The document discusses loanwords in English and other languages. It makes 3 key points:
1) Over two-thirds of English vocabulary comes from borrowed words, primarily from Latin, French, and other languages. Loanwords become assimilated into English over time.
2) English exports loanwords to other languages as well. Terms from domains where English dominates, like technology and business, are often borrowed.
3) All languages borrow words, and factors like history, culture and power dynamics influence which words are adopted as loanwords. The process can also involve words being reborrowed back to their original language.
While English has borrowed much vocabulary from non-Germanic languages, it remains a Germanic language in its core structure and sounds. English shares phonological innovations with other Germanic languages that differentiate it from other Indo-European families. The morphology of English also differs from other Indo-European languages in its verb systems, voices, moods and tenses. English is most closely related to the West Germanic Anglo-Frisian subdivision.
This document discusses how English is a Germanic language based on its phonological and morphological features. It outlines several sound changes that occurred in Proto-Germanic languages according to Grimm's Law and Verner's Law. Morphologically, it notes that English simplified the verb and noun systems of Proto-Indo-European and developed "strong" and "weak" distinctions in verbs and adjectives. It also discusses the loss of case endings in English nouns and the development of the definite article.
There are several types of language change that occur over time, including sound changes, morphological changes, and semantic changes. Sound changes involve changes in pronunciation and happen naturally as languages evolve, such as the Great Vowel Shift in English. Morphological changes include changes to word structure through processes like borrowing affixes from other languages or regularizing irregular forms through analogy. Semantic changes refer to changes in word meanings.
Scandinavian languages (The North Germanic languages)Marina Malaki
The North Germanic languages, also called Scandinavian languages, are spoken by about 20 million people in Scandinavia. They include Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese. These languages share several distinctive grammatical features like adding definite articles as suffixes to nouns. While they derive from a common Proto-Germanic ancestor and share many sound changes, political and cultural developments over time have led to some differences in vocabulary between the languages. The oldest written records that show features of Scandinavian languages are runic inscriptions from the 8th to 11th centuries, while manuscripts in Latin script from the 12th century on provide more materials in Old Norse, the main representative of the older forms of these languages.
This document discusses the consonant "R" and the difficulties learners face when acquiring the pronunciation of "R" sounds, known as rhotics, in a second language. Rhotics can be produced differently across languages, such as a tap in Spanish versus a prolonged airflow in English. The variation in articulation of rhotics makes them challenging for second language learners, though language acquisition takes time and practice and leads to powerful results.
The document summarizes the study of language change by providing examples from Old English to Modern English. It discusses [1] how sounds, words, and meanings have changed over time due to various linguistic processes, and [2] the main causes of language change including articulatory simplification, spelling pronunciation, analogy and reanalysis, language contact, assimilation, dissimilation, epenthesis, metathesis, weakening and deletion, auditory-based change, and phonological changes like splits and mergers. The high-level takeaway is that language is constantly evolving due to how it is learned and used by each new generation.
This document discusses various aspects of language change over time including historical linguistics, semantic change, syntactic change, morphological change, phonological change, and causes of change. It provides examples of proto-languages, dead languages, types of semantic change, changes in word order and parts of speech, sound changes like Grimm's Law, and theories for why languages evolve.
The document discusses English as a member of the Indo-European language family. It explains that English originated from a prehistoric ancestor language called Proto-Indo-European. Over thousands of years, Proto-Indo-European split into various dialects that evolved into the modern Indo-European languages. While English retains the basic structure of its Germanic origins, it has borrowed extensively from other Indo-European languages like Latin, Greek, and its Germanic neighbors. As a result, over half of the basic roots found in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language are now represented in Modern English vocabulary through borrowing.
While English has borrowed much vocabulary from non-Germanic languages, it remains a Germanic language in its core structure and sounds. English shares phonological innovations with other Germanic languages that differentiate it from other Indo-European families. The morphology of English also differs from other Indo-European languages in its verb systems, voices, moods and tenses. English is most closely related to the West Germanic Anglo-Frisian subdivision.
This document discusses how English is a Germanic language based on its phonological and morphological features. It outlines several sound changes that occurred in Proto-Germanic languages according to Grimm's Law and Verner's Law. Morphologically, it notes that English simplified the verb and noun systems of Proto-Indo-European and developed "strong" and "weak" distinctions in verbs and adjectives. It also discusses the loss of case endings in English nouns and the development of the definite article.
