"In general, usage labels provide specific information about the domain of application of the definition. In the more abstract sense ..., a usage label is to be taken as a higher-level instruction, as a meta-linguistic device. This means that it cannot be equated with a definition itself: it restricts the definition to a certain context. The definition of a word given by a dictionary entry is intended for a group of users belonging to those who speak or want to speak the standard form of the language of the dictionary in question.
There are two groups of users whose needs have been carefully considered and for whom dictionaries have been specifically tailored:
1) Children
2) Learners
The AWL Reorganized for Spanish-Speaking ELLsRobert Bushong
This presentation was given by Robert Bushong and Keith Folse at the 46th Annual TESOL Convention and Exhibit in Philadelphia on March 29, 2012. It was based on a study Bushong did for his Master's thesis at the University of Central Florida in 2010; Folse was Chairperson of the thesis committee.
The study of the origin and history of a word. It comes to us through Latin, with the Greek origin of (e´tymon “original form” + logia “study of”).
Etymology is, in a way, similar to archeology; since they both depend on existing evidence in order to explain a current form.
Each language has its complex history where the origin is broken down and changed through time. For instance, English went through Old, Middle and Modern eras reaching its contemporary form.
We need to study etymology to determine the true meaning of words and their functions in a sentence.
Etymology has no place in a general-purpose dictionary, and it should be left to historical or specialist dictionaries. Learners' dictionaries do not contain etymological information, though its exclusion from these dictionaries has been challenged (Ellegård 1978; Ilson 1983). Of the three Collins dictionaries.
Teaching students to articulate new consonants is only part of the story of clear pronunciation, and may even be unnecessary. Good syllable structure, or phonotactics, is a more effective route to intelligible speech in English.
There are two groups of users whose needs have been carefully considered and for whom dictionaries have been specifically tailored:
1) Children
2) Learners
The AWL Reorganized for Spanish-Speaking ELLsRobert Bushong
This presentation was given by Robert Bushong and Keith Folse at the 46th Annual TESOL Convention and Exhibit in Philadelphia on March 29, 2012. It was based on a study Bushong did for his Master's thesis at the University of Central Florida in 2010; Folse was Chairperson of the thesis committee.
The study of the origin and history of a word. It comes to us through Latin, with the Greek origin of (e´tymon “original form” + logia “study of”).
Etymology is, in a way, similar to archeology; since they both depend on existing evidence in order to explain a current form.
Each language has its complex history where the origin is broken down and changed through time. For instance, English went through Old, Middle and Modern eras reaching its contemporary form.
We need to study etymology to determine the true meaning of words and their functions in a sentence.
Etymology has no place in a general-purpose dictionary, and it should be left to historical or specialist dictionaries. Learners' dictionaries do not contain etymological information, though its exclusion from these dictionaries has been challenged (Ellegård 1978; Ilson 1983). Of the three Collins dictionaries.
Teaching students to articulate new consonants is only part of the story of clear pronunciation, and may even be unnecessary. Good syllable structure, or phonotactics, is a more effective route to intelligible speech in English.
A dictionary is a resource for word information. The book is about language. The encyclopedia is its closest relative, but this book is about things, people, places, and ideas; it is not a book on language. It might be challenging to distinguish between a dictionary and an encyclopedia because the two frequently share features. However, they do not have the same headword list—something you would be hard-pressed to find in an encyclopedia—and they do not share the same definitions for the headwords they do share.
Semantics is the study of the meaning of meaningful units.
Semantics is concerned with cognitive meaning.
Cognitive meaning is the contribution that the word (lexeme) systematically makes to the cognitive meaning of sentences.
The cognitive meaning of lexeme is sometimes called sense.
Traditional Grammar was in the 19th century that historical language study began to meet the criteria of scientificness and only in the 20th century that the study of contemporary languages became scientific in today’s sense of the word.
Evaluating a dictionary: is the process of judging or calculating the quality, importance, amount, or value of dictionary : Evaluation of this new treatment cannot take place until all the data has been collected.
