This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples to illustrate differences between neutral, common literary, and common colloquial words. Finally, it discusses special groups within the literary vocabulary, including terms used in specific disciplines.
Stylistic Classification of English VocabularyIrina K
The document discusses the classification and development of English vocabulary. It covers:
- Common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words, and technical words can be classified by level of usage.
- The historical development of English vocabulary from Old English, Middle English to Modern English, with influences from Latin, French, and other languages.
- After WWII, rapid growth in vocabulary was driven by advances in science/technology, socio-economic changes, and influence from other cultures and languages. New words emerged in many domains like space, computers, social movements, education and more.
Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary and words. It examines the origin, development, and use of words. Lexicology is concerned with individual words, variable word groups, phraseological units, and morphemes. There are different types of lexicology including general lexicology, which studies words irrespective of language, and special lexicology, which describes the vocabulary of a given language. Lexicology is also connected to other branches of linguistics like grammar, phonetics, and social linguistics. Word meaning has different components including conceptual meaning, associative meaning, stylistic meaning, and others. Lexicology examines free word groups that can be formed in speech compared to phraseological units which exist
Sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
The document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the vocabulary into three main layers or strata: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups of words that share a common property or aspect. The literary layer has a bookish character, the colloquial layer has a lively spoken character, and the neutral layer has a universal character that can be used in all styles. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Stylistic differentiation of english vocabularyjverftukli
This document discusses stylistic differentiation in the English language with respect to vocabulary used in different functional styles. It provides examples of how the same concepts can be expressed using neutral, colloquial, formal, scientific, or slang terminology. It also discusses characteristics of the colloquial style, such as use of shortened forms, ellipses, and informal phrases. Additionally, it defines terms, professionalisms, and the process of "determinisation" where terms enter common vocabulary.
Lexicology is the study of words and vocabulary in language. It examines properties of words like origin, development and current usage. Lexicology is concerned with individual words, phrases and morphemes. There are two main types - general lexicology which studies vocabulary irrespective of language, and special lexicology which describes the vocabulary of a specific language. Lexicology is connected to other linguistic fields like grammar, phonetics, stylistics and cultural studies. Word meaning has different types including conceptual, associative, stylistic and grammatical. Phraseological units and free word groups are also studied in lexicology.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples and analysis of how words from these different layers compare and interact with each other stylistically. Special attention is given to terms as a subgroup within the literary vocabulary.
This document provides information about what constitutes a reference grammar, including the necessary training, typical structure, and intended purpose. A reference grammar is a prose description of a language's major grammatical constructions, illustrated with examples. It is intended as a reference tool for looking up grammatical details. Key parts include an introduction on the language and people, sections organized by increasing structural complexity (e.g. phonology to discourse), an index to easily find details, bibliography, and abbreviations list. The goal is to make grammatical information highly accessible through organization and indexing.
1. Traditional grammar has many limitations as it is based on ancient Indo-European languages and does not account for differences in modern languages.
2. It fails to distinguish between different linguistic levels like phonetics, morphology, syntax and semantics.
3. Traditional grammar is prescriptive rather than descriptive and many of its rules have no rational justification or basis in how language is actually used.
Stylistic Classification of English VocabularyIrina K
The document discusses the classification and development of English vocabulary. It covers:
- Common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words, and technical words can be classified by level of usage.
- The historical development of English vocabulary from Old English, Middle English to Modern English, with influences from Latin, French, and other languages.
- After WWII, rapid growth in vocabulary was driven by advances in science/technology, socio-economic changes, and influence from other cultures and languages. New words emerged in many domains like space, computers, social movements, education and more.
Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary and words. It examines the origin, development, and use of words. Lexicology is concerned with individual words, variable word groups, phraseological units, and morphemes. There are different types of lexicology including general lexicology, which studies words irrespective of language, and special lexicology, which describes the vocabulary of a given language. Lexicology is also connected to other branches of linguistics like grammar, phonetics, and social linguistics. Word meaning has different components including conceptual meaning, associative meaning, stylistic meaning, and others. Lexicology examines free word groups that can be formed in speech compared to phraseological units which exist
Sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
The document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the vocabulary into three main layers or strata: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups of words that share a common property or aspect. The literary layer has a bookish character, the colloquial layer has a lively spoken character, and the neutral layer has a universal character that can be used in all styles. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Stylistic differentiation of english vocabularyjverftukli
This document discusses stylistic differentiation in the English language with respect to vocabulary used in different functional styles. It provides examples of how the same concepts can be expressed using neutral, colloquial, formal, scientific, or slang terminology. It also discusses characteristics of the colloquial style, such as use of shortened forms, ellipses, and informal phrases. Additionally, it defines terms, professionalisms, and the process of "determinisation" where terms enter common vocabulary.
Lexicology is the study of words and vocabulary in language. It examines properties of words like origin, development and current usage. Lexicology is concerned with individual words, phrases and morphemes. There are two main types - general lexicology which studies vocabulary irrespective of language, and special lexicology which describes the vocabulary of a specific language. Lexicology is connected to other linguistic fields like grammar, phonetics, stylistics and cultural studies. Word meaning has different types including conceptual, associative, stylistic and grammatical. Phraseological units and free word groups are also studied in lexicology.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples and analysis of how words from these different layers compare and interact with each other stylistically. Special attention is given to terms as a subgroup within the literary vocabulary.
This document provides information about what constitutes a reference grammar, including the necessary training, typical structure, and intended purpose. A reference grammar is a prose description of a language's major grammatical constructions, illustrated with examples. It is intended as a reference tool for looking up grammatical details. Key parts include an introduction on the language and people, sections organized by increasing structural complexity (e.g. phonology to discourse), an index to easily find details, bibliography, and abbreviations list. The goal is to make grammatical information highly accessible through organization and indexing.
1. Traditional grammar has many limitations as it is based on ancient Indo-European languages and does not account for differences in modern languages.
2. It fails to distinguish between different linguistic levels like phonetics, morphology, syntax and semantics.
3. Traditional grammar is prescriptive rather than descriptive and many of its rules have no rational justification or basis in how language is actually used.
Statistical features of newspaper languageRafia Sheikh
This document outlines the stylistic features of language that can be analyzed at different levels, including phonological, graphological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. It discusses analyzing sound patterns and pronunciation at the phonological level, the form and appearance of written text at the graphological level, word building and affixes at the morphological level, phrase and clause structures at the syntactic level, and meanings and contexts at the semantic level. Discourse analysis is also mentioned as the study of text language and conversations.
This document discusses reference grammars, which are prose descriptions of a language's major grammatical constructions, illustrated with examples. The document outlines what constitutes a reference grammar, including an introduction about the language and its speakers, the main body organized by grammatical structures, and sections on index, bibliography, and abbreviations. It also notes strengths like being designed to teach about a language and serve as a reference, but weaknesses include lack of clear distinctions between languages and accounting for language variation. Finally, it implies reference grammars serve mother-tongue speakers wanting to learn more about their language and linguists making comparisons to other languages.
This document provides an overview of structural grammar. It defines structural grammar, lists its main representatives like Saussure and Bloomfield, and describes its main objectives as analyzing, describing and limiting language. It discusses the conception of language as langue and parole and lists basic principles like descriptiveness vs. prescriptiveness. The document also outlines contributions, limitations, grammatical organization involving phonology, morphology and syntax, and provides an example of sentence analysis.
This document is a thesis submitted by Renata Mozūraitytė to the Faculty of Humanities at Šiauliai University. The thesis analyzes the stylistic features of newspaper headlines in The Telegraph. It begins with an introduction that outlines the objectives, relevance and structure of the thesis. The first sections provide an overview of functional styles and the features of the newspaper style. Subsequent sections analyze the functions, language features and stylistic devices of newspaper headlines, including the omission of words, use of short words and loaded words, nominalization, noun phrases and gimmicks. Examples from The Telegraph are discussed and analyzed.
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language, including how speech sounds are used to convey meaning. It looks at various aspects of sounds and sound combinations, including what sounds can go together to form syllables and differences between languages. Morphology is the study of words, their internal structure, and how new words are formed. It analyzes morphemes, the smallest units of meaning, including free and bound morphemes. Semantics is the study of meaning, including both the literal meaning of words and phrases as well as their connotative meanings. Syntax refers to the patterns and order of words within sentences to show relationships of meaning.
Types of corpus linguistics Parallel ,aligned...RajpootBhatti5
Parallel corpora consist of original texts and their translations between two or more languages. They are aligned so that corresponding segments, such as sentences or paragraphs, can be matched between languages. This allows users to search for words or phrases in one language and see the translations in the other language. Parallel corpora can be used for contrastive linguistics to analyze similarities and differences between languages, as well as for translation studies and lexicology. Examples of parallel corpora include the English-German Translation Corpus and the English-Norwegian Parallel Corpus. Comparable corpora contain similar text types and genres in different languages or language varieties to allow for comparison. Aligned corpora explicitly link translated elements, such as sentences, phrases, or words, between
Research report traditional grammar vs functional grammar and teaching of gr...Rai Shoaib Ali
This document is a research report submitted for a post-graduate diploma in TEFL that compares traditional grammar and functional grammar. It finds that traditional grammar has several limitations, such as being prescriptive rather than descriptive, using categories based on European languages that do not apply to all languages, and lacking a theoretical framework. Functional grammar emerged to address these limitations by taking a more descriptive approach focused on the functions of language in communication rather than rigid rules. The report provides a detailed analysis of the concepts and approaches of traditional grammar versus functional grammar.
Traditional grammar refers to the prescriptive rules of grammar commonly taught in schools, which are largely based on Latin grammar rather than modern linguistic research. It focuses on distinguishing "correct" versus "incorrect" language usage according to established standards. While traditional grammar aims to perpetuate proper language, it lacks a theoretical framework and is inadequate for describing all languages. However, it remains widely used in language education due to its influence on educational systems.
Discourse analysis is the study of language in use and how context affects meaning. It examines both spoken and written language. For spoken language, models analyze elements like turn-taking and topic management in conversations. Written language relies more on cohesion between sentences to create coherence for the reader. Discourse analysis interprets language forms based on linguistic and situational factors, as the same form can express different functions depending on context.
Semasiology is the study of meaning in language. There are two main approaches to studying meaning: the referent approach and the functional approach. The referent approach views meaning as composed of the sound form, concept, and referent. The functional approach sees meaning as defined by a word's relationships and functions in speech. Semantic components include denotative, connotative, and grammatical meanings. Polysemy, where a word has multiple meanings, is common in languages due to the limited number of sound combinations humans can produce. Context is important for understanding word meanings, as a word's meaning depends on the other words it is used with. New meanings develop due to historical, linguistic, and other extra-ling
This document discusses stylistic analysis of literary texts. It identifies four levels of stylistic analysis: phonological, grammatical, lexical, and graphological. At the phonological level, it examines sound patterns. The grammatical level analyzes sentence structure and parts of speech. Lexically, it studies word choices and semantics. Graphologically, it considers writing conventions. The document provides an example analysis of the poem "maggie and milly and molly and may" to illustrate the application of these levels and derivation of meaning through stylistic techniques. It concludes that stylistic analysis is useful for literary interpretation and for teachers to help students better understand poetry.
This document lists various apps and tools that can help with writing, reading, organization, and accessibility for students. It includes links to apps for pronunciation, dictation, vocabulary, grammar, verb tenses, flashcards, word prediction, mind mapping, outlining, graphic organizers, pencil grips, and optical character recognition. It also mentions tools like highlighters, picture communication symbols, living books, audiobooks, and digital readers. Photos are provided for some of the tools.