There are several types of language change that occur over time, including sound changes, morphological changes, and semantic changes. Sound changes involve changes in pronunciation and happen naturally as languages evolve, such as the Great Vowel Shift in English. Morphological changes include changes to word structure through processes like borrowing affixes from other languages or regularizing irregular forms through analogy. Semantic changes refer to changes in word meanings.
Scandinavian languages (The North Germanic languages)Marina Malaki
The North Germanic languages, also called Scandinavian languages, are spoken by about 20 million people in Scandinavia. They include Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese. These languages share several distinctive grammatical features like adding definite articles as suffixes to nouns. While they derive from a common Proto-Germanic ancestor and share many sound changes, political and cultural developments over time have led to some differences in vocabulary between the languages. The oldest written records that show features of Scandinavian languages are runic inscriptions from the 8th to 11th centuries, while manuscripts in Latin script from the 12th century on provide more materials in Old Norse, the main representative of the older forms of these languages.
This document discusses the consonant "R" and the difficulties learners face when acquiring the pronunciation of "R" sounds, known as rhotics, in a second language. Rhotics can be produced differently across languages, such as a tap in Spanish versus a prolonged airflow in English. The variation in articulation of rhotics makes them challenging for second language learners, though language acquisition takes time and practice and leads to powerful results.
The document summarizes the study of language change by providing examples from Old English to Modern English. It discusses [1] how sounds, words, and meanings have changed over time due to various linguistic processes, and [2] the main causes of language change including articulatory simplification, spelling pronunciation, analogy and reanalysis, language contact, assimilation, dissimilation, epenthesis, metathesis, weakening and deletion, auditory-based change, and phonological changes like splits and mergers. The high-level takeaway is that language is constantly evolving due to how it is learned and used by each new generation.
This document discusses various aspects of language change over time including historical linguistics, semantic change, syntactic change, morphological change, phonological change, and causes of change. It provides examples of proto-languages, dead languages, types of semantic change, changes in word order and parts of speech, sound changes like Grimm's Law, and theories for why languages evolve.
The document discusses English as a member of the Indo-European language family. It explains that English originated from a prehistoric ancestor language called Proto-Indo-European. Over thousands of years, Proto-Indo-European split into various dialects that evolved into the modern Indo-European languages. While English retains the basic structure of its Germanic origins, it has borrowed extensively from other Indo-European languages like Latin, Greek, and its Germanic neighbors. As a result, over half of the basic roots found in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language are now represented in Modern English vocabulary through borrowing.
Although English has borrowed vocabulary from other languages like French and Latin, it remains a Germanic language in its sounds, structure, and other phonological innovations it shares with other Germanic languages. One example is Grimm's Law, which describes correspondences between consonants in different Germanic languages. Additionally, a shift in accent placement in Proto-Germanic caused final unstressed syllables to weaken and disappear over time, making English words relatively short. As a result, even in the Old English period, the language occupied a peripheral position within the West Germanic branch.
1) The document discusses various ways that the English vocabulary has grown over time, from the addition of new words to changes in existing word meanings.
2) Some key methods described include adding prefixes or suffixes to existing words, abbreviating long words, blending parts of multiple words together, and adopting words from other languages.
3) Examples provided include scientific and technical terms growing as knowledge expanded, and everyday words like "literary" and "manufacture" changing meanings over centuries of use.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of languages. It introduces the concept of Proto-Indo-European as a hypothesized common ancestor of languages spoken in Europe and parts of Asia. It also notes that comparative reconstruction analyzes cognates across related languages to determine features of ancestral proto-languages. The document then focuses on the evolution of English from Old English to Middle English to Modern English, noting sound changes, borrowed vocabulary from Latin, Old Norse, and French, and syntactic changes over time.
The document discusses the history and evolution of the English language from Old English to Modern English. It describes how Old English was influenced by Latin, Greek and other languages. Several phonetic and syntactic changes occurred between Old and Modern English, including the loss of case inflections and changes in word order. Vowel sounds changed and some consonant sounds disappeared or were replaced. The document also examines how English borrowed words from other languages and how the meanings of some words broadened over time.