Lexicographers don’t decide which words are proper, they struggle with words like love.
They certainly have a favorite word.
Internet makes lexicographers life easier.
It took almost fifty years to create the first Oxford English dictionary.
Sample sentences from dictionaries can make interesting short stories.
The longest word in the dictionary is the name of a lung disease “pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis”
A murder was a contributor to the first oxford English dictionary “ William Chester Minor”
The dictionary included a fake word for five years “dord”
The use of language is is the inherent capability of native speakers to understand and form grammatical sentences. A language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite length constructed out of a limited set of elements.
A sentence is a set of words that complete in itself , and generally contains a subject and a main verb.
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb.
Independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
Dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.
How can varieties in English differ from one another?
1) Phonological variation.2)Lexical variation.3)Morphological variation.4)Syntactic variation.5)Pragmatic variation.
Phonetics: is the branch of linguistics that deals with how to human speech sounds are made . علم الصوتيات أحد الفروع الأساسية في اللغة الإنجليزية لمعرفة طرق خروج الأصوات من شخص لآخر.It describes how physical expressions of human speech sounds are produced.
علم الصوتيات يشرح طريقة إنتاج التعبيرات الجسدية لأصوات البشر”.Phonetic units are called phones.“يطلق على الصوتيات اسم الهواتف”As we know that phonetic symbols are enclosed in square brackets.“تكون الرموز الصوتية بداخل أقواس مربعة”.
Reliability refers to the consistency with which a test can be scored, that is, consistency from person to person, time to time or place to place .It means that tests are to be constructed, administered and scored in such a way that the scores obtained on a test on a particular occasion are likely to be very similar to those which would have been obtained if it had been administered with the same students with the same ability, but at a different time
The use of correction codes by the teacher instead of giving full correction is a widespread practice, the rationale behind it is that it encourages students to think about their writing and correct themselves.
The teacher also can ask students to exchange their pieces of written work and discuss them in groups so that they can correct each other’s errors.
Definitions
Assessment and evaluation
Forms of Assessments
Measurements
Tests
Criteria of good tests (validity & Reliability)
Reliability of scoring
The relationship of validity and reliability
The relationship between teaching and testing
practicality
Test types (aptitude, placement, achievement, progress, diagnostic & proficiency)
Concepts of proficiency
Test of Grammar and usage
The most common task types .
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
is a broader term for Information Technology (IT), which refers to all communication technologies, including the internet, wireless networks, cell phones, computers, software, middleware, video-conferencing, social networking, and other media applications and services
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
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Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
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2. "In general, usage labels provide specific
information about the domain of application of the
definition. In the more abstract sense ..., a usage
label is to be taken as a higher-level instruction, as a
meta-linguistic device.This means that it cannot be
equated with a definition itself: it restricts the
definition to a certain context.The definition of a
word given by a dictionary entry is intended for a
group of users belonging to those who speak or
want to speak the standard form of the language of
the dictionary in question.
4. - THE TERM DIALECT IS USED IN
TWO DISTINCT WAYS TO REFER TO
TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF
LINGUISTIC PHENOMENA.
-One usage — the more common among linguists —
refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of
a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is
applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a
dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social
class.
5. The other usage refers to a language that is
socially subordinated to a regional or national
standard language, often historically cognate or
related to the standard language, but not
actually derived from it
6. FOR EXAMPLE, MOST OF THE VARIOUS REGIONAL
ROMANCE LANGUAGES
OF ITALY, OFTEN
COLLOQUIALLY REFERRED TO AS ITALIAN
"DIALECTS," ARE, IN FACT, NOT ACTUALLY
DERIVED FROM MODERN STANDARD ITALIAN, BUT
RATHER EVOLVED FROM VULGAR LATIN SEPARATELY
AND INDIVIDUALLY FROM ONE ANOTHER AND
INDEPENDENTLY OF STANDARD ITALIAN, LONG PRIOR
TO THE DIFFUSION OF A NATIONAL STANDARDIZED
LANGUAGE THROUGHOUT WHAT IS NOW ITALY
8. Formal :
The formal register is used ,less restrictive but still
limited , in technical , academic or legal settings where
corresponding is required to be polite ,
uninterrupted and restricted
Informal :
is used in dictionaries to mark the senses that are not
likely to occur in serious, prepared speech or carefully
edited writing except when used intentionally to convey
a casual tone.