This document discusses various mnemonic devices and study aids for learning Spanish vocabulary, including acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, songs, word associations, visual clues, and flashcards. It explains that 100 words are sufficient for basic conversation and 2,000 words are enough for normal conversation. It provides examples of how to use different mnemonic devices and encourages studying vocabulary for 10-15 minutes per day using flashcards or other aids.
The document discusses Catalan numbers, which have various interpretations in combinatorics. Specifically:
1) Catalan numbers count the number of ways to triangulate a polygon with n+2 sides.
2) They also count the number of binary trees with n+1 leaves and the number of Dyck words of length 2n.
3) Additionally, Catalan numbers represent the number of monotonic paths in an n×n square grid.
The document provides historical background on Catalan numbers and derives the formula to calculate them using binomial coefficients and Euler's formula for triangulating polygons. It also gives examples and interpretations involving triangulations, trees, Dyck words and grid paths.
Phs carp powerpoint presentation final versionceholland
This document summarizes a research project that aimed to determine if explicitly teaching test-taking skills would improve students' abilities on tests. The researchers taught two test-taking strategies - circling key words and rephrasing test questions - to students in various classes over 3-4 weeks. Pre- and post-tests were administered to measure any effects. While some individual classes saw significant improvements, the overall results across all 256 students were not significant, showing the treatment was not clearly effective. Observations found mixed and limited use of the strategies by students. The researchers concluded the study design and data collection needed improvement to better understand any impacts.
This document summarizes research on the relationship between gender and reading. It finds that while research shows few meaningful differences in reading abilities between boys and girls, teachers and students still view reading as a gendered activity. The study interviewed high school students and teachers and found that teachers choose texts they think will appeal more to boys, focusing more attention on reluctant male readers, and students also tend to choose same-sex protagonists. However, students' individual text preferences varied and were not strictly defined by gender. The study recommends providing more text choice and encouraging students to read across gender boundaries.
The document discusses Catalan numbers, which have various interpretations in combinatorics. Specifically:
1) Catalan numbers count the number of ways to triangulate a polygon with n+2 sides.
2) They also count the number of possible tree diagrams that can be drawn with n+1 leaves.
3) Additionally, Catalan numbers represent the number of arrangements of Dyck words of length 2n.
The document provides historical background on Catalan numbers and explores proofs and interpretations of the numbers in fields like triangulation, trees, Dyck words, and monotonic paths on grids.
Copy of sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
This document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups that share a common property called an "aspect." The literary layer's aspect is its bookish character, the colloquial layer's aspect is its lively spoken character, and the neutral layer's aspect is its universal character. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Copy of «stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli08
The document discusses the classification of English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial. It examines the subgroups within the literary layer, including terms and learned words, as well as the subgroups in the colloquial layer such as slang, dialects, and vulgar words. The purpose is to analyze how words are differentiated stylistically and the practical importance of understanding these classifications for students, teachers, and translators.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli08
The document discusses the classification of English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial. It analyzes the common literary, common colloquial, and neutral vocabularies, and how they overlap and relate. Special focus is given to terms as a type of specialized literary vocabulary used in scientific works.
Statistical features of newspaper languageRafia Sheikh
This document outlines the stylistic features of language that can be analyzed at different levels, including phonological, graphological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. It discusses analyzing sound patterns and pronunciation at the phonological level, the form and appearance of written text at the graphological level, word building and affixes at the morphological level, phrase and clause structures at the syntactic level, and meanings and contexts at the semantic level. Discourse analysis is also mentioned as the study of text language and conversations.
This document discusses reference grammars, which are prose descriptions of a language's major grammatical constructions, illustrated with examples. The document outlines what constitutes a reference grammar, including an introduction about the language and its speakers, the main body organized by grammatical structures, and sections on index, bibliography, and abbreviations. It also notes strengths like being designed to teach about a language and serve as a reference, but weaknesses include lack of clear distinctions between languages and accounting for language variation. Finally, it implies reference grammars serve mother-tongue speakers wanting to learn more about their language and linguists making comparisons to other languages.
This document provides an overview of structural grammar. It defines structural grammar, lists its main representatives like Saussure and Bloomfield, and describes its main objectives as analyzing, describing and limiting language. It discusses the conception of language as langue and parole and lists basic principles like descriptiveness vs. prescriptiveness. The document also outlines contributions, limitations, grammatical organization involving phonology, morphology and syntax, and provides an example of sentence analysis.
This document is a thesis submitted by Renata Mozūraitytė to the Faculty of Humanities at Šiauliai University. The thesis analyzes the stylistic features of newspaper headlines in The Telegraph. It begins with an introduction that outlines the objectives, relevance and structure of the thesis. The first sections provide an overview of functional styles and the features of the newspaper style. Subsequent sections analyze the functions, language features and stylistic devices of newspaper headlines, including the omission of words, use of short words and loaded words, nominalization, noun phrases and gimmicks. Examples from The Telegraph are discussed and analyzed.
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language, including how speech sounds are used to convey meaning. It looks at various aspects of sounds and sound combinations, including what sounds can go together to form syllables and differences between languages. Morphology is the study of words, their internal structure, and how new words are formed. It analyzes morphemes, the smallest units of meaning, including free and bound morphemes. Semantics is the study of meaning, including both the literal meaning of words and phrases as well as their connotative meanings. Syntax refers to the patterns and order of words within sentences to show relationships of meaning.
Types of corpus linguistics Parallel ,aligned...RajpootBhatti5
Parallel corpora consist of original texts and their translations between two or more languages. They are aligned so that corresponding segments, such as sentences or paragraphs, can be matched between languages. This allows users to search for words or phrases in one language and see the translations in the other language. Parallel corpora can be used for contrastive linguistics to analyze similarities and differences between languages, as well as for translation studies and lexicology. Examples of parallel corpora include the English-German Translation Corpus and the English-Norwegian Parallel Corpus. Comparable corpora contain similar text types and genres in different languages or language varieties to allow for comparison. Aligned corpora explicitly link translated elements, such as sentences, phrases, or words, between
Research report traditional grammar vs functional grammar and teaching of gr...Rai Shoaib Ali
This document is a research report submitted for a post-graduate diploma in TEFL that compares traditional grammar and functional grammar. It finds that traditional grammar has several limitations, such as being prescriptive rather than descriptive, using categories based on European languages that do not apply to all languages, and lacking a theoretical framework. Functional grammar emerged to address these limitations by taking a more descriptive approach focused on the functions of language in communication rather than rigid rules. The report provides a detailed analysis of the concepts and approaches of traditional grammar versus functional grammar.
Traditional grammar refers to the prescriptive rules of grammar commonly taught in schools, which are largely based on Latin grammar rather than modern linguistic research. It focuses on distinguishing "correct" versus "incorrect" language usage according to established standards. While traditional grammar aims to perpetuate proper language, it lacks a theoretical framework and is inadequate for describing all languages. However, it remains widely used in language education due to its influence on educational systems.
Discourse analysis is the study of language in use and how context affects meaning. It examines both spoken and written language. For spoken language, models analyze elements like turn-taking and topic management in conversations. Written language relies more on cohesion between sentences to create coherence for the reader. Discourse analysis interprets language forms based on linguistic and situational factors, as the same form can express different functions depending on context.
Semasiology is the study of meaning in language. There are two main approaches to studying meaning: the referent approach and the functional approach. The referent approach views meaning as composed of the sound form, concept, and referent. The functional approach sees meaning as defined by a word's relationships and functions in speech. Semantic components include denotative, connotative, and grammatical meanings. Polysemy, where a word has multiple meanings, is common in languages due to the limited number of sound combinations humans can produce. Context is important for understanding word meanings, as a word's meaning depends on the other words it is used with. New meanings develop due to historical, linguistic, and other extra-ling
This document discusses stylistic analysis of literary texts. It identifies four levels of stylistic analysis: phonological, grammatical, lexical, and graphological. At the phonological level, it examines sound patterns. The grammatical level analyzes sentence structure and parts of speech. Lexically, it studies word choices and semantics. Graphologically, it considers writing conventions. The document provides an example analysis of the poem "maggie and milly and molly and may" to illustrate the application of these levels and derivation of meaning through stylistic techniques. It concludes that stylistic analysis is useful for literary interpretation and for teachers to help students better understand poetry.
This document lists various apps and tools that can help with writing, reading, organization, and accessibility for students. It includes links to apps for pronunciation, dictation, vocabulary, grammar, verb tenses, flashcards, word prediction, mind mapping, outlining, graphic organizers, pencil grips, and optical character recognition. It also mentions tools like highlighters, picture communication symbols, living books, audiobooks, and digital readers. Photos are provided for some of the tools.
This document discusses various mnemonic devices and study aids for learning Spanish vocabulary, including acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, songs, word associations, visual clues, and flashcards. It explains that 100 words are sufficient for basic conversation and 2,000 words are enough for normal conversation. It provides examples of how to use different mnemonic devices and encourages studying vocabulary for 10-15 minutes per day using flashcards or other aids.
The document discusses Catalan numbers, which have various interpretations in combinatorics. Specifically:
1) Catalan numbers count the number of ways to triangulate a polygon with n+2 sides.
2) They also count the number of binary trees with n+1 leaves and the number of Dyck words of length 2n.
3) Additionally, Catalan numbers represent the number of monotonic paths in an n×n square grid.
The document provides historical background on Catalan numbers and derives the formula to calculate them using binomial coefficients and Euler's formula for triangulating polygons. It also gives examples and interpretations involving triangulations, trees, Dyck words and grid paths.
Phs carp powerpoint presentation final versionceholland
This document summarizes a research project that aimed to determine if explicitly teaching test-taking skills would improve students' abilities on tests. The researchers taught two test-taking strategies - circling key words and rephrasing test questions - to students in various classes over 3-4 weeks. Pre- and post-tests were administered to measure any effects. While some individual classes saw significant improvements, the overall results across all 256 students were not significant, showing the treatment was not clearly effective. Observations found mixed and limited use of the strategies by students. The researchers concluded the study design and data collection needed improvement to better understand any impacts.
This document summarizes research on the relationship between gender and reading. It finds that while research shows few meaningful differences in reading abilities between boys and girls, teachers and students still view reading as a gendered activity. The study interviewed high school students and teachers and found that teachers choose texts they think will appeal more to boys, focusing more attention on reluctant male readers, and students also tend to choose same-sex protagonists. However, students' individual text preferences varied and were not strictly defined by gender. The study recommends providing more text choice and encouraging students to read across gender boundaries.
The document discusses Catalan numbers, which have various interpretations in combinatorics. Specifically:
1) Catalan numbers count the number of ways to triangulate a polygon with n+2 sides.
2) They also count the number of possible tree diagrams that can be drawn with n+1 leaves.
3) Additionally, Catalan numbers represent the number of arrangements of Dyck words of length 2n.
The document provides historical background on Catalan numbers and explores proofs and interpretations of the numbers in fields like triangulation, trees, Dyck words, and monotonic paths on grids.
Copy of sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
This document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups that share a common property called an "aspect." The literary layer's aspect is its bookish character, the colloquial layer's aspect is its lively spoken character, and the neutral layer's aspect is its universal character. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Copy of «stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli08
The document discusses the classification of English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial. It examines the subgroups within the literary layer, including terms and learned words, as well as the subgroups in the colloquial layer such as slang, dialects, and vulgar words. The purpose is to analyze how words are differentiated stylistically and the practical importance of understanding these classifications for students, teachers, and translators.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli08
The document discusses the classification of English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial. It analyzes the common literary, common colloquial, and neutral vocabularies, and how they overlap and relate. Special focus is given to terms as a type of specialized literary vocabulary used in scientific works.
Sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
This document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups that share a common property called an "aspect." The literary layer's aspect is its bookish character, the colloquial layer's aspect is its lively spoken character, and the neutral layer's aspect is its universal character. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Copy of sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
This document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups that share a common property called an "aspect." The literary layer's aspect is its bookish character, the colloquial layer's aspect is its lively spoken character, and the neutral layer's aspect is its universal character. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
This document discusses reference grammars, which are prose descriptions of a language's major grammatical constructions, illustrated with examples. The document outlines what constitutes a reference grammar, including an introduction about the language and its speakers, the main body organized by grammatical structures, and sections on index, bibliography, and abbreviations. It also notes strengths like being designed to teach about a language and serve as a reference, but weaknesses include lack of clear distinctions between languages and accounting for language variation. Finally, it implies reference grammars serve mother-tongue speakers wanting to learn more about their language and linguists making comparisons to other languages.
This document discusses various aspects of language structure. It explains that language is dynamic and constantly changing through changes in vocabulary, pronunciation, morphology and syntax over time. It also argues that language is complex and capable of expressing a wide range of ideas through its open-ended and rule-based nature. The document concludes that grammar rules should be made easy to learn and adapted to different learning styles.
This document discusses lexicology as a linguistic discipline that studies vocabulary and word features. It defines lexicology as the study of vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word groups within a given language. The document outlines the main tasks of lexicology as systematically describing the vocabulary of a language in terms of origin, development, and current usage. It also discusses subfields like semasiology, word structure, word formation, etymology, and lexicography. Additionally, it contrasts general/theoretical lexicology which studies universal vocabulary features, with special/descriptive lexicology which describes peculiarities of a single language.
This document discusses word classes and provides definitions and examples of open classes and closed classes of words. It focuses on characterizing and describing the major word classes of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. For each class, it discusses morphological and syntactic properties that are common across languages, provides language-specific examples, and notes observations about defining and analyzing these word classes both within and across languages.
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It involves analyzing language form, meaning, and context. Key areas of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, pragmatics, and discourse analysis. Phonetics examines speech sounds, while phonology studies sound patterns. Morphology analyzes the formation and combination of morphemes like prefixes and suffixes. Semantics deals with meaning at the word and sentence level. Syntax examines rules of sentence structure. Pragmatics considers language use based on context. Discourse analysis studies language use beyond the sentence level.
Traditional grammar provides a framework for analyzing the structure of language based on Latin concepts. It describes parts of speech like nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, subjects, predicates, objects, clauses, sentences, and conjunctions. While traditional grammar is prescriptive and based on written language rather than contemporary usage, it remains an important basic framework for understanding English grammar.
This document discusses social variation in language and key concepts in sociolinguistics. It covers social dialects defined by education and occupation. It also discusses speech styles that vary based on formality, as well as speech accommodation theories of convergence and divergence. Registers are varieties used for different purposes, and examples of jargon, slang, and taboo terms are provided. The document also summarizes African American English as a vernacular continuum and describes some typical sound changes observed.
Applied linguistics uses knowledge about language, how it is learned and used, to solve problems in the real world. It aims to increase understanding of language's role in human affairs to make informed language-related decisions. Applied linguistics developed from 18th century linguistic description and prescription of English grammar. It has moved from viewing language as discrete elements to more integrated perspectives, reflecting how skills are used together in communication. Tests are best suited to particular learners and purposes rather than a one-size-fits-all approach.
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This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples to illustrate the differences between these layers and subgroups. Finally, it discusses some special groups within the literary vocabulary, particularly terms used in scientific works.
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This document discusses stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary with respect to functional styles. It notes that vocabulary can be categorized as bookish/literary, colloquial, or neutral. Colloquial vocabulary is typical of informal oral communication and may include emotionally colored words or connotations. The document provides examples to illustrate these categories and discusses features of colloquial style such as informal phrases, grammatical variations, and broad word meanings. It also discusses terms, professionalisms, slang, and the different styles of formal English.
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This document discusses the stylistic classification and historical development of English vocabulary. It covers:
1) Different classifications of words based on level of usage including common, literary, colloquial, slang, and technical words.
2) The historical development of English vocabulary over three periods - Old English, Middle English, and Modern English - and the influences of Latin, French, and other languages at different stages.
3) Factors that have led to rapid growth of the English vocabulary since World War II, including advances in science/technology and socio-economic, political, and cultural changes.
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English vocabulary has evolved over time from multiple sources:
1. Old English provides the most common modern words and basic concepts but the language was spoken by only about 20,000 people in 500 AD.
2. Norse invasions in the 9th century enriched Old English with words like 'happy' and 'wrong' while the Norman conquest in 1066 introduced words from Norman French like 'beef' and 'pork' as well as place name terms.
3. As the British Empire expanded, English incorporated words from territories like Australia, South Africa, India, and the Americas to describe new plants, animals, and cultural concepts encountered through colonialism.
Vocabulary memory study aids presentation transcriptjverftukli
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Stylistic classification of english vocabulary presentation transcriptjverftukli
This document discusses the stylistic classification and historical development of English vocabulary. It covers:
1. The classification of words by level of usage including common, literary, colloquial, slang, and technical words.
2. The historical development of English vocabulary over three periods - Old English, Middle English, and Modern English - and the influences of Latin, French, and other languages at different stages.
3. The rapid growth of the English vocabulary after World War II due to advances in science, technology, and socio-economic changes.
Sources of english vocabulary presentation transcriptjverftukli
English vocabulary has evolved over time from multiple sources:
1. Old English provides the most common modern words and basic concepts but the language was then influenced by Old Norse through Viking invasions, adding words like "happy" and "wrong."
2. The Norman conquest in 1066 introduced many French words related to government, food and places of living.
3. As the British Empire expanded, English adopted words from territories around the world, incorporating words for new concepts from languages like Hindi, Japanese, Arabic and more. Modern English now contains vocabulary from numerous global languages.
1) The poem begins with the genealogy of the Danish kings, including Hrothgar who builds the hall Heorot. The monster Grendel attacks Heorot, killing Danish warriors.
2) The Geat warrior Beowulf hears of Grendel and decides to help the Danes. At Heorot, Beowulf declares he will kill Grendel. That night, Beowulf fights Grendel and tears his arm off, causing Grendel to flee and die.
3) Beowulf is celebrated as a hero. However, Grendel's mother attacks and kills one of Hrothgar's men. Beowulf dives into a lake and kills Grendel's mother in her l
This document discusses long words in different languages. It notes that English has the longest non-technical word at 28 letters, antidisestablishmentarianism. Technical words in languages can be very long in order to describe scientific concepts or compounds. German frequently combines short words into very long compounds. Some Native American languages can express whole phrases or sentences within single words. The document concludes by providing an example of an extremely long Native American chief's name from Wisconsin that was 179 letters long.
Copy of «stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»
1. MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION
OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
GULISTAN STATE UNIVERSITY
The English and Literature Department.
«Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary»
Gulistan 2008
Introduction
Theme actually. It is no news that any prepositional content - any «idea» - can be verbalized in
several different ways. So, «May I offer you are chair?», Take a seat, please, «Sit down» - have
the same proposition but differ in the manner of expression, which, in its turn, depends upon the
situational conditions of the communication act.
70 percent of our lifetime is spent in various forms of communication activities - oral or written,
so it is self evident how important it is for a philologist to know the mechanics of relations
between the non verbal, extralinguistic denotional essence of the communicative act and its
verbal, linguistic presentation. That's why I think to study the classification of the vocabulary is
very important thing for the English teacher and students.
The aims and purposes of the work. The work set a task to learn. The peculiarities of stylistic
differentiation of English vocabulary. To show the examples of different scholars approaches to
the theme.
The practical value. Materials of the work will help students, teachers and particular translators
and interpreters who work on the translation of the originals.
Literature overview. Basic information's of the qualification work are given from the manuals of
great scholars such as: Stylistics by Galperin I.R, A book of practice in stylistics by Kukharenko
V.A, English Stylistics by Bobohonova L.T. Besides above mentioned manuals I took
informations from Internet and World Book Encyclopedia.
The structure of the work. This qualification work consists of Introduction, main Part, and
Conclusion and at the end the list of used literatures.
1. General considerations of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary
The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups,
differing from each other by the sphere of its possible use.
2. The biggest division is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic connotation and suitable
for any communicative situation, two smaller ones are literary and colloquial strata respectively.
In order to get a more or less clear idea of the word-stock of nay language, it must be presented
as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. Some
linguists, who clearly see the systematic character of language as a whole, deny, however, the
possibility of systematically classifying the vocabulary. They say that he word-stock of any
language is so large and so heterogeneous that it is impossible to formalize it and therefore
present it in any system. The words of a language are thought of as a chaotic body whether
viewed from their origin and development or from their present state.
Indeed, coinage of new lexical units, the development of meaning, the differentiation of words
according to their stylistic evaluation and their spheres of usage, the correlation between
meaning and concept and other problems connected with vocabulary are so multifarious and
varied that it is difficult to grasp the systematic character of the word-stock of a language, though
it coexist with the systems of other level-phonetics, morphology and syntax.
To deny the systematic character of the word-stock of a language amounts to denying the
systematic character of language as a whole, words being elements in the general system of
language.
The word-stock of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects
of words may be singled out as interdependent. A special branch of linguistic science lexicology
has done much to classify vocabulary. A glance at the contents of any book on lexicology coil
suffices to ascertain the outline of the system of the word-stock of the given language.
For our purpose, i.e. for linguistic stylistics, a special type of classification, stylistic
classification, is most important.
In accordance with the already mentioned division of language into literary and colloquial, we
may represent the whole of the word-stock of the English language as being divided into three
main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the
colloquial layers contain number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the
subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words
within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish
character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of
words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It
can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. It is this that
makes the layer the most stable of all.
The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English
vocabulary they have no local or dialectal character.
3. The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not
infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it
circulates.
The literary vocabulary consist of the following groups of words: 1. common literary: 2. terms
and learned words: 3. poetic words: 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words: 6. literary
coinages including nonce-words.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. common colloquial words: 2. slang:
3. jargons: 4. professional words: 5. dialectal words: 6. vulgar words: 7. colloquial coinages.
2. Main part
2.1 Neutral, common literary and Сommon colloquial vocabulary
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and
colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the
neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings.
The wealth of the neutral stratum of words is often overlooked. This is due to their
inconspicuous character. But their faculty for assuming new meanings and generating new
stylistic variants is often quite amazing. This generative power of the neutral words in English
language is multiplied by the very nature of the language itself. It has been estimated that most
neutral English words are of monosyllabic character, as, in the process of development from Old
English to Modern English, most of the parts of speech lost their distinguish suffixes. This
phenomenon has led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of word-
building. Word compounding is not so productive as conversion or word shift in the part of
speech in the first case and by the addition of an affix in the second. Unlike all other groups, the
neutral group of words cannot be considered as having a special stylistic coloring.
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a
literary word from a colloquial word. The reason fro this lies in certain objective features of the
literary layer of words. What these objective features are, is difficult to say because as yet no
objective criteria have been worked out. But one of the undoubtedly is that literary units stand in
opposition to colloquial units. This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms, literary and
colloquial, can be formed which stand in contrasting relation.
The following synonyms illustrate the relations that exist between the neutral, literary and
colloquial words in the English language.
Colloquial Neutral Literary
Kid Child Infant
Daddy Father Parent
Chap Fellow Associate
4. Get out Go away Retire
Go on Continue Proceed
Teenager Boy (girl) Youth (maiden)
Flapper Young girl Maiden
Go ahead Begin
Get going Start Commence
It goes without saying that these synonyms are not only stylistic but ideographic as a well, i.e.
there is a definite, though slight, semantic difference between the words. But this is almost
always the case with synonyms. There are very few absolute synonyms in English just as there
are in any language. The main distinction between synonyms remains stylistic. But stylistic
difference may be of various kinds: it may lie in the emotional tension connoted in a word, or in
the sphere of application, or in the degree of the quality denoted. Colloquial words are always
more emotionally colored that literary ones. The neutral stratum of words, as het term itself
implies, has no degree of emotiveness, nor have they any distinctions in the sphere of usage.
Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary
words approaches the neutral layer and has a markedly obvious tendency to pass into that layer.
The same may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can very easily pass into the
neutral layer. The lines of demarcation between common colloquial and neutral, on the one hand,
and common literary and neutral, on the other, are blurred. It is here that the process of
interpenetration of the stylistic strata becomes most apparent.
Still the extremes remain antagonistic and therefore are often used to bring about a collision of
manners of speech for special stylistic purposes. The difference in the stylistic aspect of words
may color the whole of an utterance.
In this example from «Fanny's First Play», the difference between the common literary and
common colloquial vocabulary is clearly seen.
«Dora: Oh, I've let it out. Have I? (contemplating Juggins approvingly as he places a chair for
her between the table and the sideboard). But he's the right sort: I can see that (button holing
him). You won't let it out downstairs, old man, will you?
Juggins: The family can rely on my absolute discretion».
The words in Jugginses answer are on the border - line between common literary and neutral,
whereas the words and expressions used by Dora are clearly common colloquial, not bordering
on neutral.
The example from «David Copperfield» (Dickens) illustrates the use of literary English words
which do not border on neutral:
5. «My dear Copperfield,» said Mr. Micawber, «this is luxurious. This is a way of life which
reminds me of a period when I was myself in a state of celibacy, and Mrs. Micawber had not yet
been solicited to plight her faith at the Hymeneal altar».
«He means, solicited by him, Mr. Copperfield,» said Mrs. Micawber, archly. «He cannot answer
for others».
«My dear,» returned Mr. Micawber with sudden seriousness, «I have no desire to answer for
others. I am too well aware that when, in the inscrutable decrees of Fate, you were reserved for
me, it is possible you may have been reserved for one destined, after protracted struggle, at
length to fall a victim to pecuniary involvements of a complicated nature. I understand your
allusion, my love, I regret it, but I can bear it.»
«Micawber!» exclaimed Mrs. Micawber, in tears. «Have I deserved this! I, who never have
deserted you; who never will desert you, Micawber!»
«My love,» said Mr. Micawber, much affected, «you will forgive, and our old and tried friend
Copperfield will, I am sure, forgive the momentary laceration of a wounded spirit, made
sensitive by a recent collision with the Minion of Power-in other words, with a ribald Turncock
attached to the waterworks - and will pity, not condemn, its excesses».
There is a certain analogy between the interdependence of common literary words and neutral
ones, on the one hand, and common colloquial words and neutral ones, on the other. Both sets
can be viewed as being in invariant variant relations.
The neutral vocabulary may be viewed as the invariant of the standard English vocabulary. The
stock of words forming the neutral stratum should in this case be regarded as an abstraction. The
words of this stratum are generally deprived of any concrete associations and refer to the concept
more or less directly. Synonyms of neutral words, both colloquial and literary, assume a far
greater degree of concreteness. They generally present the same notions not abstractly but as a
more or less concrete image, that is, in a form perceptible by the senses. This perceptibility by
the senses causes subjective evaluations of the notion in question, or a mental image of the
concept. Sometimes an impact of a definite kind on het reader or hearer is the aim laying behind
the choice of a colloquial or a literary word rather than a neutral one.
In the diagram, common colloquial vocabulary is represented as overlapping into the standard
English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral
vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary which, as we shall see later, falls out of
standard English altogether. Just as common literary words lack homogeneity so do common
colloquial words and set expressions. Some of the lexical items belonging to this stratum are
close to the non-standard colloquial groups such as jargonisms, professionalisms, etc. There are
on the border line between the common colloquial vocabulary and the special colloquial or non-
standard vocabulary. Other words approach the neutral bulk of the English vocabulary.
Thus, the words teenager (a young girl or young man) and hippie (hippy) (a young person who
leads an unordered and unconventional life) are colloquial words passing into the neutral
6. vocabulary. They are gradually losing their non-standard character and becoming widely
recognized. However, they have not lost their colloquial association and therefore still remain in
the colloquial stratum of the English vocabulary. So also are the following words and
expressions: take (in as I take it = as I understand); to go for (to be attracted by, like very much,
as in «You think she still goes for the guy?»); guy (young man); to be gone on (to be madly in
love with); pro (professional, e.g. a professional boxer, tennis - player, etc.)
The spoken language abounds in set expressions which are colloquial in character, e.g. all sorts
of things, just a bit, how is life treating you?, so-so, what time do you make it? To hob-nob
(to be very friendly with, to drink together), so much the better, to be sick and tired of, to be
up to something.
The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends not so much on
the inner qualities of each of the groups, as on their interaction when they are opposed to one
another. However, the qualities themselves are not unaffected by the function of the words, in as
much as these qualities have been acquired in certain environments. It is interesting to note that
anything written assumes a greater degree of significance than what is only spoken. If the spoken
takes the place of he written or vice versa, it means that we are faced with a stylistic device.
Certain set expressions have been coined within literary English and their use in ordinary speech
will inevitably make the utterance sound bookish. In other words, it will become literary. The
following are examples of set expressions which can be considered literary: in accordance with,
with regard to, by virtue of, to speak at great length, to lend assistance, to draw a lesson,
responsibility rest.
2.2 Special literary vocabulary
2.2.1 Terms
«All scientists are linguists to some extent. They are responsible for devising a consistent
terminology, a skeleton language to talk about their subject matter. Philologists and philosophers
of speech are in the peculiar position f having to evolve a special language to talk about language
itself.»
This quotation makes clear one of the essential characteristics of a term viz its highly
conventional character. A term is generally very easily coined and easily accepted: and new
coinages as replace outdated ones.
This sensitivity to alteration is mainly due to the necessity of reflecting in language the cognitive
process maintained by scholars analyzing different concepts and phenomena. One of the most
characteristic features of a term is its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a
particular science, discipline or art, i.e. to its nomenclature.
When a term is used our mind immediately associates it with a certain nomenclature. A term is
directly connected with the concept it denotes. A term, unlike other words, directs the mind to
7. the essential quality of the things, phenomenon or action as seen by the scientist in the light of
his own conceptualization
«A word is organically one with its meaning; likewise a term is one with a concept.
Conceptualization leaves, as it were, language behind although the words remain as (scientific or
philosophical) terms linguistically the difference is important in that terms are much more easily
substitutable by other terms than are words by other words; it is easier to replace, say the term
phonology by phonemics (provided I make it clear what is meant) Ullman, Stephen, words and
their use. Frederick Muller, Ldn. 1951. P. 107, than to replace everyday words like table and
chair by other word
Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the nations of some
branch of science. There sore it may be said that they belong to the style. They may as well
appear in newspaper style, inpublicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language.
But their function in this case changes. They do not always fulfill their basic function that of
bearing exact reference to a given concept. When used in the belles - letters style, for instance, a
term may acquire a stylistic function and consequently become a (sporadical) SD. This happens
when a term is used n such a way that two meanings are materialized simultaneously.
The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical
peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character
whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions.
In this connection it is interesting to analyze the stylistic effect of he medical terminology used
by A.J. Cromin in his novel «The Citadel» Uerhaar, John W. M. Proceedings of the Ninth
International Congress of linguists. The Hague. 1966 p. 378. The frequent use of medical terms
in the novel is explained by its subject matter the life of a physician and finds it natural to use
medical terminology.
The piling up of difficult and special terms hinders the readers understanding of the text if he is
not a specialist even when the writer strives to explain them. More over, such an accumulation of
special terminology often suggests that the author is displaying his erudition. Maxim Gorki said
that terms must not be overused. It has been pointed out that those who are learning use far more
complicated terms than those who have already learned.
There is an interesting process going on in the development of any language. With the increase
of general education and the expansion of technique to satisfy the ever-growing needs and
desires of mankind, many words that were once terms have gradually lost their quality as terms
and have passed into the common literary or even neutral vocabulary. This process may be called
«determinization». Such words as «radio», `television' and the like have long been in common
use and their terminological character is no longer evident.
Brain Foster in his book «The Changing English Language» writes: «…science is one of the
most powerful influences molding in English language into fresh shapes at the present time.
Scientific writing is not highly esteemed for its elegance one recalls the tale of the scientist who
alluded to a certain domain of enquiry as a virgin field pregnant with possibilities but scientific
8. jargon and modes of thought inevitably come to the fore in a society which equates civilization
with chromium plated bath taps. Nor does the process date from yesterday, for we have long
been talking of people being `galvanized' into activity or going full steam ahead, but nowadays
this tendency to prefer technical imagery is ever increasing, so that science can truly be said to
have sparked off a chain reaction in the linguistic sphere» Foster, Brain. The changing English
language. Penguin Books 1971 p. 12
This quotation clearly shows how easily terms and terminological combinations become
determinized. We hardly notice sometimes the terminological origin of the words we use.
But such determinized words may by the force of a stylistic device become re-established in their
terminological function, thus assuming a twofold application, which is the feature required of a
stylistic device.
But when terms are used in their normal function as terms in a work of belles-lettres, they are or
ought to be easily understood from the context so that the desired effect in depicting the situation
will be secured.
Here is an example of a moderate use of special terminology bordering on common literary
vocabulary.
«There was a long conversation along wait. His father came back to say it was doubtful whether
they could make the loan. Eight percent, then being secured for money, was a small rate of
interest, considering its need. For ten percent Mr. Kuzel might make a call-loan. Frank went back
to his employer, whose commercial choler rose at the report» (Theodore Dreiser, «The
Financier»).
Such terms as `loan', `rate of interest', and the phrase `to secure for money' are widely known
financial terms which to the majority of the English and American reading public need no
explanation. The terms used here do not understood they may to some extent be neglected. It will
suffice if the reader has a general idea, vague though it may be, of the actual meaning of the
terms used. The main task of the co writer in this passage is not to explain the process of
business negotiations, but to create the environment of a business atmosphere.
In this example the terms retain their ordinary meaning though their function in the text is not
exactly terminological. It is more nearly stylistic, inasmuch as here the terms serve the purpose
of characterizing the commercial spirit of the hero of the novel. However, they are not SDs
because they fail to meet the main requirement of an SD.
The following is an example where a term is used as an SD.
«What a fool Fawd on Crawley has been,» Clump replied, «to go and marry a governess. There
was something about the girl too.»
«Green eyes, fair skin, pretty figure, famous frontal development,» Squill remarked.
(W.M. Thackeray).
9. The combination `frontal development' is terminological in character (used sometimes in
anatomy). But being preceded by the word `famous' used in the sense indicated by the Shorter
Oxford Dictionary as `a strong expression of approval (chiefly colloquial), excellent, capital» the
whole expression assumes a specific stylistic function due to the fact that `frontal development'
is used both in its terminological aspect and in its logical meaning `the breast of a woman'.
Another example of the same kind terms becoming SDs:
«I should like,» said young Jolyon, «to lecture on it: PROPERTY AND QUALITIES OF A
FORSYTE. This little animal disturbed by the ridicule of his own sort, is unaffected in his
motions by the laughter of strange creatures (you and I). hereditarily disposed to myopia, he
recognizes only the persons and habitats of his own species, among which he passes an existence
of competitive tranquility». (Galsworthy).