This document discusses pronunciation differences between Pakistani English and British English. It begins by defining language, dialect, and accent. It then explains that pronunciation can be studied at the segmental level of phonemes or vowels/consonants and the supra-segmental level of stress and intonation. Received Pronunciation is introduced as the standard British accent. Common mispronunciations in Pakistani English are identified, such as dropping /r/ sounds and issues with consonant clusters. Finally, some frequently mispronounced words and religious terms are defined.
This document discusses phonetics and phonology. It defines phonetics as the study of human sounds without regard to their functional meaning in a language. Phonology studies how sounds are used functionally within a language to differentiate meanings. It describes the levels of phonetics - articulatory, acoustic, and auditive phonetics. It then defines the basic units of phonology - phones, phonemes, and allophones. Phones are minimal recognizable sounds, phonemes distinguish meaning, and allophones are variations in how phonemes are pronounced depending on context.
This document discusses words, dictionaries, and the English language. It begins by distinguishing between orthographic words, phonological words, and lexemes. It then discusses morphemes, word formation processes like compounding and derivation, and word meanings. The rest of the document discusses the history and sources of the English vocabulary from Anglo-Saxon to Latin and other languages. It also describes the components and types of dictionaries, how they are structured, and who uses them.
Speech Rhythm In World Englishes The Case Of Hong Kongenglishonecfl
This study investigated differences in syllable duration between Hong Kong English speakers and British English speakers to analyze speech rhythm. The researcher measured the duration of weakened, unstressed, stressed, and tonic syllables in a dataset of 4,404 syllables from 20 Hong Kong English speakers and compared it to a dataset of 1,847 syllables from British English speakers. The results showed that Hong Kong English speakers had smaller differences in relative syllable duration between the syllable types than British English speakers, suggesting their speech rhythm differs from stress-timed British English. The researcher discusses potential influences from Cantonese on Hong Kong English rhythm.
Variation in Sound and Pronunciation of English LanguageShagufta Moghal
This is a student presentation describing the variation of the sound patterns and pronunciation of English Language. The presentation covers the basics of English sound patterns, and is a good resource for undergrads.
The document discusses the English language, including its history and status as a global lingua franca. Some key points include:
- English originated in England and has developed over 1400+ years, originating from Old English and evolving into Middle English and Early Modern English.
- It spread around the world through the British Empire from the 17th to 20th century and is now the most commonly spoken language internationally.
- English is the third most spoken native language and the most widely learned second language. It holds official language status in international organizations like the UN.
- The document also defines linguistic terminology like pidgins, creoles, dialects, and discusses various domains of language such as phonology,
This document summarizes the history and development of the English language from its origins to modern times. It discusses concepts like philology, cognates, comparative reconstruction to determine language families, and sound changes that occurred from Old English to Middle English like the Great Vowel Shift. Key periods of English history mentioned are the Anglo-Saxon period, conversion to Christianity, the arrival of the Vikings, the Norman invasion, and the introduction of printing press which helped standardize the language.
This document discusses the linguistic features of Germanic languages, focusing on morphology. It describes the morphological systems of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Old Germanic languages. It outlines the different types of noun stems and declensions. It also discusses the verbal system, including strong and weak verbs. Finally, it provides examples of distinctive Germanic vocabulary.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics from ancient India and Greece/Rome. The concept of the phoneme became important in the late 19th century as a way to represent pronunciation and as a foundational concept in phonological theory. The document then covers the emergence of phonology as a modern scientific field of study in Europe and North America in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, focusing on the contributions of scholars like Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield to the analysis of unwritten languages.
Dictionaries are references that list words in alphabetical order along with their meanings, pronunciations, and origins. There are two main types - descriptive dictionaries that describe language usage and prescriptive dictionaries that prescribe proper usage. Dictionaries are used to learn new words, check definitions and spellings, and understand word origins. They contain entries with parts like definitions, pronunciations, and examples. The earliest known dictionaries date back to 2300 BCE in ancient Mesopotamia. The first English dictionary was published in 1604 by Robert Cawdrey. Noah Webster's 1828 dictionary was influential in standardizing American English.
The document discusses glottaling, glottalization, and glottal stop in phonetics and phonology. It defines these terms and explains that glottaling is the replacement of consonants like /t/, /p/, and /k/ with a glottal stop. Glottalization involves adding a glottal stop before these consonants. A glottal stop is a consonant made by closing the vocal folds. The document provides examples of these phenomena in different English dialects like Cockney and discusses their phonetic contexts and allophonic distribution. It also gives over 15 examples of each with phonetic transcription.