9. GENERAL USAGE
We use informal language when :
-When we know the person well (friends / family
--when someone is younger than us
-- when someone has a lower position
-We use formal language when :
-- when do not know someone .
-- when someone is older than us
-- when someone is in a position of authority )
10. THE COMPOSITIONS
*Informal :
-Email to friend or family
-Stories
-Reviews
--Articles for school magazines
-*Formal :
--Email to a manager or unknown person
-- Articles to newspapers
--Essays
-- Reports
11. TOPIC OR FIELD
The words and senses are labeled in dictionaries
according to its fields or topics.The label of the word
or sense restrict it within the domain of field like
historical, biological, or medical.The topics also
means a main word that can refer to a group of
words like factory, workers, and products all can be
labeled by the word industry or manufacture.
12. HERE ARE A FEW EXAMPLES TO
ILLUSTRATE THE POINT, TAKEN FROM
NODE:
• HANDSHAKING COMPUTING
PERIVENTRICULAR ANATOMY AND
MEDICINE.
13. STATUS
The word status means the propriety of the use of a
word. Under status we would include the term
"taboo" which is defined in COD10 as a social or
religious custom placing prohibition or restriction
on a particular thing or person, you couldn't use the
taboo word in ordinary conversation, Unless you
wanted to shock. Some modern dictioneries no
longer use the Label.
14. In Oxford dictionaries, the connection is made with
'slang' the other term heading. Slang refers to
words or senses that are racy or extremely informal.
If also implies a restriction beyond simply the
formality of the context of use. It belongs with
taboo. No surprise that dictionaries differ in their
labeling of such words as the slang status of words
may over changes Short Period of time and quickly
become dated.
15. FURTHER READING
Dick Hudson's article in the International Journal of
Lexicography(1988) titled "The linguistic
foundations for lexical study and dictionary design"
examines the lexical knowledge that dictionaries
can consider
16. In his book Dictionaries: the Art and Craft of
Lexicography, Sidney Landau has a chapter on
usage (Chapter 5). (1989, 2001). 'Regional marks in
some British and American dictionaries' (vol. 9,
1996) and 'Labeling of offensive terms in
dictionaries' (vol. 9, 1996) are two articles by Juhani
Norri that deal with labeling (vol. 13, 2000).mines
17. HISTORY
What is the mean of obsolete ?
Obsolete : word is a temporal label commonly used by
lexicographers (that is, editors of dictionaries) to indicate
that a word (or a particular form or sense of a word) is no
longer in active use in speech and writing.
18. Examples of ObsoleteWords :
-Mawk "The underlying meaning of mawkish is 'maggotish.' It
was derived from a now obsolete word mawk, which meant
literally 'maggot' but was used figuratively (like maggot itself) for
a 'whim' or 'fastidious fancy.' Hence mawkish originally meant
'nauseated, as if repelled by something one is too fastidious to
eat.' In the 18th century the notion of 'sickness' or 'sickliness'
produced the present-day sense 'over-sentimental.'“
- Curglaff Curglaff is commonly felt by people in northern climes
—it is the shock that one feels when first plunging into cold water.
The word curglaff originated from Scotland in the 1800s. (Also
spelled curgloff).
19. -Groak To groak (verb) is to watch someone longingly while
they are eating, in the hope that they will give you some of
their food.The origin is possibly Scottish.
