface saturated by
water; and “static water level” (SWL) to express the water level in a well before water has been pumped out.
According to The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia [18], The Great Soviet Encyclopedia of 1970s went further
on the term water table as referring also to the water surface of rivers and lakes. However, the word
“float/floating” was often used when it was referring to specific use of the water bodies rather than the WT
alone. Again, the SWL was used to refer to a WT, but was confined to its uses in engineering and water
pumping studies and applications. With such context, the terms poorly expressed the water surface when it acts
as a line/level floating the mass/objects above it. Therefore, in this study “water floating level (WFL)” has been
used instead of “water table”. The term was defined as an imaginary reference line/level horizontally laid on the
upper surface of an in-land water body above which all masses/objects were floating and it was used as a wide
floating benchmark.
1.1 Basic principle of the use of WFL
When a WFL acts as a benchmark (BM), heights from it to soil surface (floating heights (FHs)) can be measured
from every point (floating point (FP)) of the surveyed area. In this case a FP was a geographic point of the
measured FH. Since WFL as BM was referred to the mean sea level (MSL), all reduced levels (RLs) of FPs
were also referred to the MSL (Fig 1).
Figure 1: A basic principle of leveling with the use of water floating level (WFL)
3. Use of water table as a benchmark for leveling groundwater forest: The case of Jozani……
Manuscript id. 371428253 www.ijstre.com Page 51
Fig. 1 illustrates that the RL of the WFL (RLWFL) in observation well (OW) was determined from surveying by
the “Height of Instrument (HI)” method from a nearby BM, formula 1, 2 and 3 apply as per [7]. While the RL of
FPA, B, C were then obtained by separately summing the RLWFL and FH a, b, c, Formula 4 and 5.
HI = BS + RL (1)
RL = HI – SR (2)
RLWFL = HI – SRWFL = h (3)
RLW = HI – SRW = RLWFL + d (4)
RLA, B, C = RLWFL + a, b, c = h + a, b, c (5)
Where HI; height of the instrument, BS; back sight, RL; reduce level, SR; staff reading, BM; benchmark, SRBM; SR at BM,
WFL; water floating level, RLWFL; RL of WFL, SRWFL; SR on WFL, RLW; RL of soil surface at the OW, SRW; SR on the
soil surface at the OW, MSL; mean sea level, h; height of WFL AMSL, d; depth from soil surface to WFL, a, b, c; measured
depths from soil surface to WFL at point A, B, C, and RLA, B, C; are RL at FPA, B, C.
Elevation of soil surface at a particular floating point (ElvFP) was therefore, identified by summing the RLWFL
of the area in a particular day of surveying and measured FH. A floating metric tape was used to measure the FH
through a geo-referenced temporary well (TW). If FPs were many enough and were obtained from transects
covering the studied area, they are the inputs for DEM production with the use of a digital mapping tool such as
ArcGIS.
The current study explored the possibility of using a close to soil surface WT referred to as WFL for the
JGWF DEM production. The WFL acted as a wide benchmark and was used to determine elevation of several
points within the JGWF. A close to soil surface WT was a unique opportunity in this method. The method cuts
down the costs of leveling under forest canopies using modern technologies. The map produced can be used in a
number of academic and management programmes such as soil and water inter-relationships, plant species
distributions, biodiversity, and environment and ecotourism conservation.
II. Materials and Methods
2.1 Description of the study area
The study was conducted in about 8 km2
area of JGWF located between the Chwaka and Uzi bays and was
within the JCBNP area, Zanzibar, Tanzania. The park of about 62 km2
lies within Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) Zone 37S coordinates between N 9 305 880 to 9 317 855 and E 539 100 to 549 000 [4] (Fig.
2). The park has a tropical sub-humid climate and receives about 1400 mm annual average rainfall from the
rainy season (Masika); March to May and the short rainy season (Vuli); October to November [6]. The JGWF
has a closed to the soil surface WT [3]; [19]. During the rains, the WT often emerged above the soil surface and
form temporary marshes [20].
Figure 2: Location map of JGWF, Zanzibar, Tanzania. Source: Abass DFNRR, 2014.