The document discusses the differences between accents and dialects. Accents are differences in pronunciation only, while dialects also involve differences in vocabulary, grammar and word order. It then focuses on accents and dialects within British English, describing Received Pronunciation (RP) as the standard accent and discussing regional variations and how accents can indicate social class.
1) In 1786, Sir William Jones suggested that languages from different geographical areas had a common ancestor, launching the field of linguistic investigation into language history and change.
2) The Proto-Indo-European language is reconstructed as the common ancestor of Indo-European languages based on comparative methods analyzing cognates across languages.
3) English history is usually divided into Old English, Middle English, and Modern English periods, with each experiencing changes in sounds, syntax, borrowing, and meanings due to various influences over time.
1) In the late 18th century, Sir William Jones suggested that languages from different geographical areas may have a common ancestor language. Linguistic investigation into language families has been ongoing for over two centuries since then.
2) The Proto-Indo-European language is reconstructed as the common ancestor of the Indo-European language family, which originally formed in Europe and spread into the Indian subcontinent.
3) Language change occurs through sound changes, borrowing words from other languages, broadening and narrowing of word meanings over time, and syntactic changes to word order and inflection. The historical development of English can be divided into Old, Middle, and Modern English periods marked by external influences and internal sound changes
"In general, usage labels provide specific information about the domain of application of the definition. In the more abstract sense ..., a usage label is to be taken as a higher-level instruction, as a meta-linguistic device. This means that it cannot be equated with a definition itself: it restricts the definition to a certain context. The definition of a word given by a dictionary entry is intended for a group of users belonging to those who speak or want to speak the standard form of the language of the dictionary in question.
The document discusses object-oriented programming and homoiconic programming languages. It argues that Ruby's implementation of OOP differs from Alan Kay's original conception, focusing more on messaging between objects rather than treating them as data structures. Homoiconic languages like Lisp are also discussed, where the code is represented as regular data in the language, enabling powerful metaprogramming capabilities. Examples are given showing how macros and declarative programming are enabled through homoiconicity.
The document discusses aerial spraying of pesticides by banana plantations and calls for a ban. It summarizes what aerial spraying is, the chemicals used and their health effects. It presents studies showing pesticide poisoning in nearby communities and impacts on plants, animals and people. It outlines reasons for a ban like poor regulation, lack of monitoring and buffer zones. The case went to court but higher courts halted the ban, though a lower court upheld it. Communities continue pushing for a ban and see this as a larger issue of corporate agriculture's impacts.
Although English has borrowed vocabulary from other languages like French and Latin, it remains a Germanic language in its sounds, structure, and other phonological innovations it shares with other Germanic languages. One example is Grimm's Law, which describes correspondences between consonants in different Germanic languages. Additionally, a shift in accent placement in Proto-Germanic caused final unstressed syllables to weaken and disappear over time, making English words relatively short. As a result, even in the Old English period, the language occupied a peripheral position within the West Germanic branch.
1) The document discusses various ways that the English vocabulary has grown over time, from the addition of new words to changes in existing word meanings.
2) Some key methods described include adding prefixes or suffixes to existing words, abbreviating long words, blending parts of multiple words together, and adopting words from other languages.
3) Examples provided include scientific and technical terms growing as knowledge expanded, and everyday words like "literary" and "manufacture" changing meanings over centuries of use.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of languages. It introduces the concept of Proto-Indo-European as a hypothesized common ancestor of languages spoken in Europe and parts of Asia. It also notes that comparative reconstruction analyzes cognates across related languages to determine features of ancestral proto-languages. The document then focuses on the evolution of English from Old English to Middle English to Modern English, noting sound changes, borrowed vocabulary from Latin, Old Norse, and French, and syntactic changes over time.
The document discusses the history and evolution of the English language from Old English to Modern English. It describes how Old English was influenced by Latin, Greek and other languages. Several phonetic and syntactic changes occurred between Old and Modern English, including the loss of case inflections and changes in word order. Vowel sounds changed and some consonant sounds disappeared or were replaced. The document also examines how English borrowed words from other languages and how the meanings of some words broadened over time.