In this excerpt the twofold application of meanings terminological and stylistic is achieved by the
following means; the verb to `lecture (on…)' and the title of the subject' properties and qualities
(of a Forsyte)' direct the mind to the domain of science, i.e. they are used in a terminological
sense. But when they are followed by a word with nominal meaning (Forsyte) they assume an
additional meaning a stylistic one. This dash of incongruous notions arrests the mind forces it to
re-evaluate the terminological meaning of the words which aim at supporting the pseudo-
biological and medical aspect of the message-this being contained in the words `sort', `creature',
little animal', `species', `habitats', `myopia'. This aspect is also backed up by such literary words
and word - combinations as `tranquility' and `passes an existence' which are in full accord with
the demands of a lecture.
Whenever the terms used in the belles letters style set the reader at odds with the text, we can
register a stylistic effect caused either by a specific use of terms in their proper meanings or by
simultaneous realization of two meanings.
2.3 Poetic and highly literary words
Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary. They are mostly
archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. They
have a marked tendency to detach themselves from the common literary word-stock an gradually
assume the quality of terms denoting certain definite notions and calling forth poetic diction.
Poetic words and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of
poetry. This may be said to be the main function of poetic words.
V.V. Vinogradov gives the following properties of poetic words:
«…the cobweb of poetic words and images vials the reality, stylizing it according to the
established literary norms and canons. A word is torn away form its referent. Being drawn into
the system of literary styles, the words are selected and arranged in groups of definite images, in
Phraseological series, which grow standardized and stale and are becoming conventional
10. symbols of definite phenomena or characters or of definite ideas or impressions». Vinogradov
V.V. The style of Puchkin M. 1941 pp 8-9
Poetical tradition has kept alive such archaic words and forms as yclept (p.p.of the old verb
clipian - to call, name); quoth (p.t. of clean - to speak); eft soons (eftsona, - again, soon after),
which are used even by modern ballad-mongers. Let us note in passing that archaic words are
here to be understood as units that have either entirely gone out of use, or as words some of
whose meanings have grown archaic, e.g. hall in the following line from Byron's Childe Harold's
Pilgrimage.
Deserted is my own good hall, its hearth is desolate.
It must be remembered though, that not all English poetry makes use of «poeticisms or poetical
terms», as they might be named. In the history of English literature there were periods, as there
were in many countries, which were characterized by protests against the use of such
conventional symbols. The literature trends known as classicism and romanticism were
particularly rich in fresh poetic terms.
Poetical words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function, as seen in this
passage from Byron.
But Adeline was not indifferent; for
(Now for a common - place!) beneath the snow,
As a volcano holds the lava more
Within - et cetera. Shall I go on? - No.
I hate to hunt down a tired metaphor,
So let the often used volcano go.
Poor thing: How frequently, by me and others, it heath been stirred up till its smoke quite
smothers! (Don Juan)
The satirical function of poetic words and conventional poetic devices is well revealed in this
stanza. The tired metaphor and the often used volcano are typical of Byron's estimate of het
value of conventional metaphors and stereotyped poetical expressions.
The striving for the unusual the characteristic feature of some kinds of poetry is a kin to the
sensational and is therefore to be found not only in poetry, but in many other styles.
A modern English literary critic has remarked that in journalese a policeman never goes to an
appointed spot; he proceeds to it. The picturesque reporter seldom talks of a horse, it is a steed or
a charger. The sky is the welkin; the valey is the vale; fire is the devouring elements…
11. Poetical words and word-combinations can be likened to terms in that they do not easily yield to
polisemy.
They are said to evoke emotive meanings. They color the utterance with a certain air of loftiness,
but generally fail to produce a genuine feeling of delight; Hoy are too hackeyed for the purpose,
too stale. And that is the reason that the excessive use of poeticisms at present calls forth protest
and derision towards those who favor this conventional device.
Such protests have had a long history. As far back as the 16th century Shakespeare in a number of
lines voiced his attitude toward poeticisms, considering them as means to embellish poetry. Here
is one of the sonnets in which he condemns the use of such words.
Su is it not with me as with that Muse.
Stirr'd by a painted beauty to his verse,
Who heaven itself for ornament doth use
And every fair with his fair doth rehearse,
Making a complement of proud compare,
With sun and moon, with earth and sea's rich gems,
With April's first-born flowers, and all things rare.
That heaven's air in this huge rondure hems.
O, let me, true in love, but truly write,
And then believe me, my love is as fair
As any mother's child, though not so bright
As those gold candles fix'd in heaven's air;
Let then say more that like of hearsay well;
I will not praise that purpose not to sell
(Sonnet XXI)
It is remarkable how Shakespeare though avoiding poetic words proper uses highly elevated
vocabulary in the first part of the sonnet (the octave), such as `heaven's air', `rehearse',
`complement', `compare' (noun), `rondure', `hems', in contrast to the very common vocabulary of
the second part (the sestette).
12. The very secret of a truly poetic quality of a word does not lie in conventionality of usage. On
the contrary, a poeticism through constant repetition gradually becomes hackeyed. Like anything
that lacks freshness it fails to evoke a genuinely aesthetic effect and eventually call forth protest
on the part of those who are sensitive to real beauty.
As far back as in 1800 Word worth raised the question of the conventional use of words and
phrases, which to his mind should be avoided. There was (and still persists) a notion called
«poetic diction» which still means the collection of epithet, periphrases archaisms, etc., which
were common property to most poets of the 18th century.
However, the term has now acquired a broader meaning.
Thus Owen Barfield says:
«When words are selected and arranged in such a way that their meaning either arouses or is
obviously intended to arouse aesthetic imagination, the result may be described as poetic diction.
Barfield, Owen. Poetic Diction.. Ldn. 1952, 2d ed. (Cit. from Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry
and Poetics, p628
Poetic diction in the former meaning has had a long lineage. Aristotle in his «Poetics» writes the
following:
«The perfection of Diction is for it to be at once clear and not mean. The clearest indeed is that
made up of the ordinary words for things, but it is mean… the diction becomes distinguished and
non-prosaic by the use of unfamiliar terms, i.e. strange words, metaphors, lengthened forms and
everything that deviates from the ordinary modes of speech… A certain admixture, accordingly,
of unfamiliar terms is necessary. These, the strange words, the metaphor, the ornamental
equivalent, etc. will save the language from seeming mean and prosaic, while the ordinary words
in it will secure the requisite dearness.» Aristotle Poetics (cit. from Princeton Encyclopedia of
Poetry and poets.) Princeton, 1969, p628
A good illustration of the use of poetic words the bulk of which are archaic is the following
stanza from Byron's Childe Harold's Pilgrimage.
Whilome (at some past time) in Albion's isle (the oldest name of the island of Britain) there
dwelt (lived) a youth,
Who ne (not) in virtu's ways did take delight:
But spend his days in riot (wasteful living) most uncouth (unusual, strange).
And vex'd (disturbed) with mirth (fun) the drowsy ear of Night.
Ah me! (interjection expressing regret, sorrow) in sooth (truly he was a shameless wight (a
human being).
13. Sore (severely, harshly) given to revel (noisy festivity) and ungodly (wicked) glee
(entertainment);
Few earthly things found favor in his sight.
Save concubines (prostitutes) and carnal (not spiritual) company,
And flaunting (impudent) wassailers (drunkards; revelers) of high and low degree.
The use of poetic words does not as a rule create the atmosphere of poetry in the true sense; it is
a substitute for real art.
Poetic words are not freely built in contrast to neutral, colloquial and common literary words, or
terms. The commonest means is by compounding, e.g. `young-eyed', `rosy-fingered'.
Some writers make abundant use of this word-building means. Thus Arthur Hailey in his novel
«In High Places» has `serious-faced', `high ceilinged', `beige-carpeted', `tall backed', `horn-
rimmed' in almost close proximity.
There is, however, one means of creating new poetic words still recognized as productive even in
present-day English, viz. the use of a contracted form of a word instead of the full one, e.g. `dear'
instead of dreary, `scant' (=scanty).
Sometimes the reverse process leads to the birth of a poeticism, e.g. `vasty' (=vast. `The vasty
deep', i.e. the ocean); `steepy' (=steep), `paly' (=pale).
These two conventional devices are called forth by the requirements of the metre of the poem, to
add or remove a syllable, and are generally avoided by modern English poets.
Poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited member
of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical
jargon.
In modern English poetry there is a strong tendency to use words in strange combinations. It
manifests itself in the coinage of new words and, most of all, in combining old and familiar
words in a way that hinders understanding and forces the reader to stoop and try to decipher the
message so encoded.
The following may serve as examples;
`The sound of shape', `night-long ages', `to utter ponds of dream', `wings of because', `to reap
one's same', `goldenly whole, prodigiously' keen star whom she-and he-, - like its of am
perceive… (E.E. Cummings).
All these combinations are considered ungrammatical inasmuch as they violate the rules of
encoding a message. But in search of new modes of expression modern poets, particularly those
14. who may be called «modernists», have a strong bias for all kinds of innovation. They experiment
with language means and are ready to approve of any deviation from the normal. So also are
literary critics belonging to what is called the avant-garde movement in art, the essence of which
is the use of unorthodox and experimental methods? There usually lead both the poet and the
critic to extremes, examples of which are given above.
2.4 Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words
The word-stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. Words change their meaning
and sometimes drop out of the language altogether. New words sprig up and replace the old ones.
Some words stay in the language a vey long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new
meanings and becoming richer and richer polysemantically. Other words live but a short time are
like bubbles on the surface of water they disappear leaving no trace of their existence.
In registering these processes the role of dictionaries can hardly be over-estimated. Dictionaries
serve to retain this or that word in a language either as a relic of ancient times, where it lived and
circulated, or as a still living unit of the system, though it may have lost some of its meaning.
They may also preserve certain nonce-creations which were never intended for general use.
In every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show
more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, from full vigour, though a moribund
state to death, i.e. complete disappearance of the unite from the language.
We shall distinguish three stages in the aging process of words:
The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called
obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category
first of all belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the
language. In the English language these are the pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy and thine:
the corresponding verbal ending - est and the verb-forms art, wilt (thou makest, thou wilt); the
ending - (e) th instead of - (e) s (he maketh) and the pronoun ye.
To the category of obsolescent words belong many French borrowings which have been kept in
the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods, e.g. a pallet (a straw
mattress), a palfrey (a small horse); garniture (furniture); to emplume (to adorn with feathers of
plumes).
The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but
are still recognized by the English speaking community: e.g. methinks (it seems to me); nay (no).
These words are called obsolete.
The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer
recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either
dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have
become unrecognizable, e.g. troth (faith); a losel (a worthless, lazy fellow).
15. It will be noted that on the diagram the small circles denoting archaic and poetic words overlap
and both extend beyond the large circle «special literary vocabulary». This indicates that some of
the words in these layers do not belong to the present day English vocabulary.
The border lines between the groups are not distinct. In fact they interpenetrate. It is specially
difficult to distinguish between obsolete and obsolescent words. But the difference is important
when we come to deal with the stylistic aspect of an utterance in which the given word serves a
certain stylistic purpose. Obsolete and obsolescent words have separate functions, as we shall
point out later.
There is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, viz. historical
words. By gone periods in the life of any society are marked by historical events, and by
institutions, customs, material objects, etc. which are no longer in use, for example.: Thane,
yeoman, goblet, baldric, mace. Words of this type never disappear from the language. They are
historical terms and remain as terms referring to definite stages in the development of society
and cannot therefore be dispensed with, though the things and phenomena to which they refer
have long passed into oblivion. Historical words have no synonyms, where as archaic words
have been replaced by modern synonyms.
Archaic words are primarily and predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to
historical novels. It must be pointed out, however, that the use of historical words(terms) in a
passage written in scientific style, say, in an essay on the history of the Danish invasion, will
bear no stylistic function at all. But the same terms when used in historical novels assume a
different stylistic value. They carry, as it were, a special volume of information adding to the
logical aspect of the communication.