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2.2 Survey to characterize WFL of JGWF
As cited in [16], a water level in a well has a height of the WT of a particular water body. Hence existing wells
offer ready-made sites for water level observations. During the reconnaissance survey, a total of eight wells; two
on the southern end (Jozani) close to datum no. 205, four along the Jozani-Wangwa trail, and two on the
northern end (Wangwa) were identified. These wells were used as OWs for WFL characterization. The survey
to characterize the WFL was done for two consecutive days in October 2014 as suggested by [16]. He suggested
that, measurement for WT determination should be done within a short period of time. The HI/Collimation
method [21] by the aid of SOKKIA C.3.2 level was used to determine the WFLs through the OWs. During the
survey, temperature ranged between 30 and 32o
C as recorded from Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA)
stations at Kisauni, Zanzibar. Therefore, to minimize errors associated with the aluminum reading staff, a
wooden reading staff was used. According to [10], aluminum reading staffs are affected by temperature above
27o
C. Datums numbers 205 and 210 with RL of 2.134 and 5.621 m, AMSL located respectively at 546 217 E,
9 306 943 N and 547 685 E, 9 310 846 N both within UTM 37S, were used. These datums were installed in
1976 and revisited in 2013 by the DOS office. For convenience of data collection, the surveying process used
UTM 37S coordinates system, regardless of the citation made from [22] which noted that the World Geodetic
System of 1984 (WGS 84) was the most used system. GARMIN Etrex 10 GPS receivers were used for geo-
referencing of OWs. From datum no. 205 at Jozani, the leveling process continued to Wangwa and then from
Wangwa to datum no. 210 at Mapandani along Charawe road. The RLs were computed in Excel spread sheets
by Formulas 1 and 2 given above. Arithmetic error and slope of WFL (between Jozani and Wangwa) were
calculated as proposed by [8] and [23], using Formulas 6 and 7, respectively.
Arithmetic Error= Σ Back - Σ Fore (6)
Slope (gradient) = Rise/Run x 100 (7)
Where Σ Back is sum of all back sights, Σ Fore is sum of all fore sights, Rise is vertical height, Run is horizontal distance
between the two points and 100 is factor of expression in per cent.
2.3 Transecting and WFL slope determination
In areas where the WT is smoothly sloped, OWs can be spaced farther apart [16]. With this regard, it was
estimated that, in JGWF the height of WFL m, AMSL was the same within a radius of about 200 m from the
OW. Therefore, transects were spaced at 200 m apart aimed at evenly distributing the slope of the WFL. This
transecting was done with expectation that, through transects across the forest length the RLFP will be properly
captured. These transects were running east-westwards. Along transect lines, the TWs were opened for FH
measurements. One of the OWs at 545 987 E, 9 306 659 N was used as reference well (RW), and for the
convenience of transecting, its northern coordinate was rounded to 9 306 600 N. Hence, the area of the first
three southern transects (9 306 400, 9 306 600 and 9 306 800 N) had the same RLWFL as recorded at RW and
was indicated as T0. Therefore, the first transect affected by WFL slope was 9 307 000 N indicated as T200 (200
m from T0) and the last transect was 9 312 600 N, indicated as T5800 (5800 m from T0). Therefore, the run
(length) of about 6 km was subdivided into 32 transects.
The primary references at water level recording stations are a set of datums [16]; [21]. So, WFL on a
particular day of transect walks was determined by surveying from datum no. 205 to the RW (about 372 m
apart) using HI method with SOKKIA C.3.2 level. The identified WFL was used as BM for FH probing during
transect walks. Formula 8 was used to nullify the WFL slope (S) along TX aimed at obtaining FHs that were free
from the S effects.
WFLTX = WFLRW ± (S x TX), m (8)
Where WFLTX; was WFL (m) at a given transect (T) with X distance (m) from T0, WFLRW; WFL at RW in a day of transect
walk, S; slope in per cent (%) a constant. The sign was negative when the TX runs down the slope and positive when TX runs
up the slope.
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2.4 Transects walks
GARMIN Etrex 10 (GPS) receivers set into UTM 37S were used to direct the teams along transect lines during
the walks. The transect walks for probing involved four teams of four people, each consisting of two villagers
with at least secondary school education, skilled park attendant, and diploma-holder surveyor. Each of the team
walked on two transects per day and the walks were for four consecutive days. The task of each of the teams
was to identify the FPs on a TX where the measured FH coincided with the one indicated in the field book for a
given elevation (Elv). Thereafter, the eastern coordinates (E) of the identified FPs were recorded. It was
experienced that in JGWF it is impossible to walk on a straight line along indicated TX (northern coordinates
(N)). So alteration of about 5 m from a given TX was allowed.