This document discusses pronunciation differences between Pakistani English and British English. It begins by defining language, dialect, and accent. It then explains that pronunciation can be studied at the segmental level of phonemes or vowels/consonants and the supra-segmental level of stress and intonation. Received Pronunciation is introduced as the standard British accent. Common mispronunciations in Pakistani English are identified, such as dropping /r/ sounds and issues with consonant clusters. Finally, some frequently mispronounced words and religious terms are defined.
This document discusses phonetics and phonology. It defines phonetics as the study of human sounds without regard to their functional meaning in a language. Phonology studies how sounds are used functionally within a language to differentiate meanings. It describes the levels of phonetics - articulatory, acoustic, and auditive phonetics. It then defines the basic units of phonology - phones, phonemes, and allophones. Phones are minimal recognizable sounds, phonemes distinguish meaning, and allophones are variations in how phonemes are pronounced depending on context.
This document discusses words, dictionaries, and the English language. It begins by distinguishing between orthographic words, phonological words, and lexemes. It then discusses morphemes, word formation processes like compounding and derivation, and word meanings. The rest of the document discusses the history and sources of the English vocabulary from Anglo-Saxon to Latin and other languages. It also describes the components and types of dictionaries, how they are structured, and who uses them.
Speech Rhythm In World Englishes The Case Of Hong Kongenglishonecfl
This study investigated differences in syllable duration between Hong Kong English speakers and British English speakers to analyze speech rhythm. The researcher measured the duration of weakened, unstressed, stressed, and tonic syllables in a dataset of 4,404 syllables from 20 Hong Kong English speakers and compared it to a dataset of 1,847 syllables from British English speakers. The results showed that Hong Kong English speakers had smaller differences in relative syllable duration between the syllable types than British English speakers, suggesting their speech rhythm differs from stress-timed British English. The researcher discusses potential influences from Cantonese on Hong Kong English rhythm.
Variation in Sound and Pronunciation of English LanguageShagufta Moghal
This is a student presentation describing the variation of the sound patterns and pronunciation of English Language. The presentation covers the basics of English sound patterns, and is a good resource for undergrads.
The document discusses the English language, including its history and status as a global lingua franca. Some key points include:
- English originated in England and has developed over 1400+ years, originating from Old English and evolving into Middle English and Early Modern English.
- It spread around the world through the British Empire from the 17th to 20th century and is now the most commonly spoken language internationally.
- English is the third most spoken native language and the most widely learned second language. It holds official language status in international organizations like the UN.
- The document also defines linguistic terminology like pidgins, creoles, dialects, and discusses various domains of language such as phonology,
This document summarizes the history and development of the English language from its origins to modern times. It discusses concepts like philology, cognates, comparative reconstruction to determine language families, and sound changes that occurred from Old English to Middle English like the Great Vowel Shift. Key periods of English history mentioned are the Anglo-Saxon period, conversion to Christianity, the arrival of the Vikings, the Norman invasion, and the introduction of printing press which helped standardize the language.
This document discusses the linguistic features of Germanic languages, focusing on morphology. It describes the morphological systems of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns in Old Germanic languages. It outlines the different types of noun stems and declensions. It also discusses the verbal system, including strong and weak verbs. Finally, it provides examples of distinctive Germanic vocabulary.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics from ancient India and Greece/Rome. The concept of the phoneme became important in the late 19th century as a way to represent pronunciation and as a foundational concept in phonological theory. The document then covers the emergence of phonology as a modern scientific field of study in Europe and North America in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, focusing on the contributions of scholars like Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield to the analysis of unwritten languages.
Dictionaries are references that list words in alphabetical order along with their meanings, pronunciations, and origins. There are two main types - descriptive dictionaries that describe language usage and prescriptive dictionaries that prescribe proper usage. Dictionaries are used to learn new words, check definitions and spellings, and understand word origins. They contain entries with parts like definitions, pronunciations, and examples. The earliest known dictionaries date back to 2300 BCE in ancient Mesopotamia. The first English dictionary was published in 1604 by Robert Cawdrey. Noah Webster's 1828 dictionary was influential in standardizing American English.
The document discusses glottaling, glottalization, and glottal stop in phonetics and phonology. It defines these terms and explains that glottaling is the replacement of consonants like /t/, /p/, and /k/ with a glottal stop. Glottalization involves adding a glottal stop before these consonants. A glottal stop is a consonant made by closing the vocal folds. The document provides examples of these phenomena in different English dialects like Cockney and discusses their phonetic contexts and allophonic distribution. It also gives over 15 examples of each with phonetic transcription.