This, the main function of archaisms, finds different interpretation in different novels by
different writers. Some writers overdo things in this respect, the result being that the reader finds
all kinds of obstacles in his way others under estimate the necessity of introducing obsolete or
obsolescent elements into their narration and thus fail to convey what is called «local colour»
In his «Letter to the Young Writer» A.N. Tolstoi states that the heroes of historical novels must
think and speak in the way the time they live in, forces them to. If Stepan Razin, he maintain,
were to speak of the initial accumulation of capital, the reader would throw the book under the
table and he would be right. But the writer must know all about the initial accumulation of
capital and view events from this particular position.
On the whole Tolstoy's idea does not call for criticism. But the way it is worded may lead to the
misconception that heroes of historical novels should speak the language of the period they live
in. If those heroes really spoke that language of the time they lived in, the reader would
undoubtedly throw the book under the table because he would be unable to understand it.
As a matter of fact the heroes of historical novels speak the language of the period the writer and
the reader live in, and the skill of the writer is required to color the language with such obsolete
or obsolescent elements as most naturally interweave with the teature of the modern literary
language. These elements must not be archaic in the narrow sense.
16. They must be recognizable to the native reader and not hinder his understanding of the
communication.
The difficulty in handling archaic words and phrases and the subtlety required was acutely felt
by A.S. Pushikin. In his article «Juri Miloslavki, or the Russian of 1612,» Pushkin writes:
«Walter Scott carried along with him a crowd of imitators. But how far hey are from the Scottish
charmer! Like Agrippa's pupil, they summoned the demon of the past but they could not handle
him and fell victims of their own imprudence».
Walter Scott was indeed an inimitable master in the creation of an historical atmosphere. He used
the stylistic means that cerate this atmosphere with the stylistic means that create this atmosphere
with such skill and discrimination, that the reader is scarcely aware that the heroes of the novels
speak his language and not that of their own epoch. Walter Scott himself states the principles
which he considers basic for the purpose; the writer's language must not be out of date and
therefore incomprehensible, but words and phrases of modern coinage should be used.
«It is one thing to use the language to express feelings common both to us and to our
forefathers,» says Scott, «but it is another thing to impose upon them the emotions and speech
characteristics of their descendants».
In accordance with these principle Walter Scott never phonographs the language of earlier
periods; he sparingly introduces into the texture of his language of few words and expressions
more or less obsolescent in character and this is enough to convey the desired effect without
unduly interlarding present day English with outdated elements of speech. Therefore we can find
such words as methinks, haply, nay, travail, repast and the like in great number and, of course, a
multiplicity of historical terms. But you will hardly find a true archaism of the nature indicated in
our classification as archaisms proper.
Besides the function just mentioned, archaic words and phrases have other functions found in
other styles. They are, first of all, frequently to be found in the style of official documents. In
business letters, in legal language, in all kinds of statutes, in diplomatic documents and in all
kind of legal documents one can find obsolescent words which would long ago have become
obsolete if it were not for the preserving power of the special use within the above mentioned
spheres of communication. It is the same with archaic and obsolete words in poetry. As has
already been pointed out, they are employed in the poetic style as special terms and hence
prevented from dropping completely our of the language.
Among the obsolescent elements of the English vocabulary preserved within the style of official
documents, the following may be mentioned; aforesaid, hereby, there-within, herein after named.
The function of archaic words and constructions in official documents is terminological in
character. They are used here because they help to maintain that exactness of expression so
necessary in this style.
17. Archaic words and particularly archaic forms of words are some times used for satirical
purposes. This is achieved through what is called Anticlimax. The situation in which the
archaism is used is not appropriate to the context there appears a sort of discrepancy between the
words actually used and the ordinary situation which includes the possibility of such a usage.
The low predictability of an archaism when it appears in ordinary speech produces the necessary
satirical effect.
Here is an example of such a use of an archaic form. In Shaw's play «How He Lied to Her
Husband» a youth of eighteen; speaking of his feeling towards a «female of thirty seven»
expresses himself in a language which is not in conformity with the situation. His words are:
«Perfect love casteth off fear».
Archaic words, words-forms and word-combinations are also used to create an elevated effect.
Language is specially mounded to suit a solemn occasion; all kinds of stylistic devices are used,
and among them is the use of archaisms.
Some archaic words due to their inner qualities (sound - texture, nuances of meaning,
morphological peculiarities combination power) may be revived in a given.
2.5 Special colloquial vocabulary
2.5.1 Slang
There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous and obscure as the term slang. Slang seems
to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English.
Much has been said and written about it. This is probably due to the uncertainty of the concept
itself. No one has yet given a more or less satisfactory definition of the term. Nor has it been
specified by any linguist who deals with the problem of the English vocabulary.
The first thing that strikes the scholar is the fact that no other European language has singled out
a special layer of vocabulary and named it slang, though all of them distinguish such groups of
words as jargon, cant, and the like. Why was it necessary to invent a special term for something
that has not been clearly defined as jargon or can't have? Is this phenomenon specifically
English? Has slang any special features which no other group within the non-literary vocabulary
can lay claim to? The distinctions between slang and other groups of unconventional English,
though perhaps subtle and sometimes difficult to grasp, should nevertheless be subjected to a
more detailed linguistic specification.
Webster's «Third Mew International Dictionary» gives the following meanings of the term:
Slang [origin unknown] 1: language peculiar to a particular group: as a: the special and often
secret vocabulary used by a class (as thieves, beggars) and usu. felt to be vulgar or inferior-argot;
b: the jargon used by or associated with a particular trade,» profession, or field of activity; 2: a
non-standard vocabulary composed of words and senses characterized primarily by connotations
18. of extreme informality and usu. a currency not limited to a particular region and composed
typically of» coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant,
forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties usu. experiencing quick popularity and
relatively rapid decline into disuse.
The «New Oxford English Dictionary» defines slang as follows:
«a) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character;
language of a low and vulgar type. (Now merged in c, cant) b) the cant or jargon of a certain
class or period; c) language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard
educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some
special sense.»
As is seen from these quotations slang is represented both as a special vocabulary and as a
special language. This is the first thing that causes confusion. If this is a certain lexical layer,
then why should it be given the rank of language? If, on the other hand, slang is a certain
language or a dialect or even a patois, then it should be characterized not only by its peculiar use
of words but also by phonetic, morphological and syntactical peculiarities.
J.B. Greenough and C.L. Kitteridge define slang in these words:
«Slang… is a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate
speech but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company.»
Greenough and Kittcridge. Words and their Ways in English Speech. N. Y., 1929, p. 55
Another definition of slang which is worth quoting is one made by Eric Partridge, the eminent
student of the non-literary language.
«Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech.
To coin a term on a written page is almost inevitably to brand it as a neologism which will either
be accepted or become a nonce-word (or phrase), but, except in the rarest instances, that term
will not be slang. «3
In most of the dictionaries sl. (slang) is used as convenient stylistic notation for a word or a
phrase that cannot be specified more exactly. The obscure etymology of the term itself affects its
use as a stylistic notation. Whenever the notation appears in a dictionary it may serve as an
indication that the unit presented is non-literary, but not pinpointed. That is the reason why the
various dictionaries disagree in the use of this term when applied as a stylistic notation.
Partridge, Eric. Slang Today and Yesterday. Ldn, 1935, p. 36. 3
Any new coinage that has not gained recognition and therefore has not yet been received into
standard English is easily branded as slang.
The Times of the 12th of March, 3957 gives the following illustrations of slang: leggo (let go),
sarge (sergeant), 'I've got a date with that Miss Morris to-night'. But it is obvious that leggo is a
phonetic impropriety caused by careless rapid speaking; sarge is a vulgar equivalent of the full
19. form of the word; date is, a widely recognized colloquial equivalent (synonym) of the literary
and even bookish rendezvous (a meeting).
These different and heterogeneous phenomena united under the vague term slang cause natural
confusion and do not encourage scholars to seek more objective criteria in order to distinguish
the various stylistic layers of the English colloquial vocabulary. The confusion is made still
deeper by the fact that any word or expression apparently legitimate, if used in an arbitrary,
fanciful or metaphorical sense, may easily be labelled as slang. Many words formerly labelled as
slang have now become legitimate units of Standard English. Thus the word kid (child), which
was considered low slang in the nineteenth century, is now a legitimate colloquial unit of the
English literary language.
Some linguists, when characterizing the most conspicuous features of slang, point out that it
requires continuous innovation. It never grows stale. If a slang word or phrase does become stale,
it is replaced by a new slangism. It is claimed that this satisfies the natural desire for fresh, newly
created words and expressions, which give to an utterance emotional coloring and a subjective
evaluation. Indeed, it seems to be in correspondence with the traditional view of English
conservatism, that a special derogative term should have been coined to help preserve the «purity
of standard English» by hindering the penetration into it of undesirable elements. The point is
that the heterogeneous nature of the term serves as a kind of barrier which checks the natural
influx of word coinages into the literary language. True, such barriers are not without their
advantage in polishing up the literary language. This can be proved by the progressive role
played by any conscious effort to sift innovations, some of which are indeed felt to be
unnecessary, even contaminating elements in the body of the language. In this respect the
American newspaper may serve as an example of how the absence of such a sifting process
results in the contamination of the literary tongue of the nation with ugly redundant coinages.
Such a barrier, however, sometimes turns into an obstacle which hinders the natural development
of the literary language.
The term `slang', which is widely used in English linguistic science, should be clearly specified if
it is to be used as a term, i. e. it should refer to some definite notion and should be definable in
explicit, simple terms. It is suggested here that the term 'slang' should be used for those forms of
the English vocabulary which are either mispronounced or distorted in some way phonetically,
morphologically or lexically. The term 'slang' should also be used to specify some elements
which may be called over-colloquial. As for the other groups of words hitherto classified as
slang, they should be specified according to the universally accepted classification of the
vocabulary of a language.
But this must be done by those whose mother tongue is English. They and they only, being
native speakers of the English language, are its masters and lawgivers. It is for them to place
slang in its proper category by specifying its characteristic features.
Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of the vocabulary of the
language. V.V. Vinogradov writes that one of the tasks set before the branch of linguistic science
that is now called stylistics, is a thorough study of all changes in vocabulary, set phrases,»
grammatical constructions, their functions, an evaluation of any breaking away from the
20. established norm, and classification of mistakes and failures in word coinage. See: Виноградов
B. B. O Kyльтуре речи и неправильном словоупотреблении. «Литературная газета», 1951,
11 декабря, N 146.
H. Wentworth and S. Flexner in their «Dictionary of American Slang» write:
«Sometimes slang is used to escape the dull familiarity of standard words, to suggest an escape
from the established routine of everyday life. When slang is used, our life seems a little fresher
and a little more personal. Also, as at all levels of speech, slang is sometimes used for the pure
joy of making sounds, or even for a need to attract attention by making noise. The sheer newness
and informality of certain slang words produce pleasure.
«But more important than this expression of a more or less hidden aesthetic motive on the part of
the speaker is the slang's reflection of the personality, the outward, clearly visible characteristics
of the speaker. By and large, the man who uses slang is a forceful, pleasing, acceptable
personality.»
This quotation from a well-known scientific study of slang clearly shows that what is labelled
slang is either all kinds of nonce-formations - so frequently appearing in lively everyday speech
and just as quickly disappearing from the language-, or jocular words and word-combinations
that are formed by using the various means of word-building existing in the language and also by
distorting the form or sense of existing words. Here are some more examples of words that are
considered slang:
to take stock in-'to be interested in, attach importance, give credence to
bread-basket-'the stomach' (a jocular use)
to do a flit-'to quit one's flat or lodgings at night without paying the rent or board'
rot-'nonsense!'
the cat's pajamas-'the correct thing'
So broad is the term 'slang' that, according to Eric Partridge, there are many kinds of slang, e. g.