2.5 Determination of floating heights at selected points
From observations made on DOS maps, it was decided that, JWGF could be surveyed at 0.25 m vertical interval
as that would give more detailed elevation map. So the elevations comprised: 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75,
2.00 and 2.25 m, AMSL. The FHTX were calculated and recorded in the field book with their respective Elv
before the transect walks. A field book consisted of partial pre-printed separate sheets with table. The table was
indicating N coordinates, Elv and their respective FH for the TX. Value of FH for a given Elv on TX was
calculated by Formula 9.
FHTX = Elv– WFLTX, m (9)
Where, FHTX; was FH along TX, Elv; elevation and WFLTX; WFL along TX at a given distance from RW.
2.6 Probing
To minimize the number of probes while maximizing the time use efficiency during transect walks, the
surveying members were trained on how to perform the task. Transect probing was carried out for 4 days of late
November, 2014. The probing was performed mainly when a team found a sort of sharp or gradual slope,
depression or rise along transect. Drilling, depth measurements and data recording were done as suggested by
[16]. Soil auger of about 0.08 m diameter and up to 2.0 m long was used to open the TWs to reachable depths.
The floating measuring rod was inserted down the TW just 2 minutes after drilling. The team members’
individual cell phones were used as timers. Following several observations made on JGWF, it was
recommended that measurement should be done in 5-6 minutes time after drilling. Data for FH were observed
from the metric rod at the cap slot at soil surface. The E coordinates of given FP were recorded in field book.
However, it was difficult to obtain FP with exact metric figures of FHs as given in the field book for a given
Elv. Therefore, alteration of ±0.05 m from given FH value was allowed. On the selected point about 3-4 probes
for a particular FH were recommended. However, an FP was recorded when its measured FH fall upon Elv
range indicated in the field book for a particular TX.
2.7 Mapping
The FPs with their respective FHs were used to produce DEM of JGWF with 0.75 to 2. 25 m height range.
ArcGIS 10.1 was used for mapping as per [24].
III. Results
The WFL was at varying depths from the soil surface and no rains were recorded during the surveying and
probing time. A summary of the performed instrumental leveling process from Jozani to Wangwa to
characterize the WFL in the forest is presented in Table 1. Table 2 shows the recorded WFLTX for a TX after
having nullified slope based on the WFLRW obtained from surveys carried out from datum no. 205 to the RW on
the day of transect walk.
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Table 1: Leveling for WFL characterization in JGWF, October 2014
OW and Datum Coordinates RL Arithmetic
error
Slope
IDs UTM 1960 37 S Surface WFL Surface WFL
Eastern Northern m m m % %
OW at JCBNP office 545 732 9 306 309 4.721 0.780
Reference well (RW) 545 987 9 306 659 1.477 0.781
Datum no. 205 546 217 9 306 943 1.967 -
First OW along trail 546 176 9 307 148 2.330 0.699
Second OW along trail 545 892 9 307 545 1.275 0.660
Third OW along trail 545 808 9 307 848 1.106 0.643
Fourth OW along trail 545 519 9 312 091 4.642 0.637
OW at Wangwa (Eastern) 545 000 9 312 000 0.765 0.635
OW at Wangwa (Western) 544 459 9 312 174 0.770 0.635
Mean 0.688 0.063 0.023 0.0028
Table 2: Values of water floating levels for various transects during probing
Day1 Day2 Day3 Day4
TX WFLTX TX WFLTX TX WFLTX TX WFLTX
RW 0.732 RW 0.732 RW 0.730 RW 0.728
T0 0.732 T1600 0.687 T3200 0.641 T4800 0.594
T200 0.726 T1800 0.682 T3400 0.635 T5000 0.589
T400 0.721 T2000 0.676 T3600 0.630 T5200 0.583
T600 0.715 T2200 0.671 T3800 0.624 T5400 0.577
T800 0.710 T2400 0.665 T4000 0.618 T5600 0.572
T1000 0.704 T2600 0.660 T4200 0.613 T5800 0.566
T1200 0.699 T2800 0.654 T4400 0.607
T1400 0.693 T3000 0.648 T4600 0.602
A total of 453 FPs on Elv ranging from 0.75 to 2.25 m, AMSL were recorded in the field books. The FPs were
geo-referenced with E and N coordinates from 544 430 to 546 400 and from 9 306 600 to 9 312 400,
respectively. As an example; Table 3 shows the data recorded on T1200. The DEM of the JGWF in raster format
produced is presented in Fig. 3.