The document discusses the differences between accents and dialects. Accents are differences in pronunciation only, while dialects also involve differences in vocabulary, grammar and word order. It then focuses on accents and dialects within British English, describing Received Pronunciation (RP) as the standard accent and discussing regional variations and how accents can indicate social class.
1) In 1786, Sir William Jones suggested that languages from different geographical areas had a common ancestor, launching the field of linguistic investigation into language history and change.
2) The Proto-Indo-European language is reconstructed as the common ancestor of Indo-European languages based on comparative methods analyzing cognates across languages.
3) English history is usually divided into Old English, Middle English, and Modern English periods, with each experiencing changes in sounds, syntax, borrowing, and meanings due to various influences over time.
1) In the late 18th century, Sir William Jones suggested that languages from different geographical areas may have a common ancestor language. Linguistic investigation into language families has been ongoing for over two centuries since then.
2) The Proto-Indo-European language is reconstructed as the common ancestor of the Indo-European language family, which originally formed in Europe and spread into the Indian subcontinent.
3) Language change occurs through sound changes, borrowing words from other languages, broadening and narrowing of word meanings over time, and syntactic changes to word order and inflection. The historical development of English can be divided into Old, Middle, and Modern English periods marked by external influences and internal sound changes
"In general, usage labels provide specific information about the domain of application of the definition. In the more abstract sense ..., a usage label is to be taken as a higher-level instruction, as a meta-linguistic device. This means that it cannot be equated with a definition itself: it restricts the definition to a certain context. The definition of a word given by a dictionary entry is intended for a group of users belonging to those who speak or want to speak the standard form of the language of the dictionary in question.
The document discusses object-oriented programming and homoiconic programming languages. It argues that Ruby's implementation of OOP differs from Alan Kay's original conception, focusing more on messaging between objects rather than treating them as data structures. Homoiconic languages like Lisp are also discussed, where the code is represented as regular data in the language, enabling powerful metaprogramming capabilities. Examples are given showing how macros and declarative programming are enabled through homoiconicity.
The document discusses aerial spraying of pesticides by banana plantations and calls for a ban. It summarizes what aerial spraying is, the chemicals used and their health effects. It presents studies showing pesticide poisoning in nearby communities and impacts on plants, animals and people. It outlines reasons for a ban like poor regulation, lack of monitoring and buffer zones. The case went to court but higher courts halted the ban, though a lower court upheld it. Communities continue pushing for a ban and see this as a larger issue of corporate agriculture's impacts.
Bruk av sosiale medier i undervisningen marsAnn Michaelsen
This document discusses using social media in English language teaching, including tools like PhotoStory, Glogster, and blogs. It provides examples of how teachers had students create projects using these tools. It also outlines best practices for setting up and maintaining classroom blogs, such as having students write blog posts weekly, using categories to organize content, and providing feedback to students in class rather than on their blog posts.
The ant works hard but is unhappy when a cockroach supervisor is hired and implements extensive paperwork and meetings. More managers are recruited, increasing bureaucracy, until an audit recommends firing staff. The ant, lacking motivation, is the first to be fired.
The story satirizes over-management and bureaucracy negatively impacting productivity.
The document provides a management plan for the Chase Bank Building located in Houston, Texas. The five-story, 83,637 square foot office building currently has outdated restroom fixtures that are inefficient. The management plan evaluates two alternatives: doing nothing or installing new water-saving fixtures. Installing low-flow toilets, faucets, and urinals is recommended to save over $10,000 annually in water costs, enhancing the property value by $131,819 in the first year. This meets the owner's goals of improving value and reducing expenses within a $15,000 budget.
Fundamental Aspects of Droplet Combustion ModellingIJERA Editor
This document summarizes research on modeling liquid droplet combustion. It first describes developing a model that solves transient energy and species equations to simulate an isolated, spherically symmetric single-component droplet burning over time. Results show the flame diameter initially increases then decreases and the flame to droplet ratio changes throughout burning unlike quasi-steady models. The model is extended to include forced convection effects. Emission profiles for species like CO, CO2, H2O and NO are also determined. Finally, the document discusses modeling multicomponent droplets, high-pressure combustion, and the governing equations involved.