Cockney, public-house, commercial, society, military, theatrical, parliamentary and others. This
leads the author to believe that there is also a standard slang, the slang that is common to all
those who, though employing received standard in their writing and speech, also use an informal
language which, in fact, is no language but merely a way of speaking, using special words and
phrases in some special sense. The most confusing definition of the nature of slang is the
following one given by Partridge.
«…personality and one's surroundings (social or occupation-al) are the two coefficients, the two
chief factors, the determining causes of the nature of slang, as they are of language in general
and of style.» Partridge, Eric. Op. cit., p. 5.
21. According to this statement one may get the idea that language, style and slang all have the same
nature, the same determining causes. Personality and surroundings determine:
1. the nature of the slang used by a definite person,
2. the nature of the language he uses,
3. the kind of style he writes.
There is a general tendency in England and to some extent in the US to over-estimate the
significance of slang by attaching to it more significance than it deserves. Slang is regarded as
the quintessence of colloquial speech and therefore stands above all the laws of grammar.
Though it is regarded by some purists as a language that stands below standard English, it is
highly praised nowadays as «vivid», «more flexible», «more picturesque», «richer in
vocabulary» and so on.
Unwittingly one arrives at the idea that slang, as used by English and Americans, is a universal
term for any word or phrases which, though not yet recognized as a fact of Standard English, has
won general recognition as a fresh innovation quite irrespective of its nature: whether it is cant,
jargon, dialect, jocular or a pure colloquialism. It is therefore important, for the sake of a
scientific approach to the problem of a stylistic classification of the English vocabulary, to make
a more exact discrimination between heterogeneous elements in the vocabulary, no matter how
difficult it may be.
The following is an interesting example illustrating the contrast between Standard English and
non-literary English including slang.
In the story «By Courier» O. Henry opposes neutral and common literary words to special
colloquial words and slang for a definite stylistic purpose, viz. to distort a message by translating
the literary vocabulary of one speaker into the non-literary vocabulary of another.
«Tell her I am on my way to the station, to leave for San Francisco, where I shall join that Alaska
moose hunting expedition. Tell her that, since she has commanded me-neither to speak nor to
write to her, I take this means of making one last appeal to her sense of justice, for the sake of
what has been. Tell her that to condemn and discard one who has not deserved such treatment,
without giving him her reason or a chance to explain is contrary to her nature as I believe it to
be.»
This message was delivered in the following manner:
«He told me to tell yer he's got his collars and cuffs in dat grip for a scoot clean out to' Frisco.
Den he's goin' to shoot snowbirds in de Klondike. He says yer told him to send' round no more
pink notes nor come hangin' over de garden gate, and he takes dis mean (sending the boy to
speak for him. - I.G.) of putting yer wise. He says yer referred to him like a has-been, and never
give him no chance to kick at de decision. He says yer swiled him and never said why.»
22. The contrast between what is standard English and what is crude, broken non-literary or
uneducated American English has been achieved by means of setting the common literary
vocabulary and also the syntactical design of the original message against jargonisms, slang and
all kinds of distortions of forms, phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical.
It is suggestive that there is a tendency in some modern dictionaries to replace the label slang by
informal or colloquial. See also Prof. R.W. Burclifield's remark on the system of labelling in his
Introduction to "A Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary". Oxford, 1972, p. XVI. Such a
practice clearly manifests the dissatisfaction of some lexicographers with the term 'slang'. This is
mainly due to the ambiguity of the term.
On the other hand, some lexicographers, as has already been pointed out, still make use of the
term 'slang' as a substitute for 'jargon', 'cant', 'colloquialism', 'professionalism', 'vulgar', 'dialectal'.
Thus, in his dictionary Prof. Barnhart gives the label st to such innovations as «grab - to cause (a
person) to react; make an impression on», which, to my mind, should be classed as newspaper
jargon; «grass or pot - marijuana», which are positively cant words (the quotation that follows
proves it quite unambiguously); «groove-something very enjoyable,» «grunt - U.S. military
slang», which in fact is a professionalism; «gyppy tummy, British slang, - a common intestinal
upset experienced by travellers», which is a colloquialism; «hangup-a psychological or
emotional problem», which is undoubtedly a professionalism which has undergone extension of
meaning and now, according to Barnhart also means «any problem or difficulty, especially one
that causes annoyance or irritation.»
The use of the label sl in this way is evidently due to the fact that Barnhart's Dictionary aims not
so much at discrimination between different stylistic subtleties of neologisms but mainly at
fixation of lexical units which have already won general recognition through constant repetition
in newspaper language.
The term 'slang' is ambiguous because, to use a figurative expression, it has become a Jack of all
trades and master of none.
2.5.2 Jargonisms
In the non-literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called
jargonisms. Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every
language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms
are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. The traditional meaning
of the words is immaterial, only the new, improvised meaning is of importance. Most of the
jargonisms of any language, and of the English language too, are absolutely incomprehensible to
those outside the social group which has invented them, They may be defined as a code within a
code, that is special meanings of words that are imposed on the recognized code - the dictionary
meaning of the words.
Thus the word grease means 'money'; loaf means 'head'; a tiger hunter is 'a gambler'; a lexer is 'a
student preparing for a law course'.
23. Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In Britain and in the US almost any
social group of people has its own jargon. The following jargons are well known in the English
language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz
people; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many
others.
The various jargons (which in fact are nothing but a definite group of words) remain a foreign
language to the outsiders of any particular social group. It is interesting in connection with this to
quote a stanza from «Don Juan» by Byron where the poet himself finds it necessary to comment
on the jargonisms he has used for definite stylistic purposes.
«He from the world had cut off a great man,
Who in his time had made heroic bustle.
Who in a row like Tom could lead the van,
Booze in the ken ken = a house which harbors' thieves, or at the spellken spellken = a play-house
or theatre hustle?
Who queer a flat to queer a flat = to puzzle a silly fellow? Who (spite of Bow street's ban)
On the high toby-spice to flash the muzzle (gun) on the high toby-spice = to rob on horse back so
flash the muzzle?
Who on a lark a lark = fun or sport of any kind, with black-eyed Sal (his blowing) a blowing = a
girl.
So prime, so swell swell = gentlemanly, so nutty nutty = pleasing (to be nuts on = to be
infatuated with), and so knowing?»
The - explanation of the words used here was made by Byron's editor because they were all
jargonisms in Byron's time and no one would understand their meaning unless they were
explained in normal English. Byron wrote the following ironic comment to this stanza:
«The advance of science and of language has rendered it un-necessary to translate the above
good and true English, spoken in its original purity by the select nobility and their patrons. The
following is a stanza of a song which was very popular, at least in my early days;
«On the high toby-spice flash the muzzle,
In spite of each gallows old scout;
If you at all spellken can't hustle,
You'll be hobbled in making a Clout.
24. Then your Blowing will wax gallows haughty,
When she hears of your scaly mistake,
She'll surely turn snitch for the forty-
That her Jack may be regular weight.»
If there be any gemman (=gentleman) so ignorant as to require a traduction, I refer him to my old
friend and corporeal pastor and master, John Jackson, Esq., Professor of pugilism; who, I trust,
still retains the strength and symmetry of his model of a form, together with his good humor and
athletic as well as mental accomplishments.» (John Murray. «The Poetical Works of Lord
Byron»)
Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is not a secret code. It is easily understood by
the English-speaking community and is only regarded as something not quite regular. It must
also be remembered that both jargon and slang differ from ordinary language mainly in their
vocabularies. The structure of the sentences and the morphology of the language remain
practically unchanged. But such is the power of words, which are the basic and most
conspicuous element in the language, that we begin unwittingly to speak of a separate language.
Jargonisms do not always remain the possession of a given social group. Some of them migrate
into other social strata and sometimes become recognized in the literary language of the nation.
G.H. McKnight writes:
«The language of the underworld provided words facetiously adopted by the fashionable world,
many of which, such as fan and queer and banter and bluff and sham and humbug, eventually
made their way into dignified use.» McKnight, G.H. Modern English in the Making. N.Y., 1956,
p. 552.
There are hundreds of words, once jargonisms or slang, which have become legitimate members
of the English literary language.
Jargonisms have their definite place of abode and are therefore easily classified according to the
social divisions of the given period. Almost any calling has its own jargon, i.e. its set of words
with which its members intersperse their speech and render it incomprehensible to outsiders.
Some linguists even maintain that:
«Within the limits of any linguistic unity there are as many languages as there are groups of
people thrown together by propinquity and common interests.» Bough, Albert C. History of the
English Language, p. 385.
This is, of course, an overstatement. First of all, one should not mix up such notions as language
and vocabulary. True, unknown words and phrases, if too many, may render speech
unintelligible. But this fact does not raise speech to the level of a different language.
25. Jargonisms, however, do break away from the accepted norms of semantic variants of words.
They are a special group within the non-literary layer of words.
There is a common jargon and there are also special professional jargons. Common Jargonisms
have gradually lost their special quality, which is to promote secrecy and keep outsiders in the
dark. In fact, there are no outsiders where common jargon is concerned. It belongs to all social
groups and is therefore easily understood by everybody. That is why it is so difficult to draw a
hard and fast line between slang and jargon. When a jargonism becomes common, it has passed
on to a higher step on the ladder of word groups and becomes slang or colloquial.
Here are some further examples of jargon:
Piou-Piou-'a French soldier, a private in the infantry'. According to Eric Partridge this word has
already passed from military jargon to ordinary colloquial speech.
Hummen-'a false arrest' (American)
Dar - (from damned average raiser)-'a persevering and assiduous student'. (University jargon)
Matlo(w)-'a sailor' (from the French word 'matelot)
Man and wife-'a knife' (rhyming slang)
Manany-'a sailor who is always putting off a job or work' (nautical jargon) (from the Spanish
word 'manana'-'to-morrow')
The word brass in the meaning of 'money in general, cash' is not jargon inasmuch as there is an
apparent semantic connection between 'the general name for all alloys of copper with tin or zinc'
and cash. The metonymic ties between the two meanings prevent the word from being used as a
special code word. The same can be said of the words joker-'something used to play a trick or
win one's point or object with' from card-playing; drag-'to rob vehicles'; to soap-box-'to make
speeches out-of-doors standing on a soap-box'. These are easily understood by native speakers
and therefore fail to meet the most indispensable property of jargon words. They are slang words
or perhaps colloquial.
On the other hand, such words as soap and flannel meaning bread and 'cheese' (naval), and some
of the words mentioned above are scarcely likely to be understood by the language community.
Only those who are in the know understand such words. Therefore they can be classed as
Jargonisms,
It will not come amiss to mention here the words of Vandryes, a well-known French linguist,
who said that»… jargon distorts words, it does not create them.» Indeed, the creation of really
new words is a very rare process, In almost any language you can find only a few entirely new
words. It is not accidental therefore that the efforts of some poets to coin completely new words
have proved to be an absolute failure, their attempts being utterly rejected by the language
community.
26. In passing, we must remark that both slang and the various jargons of Great Britain differ much
more from those of America (the United 112 States and Canada) than the literary language in the
two countries does. In fact, the most striking difference is to be observed in the non-literary layer
of words and particularly in slang and Jargonisms and professionalisms. (See quotation from
Randolph Quirk on p. 44).
«American slang,» remarks G.H. McKnight, «on the whole remains a foreign language to the
Englishman. American plays such as «Is zat so» and American novels such as «Babbitt» have
had to be provided with glossaries in order to be intelligible in England. John Galsworthy in his
recent novel «The Silver Spoon» makes a naturalistic use of colloquial idiom. He exhibits the
rich element of native slang in the colloquial speech of England.» McKnight, G.H. Modern
English in the Making. Ldn, 1930, p. 556.