Table 3: The recorded field book for the transect line T1200.
Elv FH ± 0.05 T1200: 9 308 000 N
m m Eastern coordinates of the floating points (FP)
0.75 0.05 - - - -
1.00 0.30 545 127 546 303 - -
1.25 0.55 545 103 546 342 - -
1.50 0.80 545 094 546 364 - -
1.75 1.05 545 082 546 387 - -
2.00 1.30 545 073 546 400 - -
2.25 1.55 545 056 - - -
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Figure 3: Digital elevation model (DEM) of Jozani groundwater forest (JGWF).
IV. Discussion
4.1 Geographical setting of the JGWF
From the DEM, the JGWF occupies the area between 544 400 to 546 400 and 545 000 to 544 459E on Jozani
and Wangwa ends, respectively, and extends from 9 306 400 to 9 312 400N. The forest is also located beneath
and confined within coral ridges and cliffs on the west and gently up-ridging on the east. Furthermore, the
JGWF and narrowly opens towards Uzi creek and widely opens towards Chwaka bay.
4.2 General characteristics of surface elevation of the JGWF
Datum no. 205 was at the height of 2.134 m, AMSL (DOS, 2013), but the RL of the soil surface where the
datum is located is about 2 m AMSL only. Again, the difference between Jozani and Wangwa soil surfaces
(about 6 km run) was about 1.12 m, giving an average slope of about 0.023%. The surface elevations and slopes
indicated that although JGWF has an altitude of about 2.25 m, AMSL and less, yet slope of the soil surface is
decreasing from Jozani towards Wangwa.
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4.3 General characteristics of WT in JGWF area
For good results of leveling with the use of WFL, time and duration of survey was crucial. Based on suggestion
on WT recording period by [25], the surveying was done on appropriate time as there was no rain two weeks
before and during the survey period. As reported by [16] and [17], the water table keeps changing due to
precipitation, and in JGWF case, its rises and falls were related to a number of processes occurring in the forest
including evapo-transpiration and drainage. Within the 4 days of transect walks, the WFL had an insignificant
change of its level. A recorded drop of 0.004 m (0.001 m/day) indicated that JGWF never gets dry. During the
dry period, the WT falls by few centimeters and rises during the rains. Hence, the forest is favored by close to
surface wetness throughout the year. Many scholars including [26], [16] and [27], reported that like streams and
rivers, in coastal areas, groundwater flows down slope in seaward direction. The recorded difference of 1.477
and 0.780 m of soil surface and 0.765 and 0.635 m of WFL between Jozani and Wangwa respectively, indicated
that, although JGWF is located between the Uzi and Chwaka bays, ground water sloped and flowed towards
Chwaka bay. Again, based on [16], the recorded 0.144 m difference between the WFLs of the two ends also
indicated that, the water aquifer in the area was a single segment. Although [28] reported that, a WT is subjected
to change seasonally, annually or after a period of time, according to [17], the slope of the WT will remain
constant unless factors influencing abrupt change are in place. Since the slope was of about 0.0028% and was
constant and smooth, the subsurface geology of JGWF is fairly uniform and only seasonal rain was the major
factor behind the changes of WFL in the forest.
4.4 Applicability of the method
The method was a reverse process of surveying where the WFL was used to identify the surface levels instead of
surfaces being used to identify the water levels. With the DEM produced, it was confirmed that, the method was
feasible. One of the advantages is that in areas where the WT is not segmented, few OW and/or TW can be used
to characterize the WFL and DEM production, respectively. The method uses ordinary instruments and can be
performed in areas with many surveying obstacles. Again, the method is less time consuming and less costly.
Furthermore, this method needs less data inventory and calculations, allows the use of less skilled personnel and
the surveying processes can be done by separate groups working at a time. However, a major disadvantage of
the method is that, it is applicable mainly in the presence of close to soil surface WT.
V. Conclusions and recommendation
The study concluded that JGWF has close to the ground surface water table that seasonally fluctuates. The
aquifer of Jozani groundwater forest was on fairly uniform geological subsurface. The water table has constant
gradient that is slightly sloping from Jozani towards Wangwa. The digital elevation model produced is a key
tool for studies on soil, water, plant species distribution and the inter-relationships between them. The method
nullifies the challenges of leveling under forest canopy and high costs of leveling with modern technologies.
Therefore, the method of using water floating level is feasible, applicable and an alternative for conducting
survey for elevation on a multi-storey high canopy groundwater forest.
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