-Cockalorum Cockalorum is a little man who has an over-
inflated opinion of himself and thinks himself more
important than he is; also, boastful speech.The origin of
cockalorum may be from the from the obsolete Flemish
word kockeloeren of the 1700s, meaning "to crow."
20. -Why do words become obsolete?
Words become obsolete because the thing they refer to no
longer exists; fashionable terms can become pase and words
can be superseded by other ways of speaking. “
21. -Can you use obsolete words?
Probably never, unless you're writing historical fiction.
Archaic and obsolete words are words that are no longer
used in contemporary society, so unless you want to
specifically emulate olden times, it's best just to leave them
alone. ... Rare words are words that are slowly leaving the
English language.
22. The date 1755 : it represents a milestone in the English
language, the publication of Samuel Johnson's Dictionary.
Johnson's work was in many ways the first modern
monolingual dictionary of English. It included not just "hard"
words (as was standard in 17th century dictionaries) but
household words, and used quotations from great writers to
illustrate meaning.
23. NODE and COD10 use the labels ‘dated’, ‘archaic’, and
‘historical’ to mark words or senses no longer current; and to
these we might add the label ‘rare’.These labels are defined
as follows:
‘dated’: no longer used by the majority of English speakers,
but still encountered, especially among the older
generation. ‘historical’: still used today, but in reference to
some practice or artefact that is no longer part of the
modern world.
‘rare’: not in normal use.
24. -What is the meaning of archaic word?
The word which is having the characteristics of the
language of the past and surviving chiefly in
specialized uses an archaic word.
25. What is the difference between archaic and
obsolete ?
A distinction between archaic and obsolete words and word
senses is widely used by dictionaries. An archaic word or
sense is one that still has some current use but whose use
has dwindled to a few specialized contexts, outside which it
connotes old-fashioned language. In contrast, an obsolete
word or sense is one that is no longer used at all. A reader
encounters them when reading texts that are centuries old.
26. For example, the works of Shakespeare are old
enough that some obsolete words or senses are
encountered therein, for which glosses
(annotations) are often provided in the margins.
"In general,, "the difference between an obsolete
word and an archaic word is that, although both
have fallen into disuse, an obsolete word has done
so more recently"
27. -What is the Disputed usage ?
The Some English words are often used in ways that are
contentious among writers on usage and other
prescriptivists. e contentious usages are especially common
in spoken English.
28. Examples :
1-Ain't -though this word is widely used, it is considered
non-standard by some prescriptivists. See ain't.
2-Like and as. The preposition like is often misused as a
conjunction when only as would be appropriate. Undisputed
usage. He is an American as am I. Undisputed usage. He is
an American like me. Undisputed usage. It looks as if this
play will be a flop. Undisputed usage.This play looks like a
flop. Disputed usage. He is an American like I am. Disputed
usage. It looks like this play will be a flop. Literally
29. 3- Loan The use of loan as a verb meaning "to give out a
loan" is disputed, with lend being preferred for the verb
form. Undisputed usage. I lent him some money.
Undisputed usage. Fill out the paperwork for a loan.
Disputed usage. I loaned him some money. 4-Presently -
traditionally means "after a short period of time", and this is
the usage most frequent in British English. In American
English, it most commonly means "currently" or "at the
present time." Disputed usage: I am presently reading
Wikipedia. Undisputed usage: I will be finished with that
activity presently. Refute
30. 5- Different. Standard usage in both England and
America is "different from" (on the analogy of "to differ
from"). In England this competes with "different to"
(coined on the analogy of "similar to"). In America it
competes with "different than" (coined on the analogy
of "other than"). Undisputed usage:The American
pronunciation of English is different from the British.
Disputed usage:The American pronunciation of English
is different to the British. Disputed usage:The American
pronunciation of English is different than the British.
31. "THIS PRESENTATION WAS CREATED
BY: .
- MAI MAHMOUD AL-MHERAT.
-ALAA HUSSIEN ABU ORABI
- HADEEL IBRAHIM ALDAMRA.
FOR DR. KHALEEL ALBATAINEH .“