Jargonisms, like slang and other groups of the non-literary layer, do not always remain on the
outskirts of the literary language. Many words have overcome the resistance of the language
lawgivers and purists and entered the standard vocabulary. Thus the words kid, fun, queer, bluff,
fib, humbug, formerly slang words or Jargonisms, are now considered common colloquial. They
may be said to be dejargonized.
2.5.3 Professionalisms
Professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or
calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. They commonly
designate some working process or implement of labor. Professionalisms are correlated to terms.
Terms, as has already been indicated, are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the
process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science.
Professional words name anew already-existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the
typical properties of a special code. The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality.
Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of the English vocabulary, whereas
terms are a specialized group belonging to the literary layer of words. Terms, if they are
connected with a field or branch of science or technique well-known to ordinary people, are
easily decoded and enter the neutral stratum of the vocabulary. Professionalisms generally
remain in circulation within a definite community, as they are linked to a common occupation
and common social interests. The semantic structure of the term is usually transparent and is
therefore easily understood. The se-mantic structure of professionalism is often dimmed by the
image on which the meaning of the professionalism is based, particularly when the features of
the object in question reflect the process of the work, metaphorically or metonymically. Like
terms, professionalisms do not allow any polisemy, they are monosemantic.
Here are some professionalisms used in different trades: tin-fish (=submarine); block-buster (a
bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings); piper (=a specialist who decorates
pastry with the use of a cream-pipe); a midder case (=a midwifery case); outer (=a knockout
blow).
27. Some professionalism, however, like certain terms, become popular and gradually loses their
professional flavor. Thus the word crane which Byron used in his «Don Juan»… was a verb
meaning 'to stretch out the neck like a crane before a dangerous leap' (in hunting, in order to
'look before you leap'). Now, according to Eric Partridge, it has broadened its meaning and is
used in the sense of 'to hesitate at an obstacle, a danger. By 1860 it was no more professionalism
used in hunting but had become a colloquial word of the non-literary stratum and finally, since
1390, entered the Standard English vocabulary.
«No good craning at it. Let's go down.» (Galsworthy)
Professionalisms should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, professionalisms do
not aim at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick
and adequate grasp of the message.
Good examples of professionalisms as used by a man-of-letters can be found in Dreiser's
«Financier.» The following passage is an illustration.
Frank soon picked up all the technicalities of the situation. A «bull», he learned, was one who
bought in anticipation of a higher price to come; and if he was «loaded» up with a «line» of
stocks he was said to be «long». He sold to «realize» his profit, or if his margins were exhausted
he was «wiped out». A «bear» was one who sold stocks which most frequently he did not have,
in anticipation of a lower price at which he could buy and satisfy his previous sales. He was
«short» when he had sold what he did not own, and he was «covered» when he bought to satisfy
his sales and to realize his profits or to protect himself against further loss in the case prices
advanced instead of declining. He was in a «corner» when he found that he could not buy in
order to make good the stock he had borrowed for delivery and the return of which had been
demanded. He was then obliged to settle practically at a price fixed by those to whom he and
other «shorts» had sold.
As is seen, each financial professionalism is explained by the author and the words themselves
are in inverted commas to stress their peculiar idiomatic sense and also to indicate that the words
do not belong to the Standard English vocabulary in the meanings they are used.
There are certain fields of human activity which enjoy nation-wide interest and popularity. This,
for example, is the case in Great Britain where sports and games are concerned. English
pugilistic terminology, for example, has gained particularly wide recognition and therefore is
frequently used in a transferred meaning, thus adding to the general image-building function of
emotive prose. Here is an example of the use of such professionalisms in fiction.
«Father Knickerbocker met them at the ferry giving one a right-hander on the nose and the other
an uppercut with his left just to let them know that the fight was on.»
This is from a story by O. Henry called «The Duel» in which the writer depicts two characters
who came from the West to conquer New York. The vocabulary of boxing (right-hander,
uppercut), as well as other professional terms found in the story, like ring, to counter, to clinch,
etc., help to maintain the atmosphere of a fight, which the story requires.
28. Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. The skilful
use of a professional word will show not only the vocation of a character, but also his education,
breeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology. That is why, perhaps, a literary
device known as speech-characterization is so abundantly used in emotive prose. The use of
professionalisms forms the most conspicuous element of this literary device.
An interesting article was published in the Canadian Globe and Mail * in which the author shows
how a journalist who mocks at the professionalisms in the language of municipal planners, which
render their speech almost incomprehensible, himself uses words and expressions unintelligible
to the lay reader, Here is the article.
2.5.4 Dialectal words
This group of words» is obviously opposed to the other groups of the non-literary English
vocabulary and therefore its stylistic functions can be more or less clearly defined. Dialectal
words are those which in the process of integration of the English - national language remained
beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. We
exclude here what are called social dialects or even the still looser application of the term as in
expressions like poetical dialect or styles as dialects.
With reference to this group there is a confusion of terms, particularly between the terms
dialectal, slang and vernacular. In order to ascertain the true value and the stylistic functions of
dialectal words it is necessary to look into their nature. For this purpose a quotation from Cecil
Wyld's «A History of Modern Colloquial English» will be to the point.
«The history of a very large part of the vocabulary of the present-day English dialects is still very
obscure, and it is doubtful whether much of it is of any antiquity. So far very little attempt has
been made to sift the chaff from the grain in that very vast receptacle of the English Dialect
Dictionary, and to decide which elements are really genuine 'corruptions' of words which the
yokel has heard from educated speakers, or read, misheard, or misread, and ignorantly altered,
and adopted, often with a slightly twisted significance. Probably many hundreds of 'dialect'
words are of this origin, and have no historical value whatever, except inasmuch as they illustrate
a general principle in the modification of speech. Such words are not, as a rule, characteristic of
any Regional Dialect, although they may be ascribed to one of these, simply because some
collector of dialect forms has happened to hear them in a particular area. They belong rather to
the category of 'mistakes' which any ignorant speaker may make, and which such persons do
make, again and again, in every part of the country.» We are not concerned here with the
historical aspect of dialectal words. For our purpose it will suffice to note that there is a definite
similarity of functions in the use of slang, cockney and any other form of non-literary English
and that of dialectal words. All these groups when used in emotive prose are meant to
characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality, breeding, education, etc.
There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from colloquial words. Some
dialectal words have become so familiar in good colloquial or standard colloquial English that
they are universally accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial English. To these
words belong lass, meaning 'a girl or a beloved girl' and the corresponding lad, 'a boy or a young
29. man', daft from the Scottish and the northern dialect, meaning 'of unsound mind, silly'; fash, also
Scottish, with the meaning of 'trouble, cares'. Still they have not lost their dialectal associations
and therefore are used in literary English with the above-mentioned stylistic function of
characterization.
Conclusion
There exist the following main layers of the English and the Uzbek vocabulary: literary, neutral
and colloquial. Each of these layer has its own feature: the literary layer has a bookish character,
the colloquial layer has a spoken character and the neutral layer is deprived of any coloring and
may enter both literary and colloquial layers. These three layers have their own classification.
Within the literary layer we distinguish: common literary words, terms, poetic words, archaic
words, barbarisms and neologisms. Within the colloquial vocabulary we distinguish: common
colloquial words, vulgar words. The neutral layer penetrates both the literary and colloquial
vocabulary and is deprived of any stylistic coloring.
Common literary words have a neutral character. This statement becomes obvious when we
oppose common neutral literary words to bookish and colloquial.
Common bookish Colloquial
To begin
To eat
To commence
To consume
Bring about, get off
to cram
Terms are words denoting notions of some special field of knowledge: medical terminology:
antibiotic.
Generally terms are used in the language of science but with certain stylistic purpose they may
be used in the language of emotive prose. For example, Arch. Cronin employed a lot of medical
terms in some of his books. All this is done to make the narration bright, vivid and close to life.
It is a well-known fact that terms are monosemantic and have not any contextual meaning. In
most cases they have only a denotation free meaning.
Poetic words. This group of words stands between terms and archaic words. They are close to
terms because they are monosemantic and they are close to archaic words because they are out of
use: for example: brow(forehead), steed (horse).The fiction of poetic words may be different
when used in the text, it calls on a certain type of environment and mood. Sometimes these
words are used to produce a satirical effect.
For example: It is a beauteous evening, calm and free,
The holy time is quite as a Nun
Breathless with adoration (W. Wordsworth).
30. Archaic words are those which are not used now except for special purposes. Some of them are
passing out of use: thee (you), thy (your), hath (has).
Archaic words are very close to historical words: names of ancient weapons, types of boats,
carriages. For example: blunderbuss (an old type of gun).
In many cases we have archaic words in poetry. They are used here to create the elevated style.
Barbarisms are words which came into the English vocabulary from other languages and have
retained their spelling and pronunciation: For example: chic (stylish), bon mot (a clever witty
saying), mon-sieur (sit), tres bien (very good).
The function of barbarisms is to create local color. Many writers employ this device; Eg:
«Monsieur ne mange rien» said sister St. Joseph (S. Maugham).
Neologisms (or coinages) appear when there is the need to express new ideas and notions. They
are produced in accordance with the existing word-building models of the English language,
mainly due to affixation, word-compounding.
Ex: me first-mefirstism, do it yourself-do it-yourself.
Another wide spread group of coinages is formed with prepositions in postposition: sit-in, teach-
in.
When they are used in the written text they produce special stylistic effect. Their function may
be different to produce a humorous effect, to make distinct the additional meaning.
Colloquial layer of the vocabulary.
Common colloquial words. The essential part of these words constitutes common neutral
vocabulary which is in everyday usage. There are 3 types of colloquial words:
1. Words which change their phonetic form.
For example: S`long (So long) `kew (thank you)
Sometimes certain syllables may be omitted: `cos (because), `ave (have)
2. Words which change their form and meaning.
For example: back number (out-of-clate), oldie (the old song). Noddy (a stupid person).
3. Words which change their meaning in certain contexts.
31. For example: I like his get up-I like his way and manner. Let me know how you come out-let me
know the results. Slang. Slangs are words which are used to create fresh names for some things.
Sometimes slangs are vulgar and cynical.
There are following slang words for money: beans, jolly, brass.
The functions of slang in the written text may be the following to characterize the speech, of the
person, to produce a special impression and humorous effect. For example: breadbasket (the
stomach), go crackers (go mad)
Jargons. The vocabularies of jargon are the words existing in the language but which have
acquired new meanings: There are the jargon of thieves, of jazz people, army.
People who are far from that profession may not understand this jargon. For example: grease
(money), loaf (head).Many of jargon words are based on the use of the transferred meanings of
words. For example. He was a great gas. (talked too much without saying anything useful or
interesting.)
Professional words are words which are used in certain sphere of human activity but these words
name this profession indirectly. For example: a tin-fish (submarine), right-hander(upright).
The function of professionalisms may be different: to characterize the speech of a person, to
make the description more precise and realistic. For example: heart man (a cardiologist), red ink
(blood).
Dialectal words are such words which are connected with a certain area or region. For example:
a lass (a girl or a beloved), fash (trouble). All these belong to Scottish dialect. Examples of
southern dialect: volk (folk), yound (found). Irish words: eejts (idiots), colleen (a girl).It's quite
natural that dialectal words are commonly used in oral speech and emotive prose and always
perform the function of charactering a person, his breeding and education through his speech.
Vulgar words perform the function of interjections and speech characterization. For example:
smeller (a nose), old bean (a familiar form of address), nigger (a black)