This document provides an overview of the etymological survey of the English word-stock. It discusses key terms like native words, borrowings, sources of borrowing and origin of borrowed words. Native words make up important semantic groups for parts of the body, family, nature, animals, qualities and common actions. While the number of native words is small, they are high frequency and form an important nucleus. The document also examines the main sources of borrowing in English - Latin, French and Old Norse - and the ways words were borrowed orally vs in writing. It analyzes criteria for identifying borrowings and the assimilation processes they undergo in terms of phonetic, grammatical and lexical changes. In conclusion, it notes that while the
The document discusses loanwords and borrowing between languages. It provides examples of words borrowed between English, German, Latin, Tagalog and other languages. There are three main types of borrowing discussed: 1) importation of words directly from another language; 2) partial substitution where part of a word is borrowed; and 3) substitution where an indigenous word takes on the meaning of a foreign word. Borrowing occurs due to cultural and linguistic contact between language communities. It is a natural consequence of languages interacting with each other through trade and other exchanges over time.
The document discusses the origins and history of the English language. It can be categorized into the origins of English, a comparison of Modern English to Old English and other languages, and reasons for language change. English has been influenced by other languages over time, incorporating vocabulary from Latin, French, and Germanic languages. Both internal linguistic changes and external political, social, and geographic factors have contributed to how English has evolved into the widely-spoken language it is today.
Nabeela Taimur Ali presented on lexical borrowing. She speaks two varieties of the Luyia language as well as Swahili and English. Many words are borrowed between the languages she speaks. Borrowing occurs when languages are in regular contact, with words and phrases being adopted from the other language. Lexical borrowing refers to incorporating words from one language into another, especially nouns and verbs. Borrowing typically flows from the more prestigious language to the less prestigious one.
The document discusses the three main subsystems that comprise a language system:
1) The lexical subsystem containing thousands of words that reflect things and phenomena in the world.
2) The grammatical subsystem that arranges words into sentences to reflect thoughts in communication.
3) The phonic subsystem that provides words and sentences with sound shapes to make the items transmittable and externalizable.
This document discusses the field of lexicology and the history and development of the English language. It covers the following key points:
- Lexicology is the study of vocabulary and words. It has branches that study vocabulary generally, of specific languages, historically, and descriptively.
- The English language has been influenced over time by Celtic, Latin, French, Old Norse, and other languages through periods of invasion and settlement.
- English words can be categorized as native or borrowed. Native words make up about 80% of common words while borrowed words comprise around 70% of the total vocabulary.
This document discusses language contact and multilingualism. It notes that multilingualism has likely been common throughout human history, with many people today speaking multiple languages. When languages come into contact, they typically influence each other through borrowing words and occasionally adopting each other's grammatical features. The most common outcomes of language contact are code-switching, language mixing, and the development of creole languages. The document also discusses how social and political factors can lead to one language replacing or dominating another through the process of language shift. It provides several examples of how languages have influenced each other's vocabularies and grammars through long-term interaction and borrowing.
The document discusses the history and evolution of languages over time. It describes how Proto-Indo-European was identified as the common ancestor of many European and Indian languages based on similarities between their vocabularies and grammars. It also discusses methods of reconstructing earlier forms of words by comparing cognates across related languages and identifying common sound changes. As an example, it summarizes the major periods in the history of English from Old English to Modern English and some of the phonetic changes that occurred between each period like the loss of the letters þ and ð.
The document discusses the origins and development of the English language from Old English to Modern English. It explains that English has been influenced by many other languages, such as Celtic, Latin, Danish and others through invasions and occupations. As a result, English has incorporated many borrowed words from these other languages. The document also notes that knowledge of how English evolved is important for teaching English as a future language teacher.
This document provides a summary of fun facts about various languages from around the world according to Judy Hochberg, a linguist at Fordham University. It discusses interesting tidbits about 20 languages, including that the different varieties of Arabic are generally not mutually intelligible, Basque is an isolate language unrelated to any other, and Chinese uses noun classifiers. It also notes features of languages like French's reduced pronunciation, German's multiple plural forms, and similarities between English and Hindi numbers.
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HISTORICAL OF LINGUISTIC AND HISTORICAL OF ENGLISHJuwita Yulianto
Historical linguistics is the study of how languages change over time. English has evolved from Old English origins through Middle English after the Norman conquest introduced French influences, to Modern English. Major changes included the Great Vowel Shift that changed pronunciation and the loss of case endings, requiring word order changes. English adopted vocabulary from Latin, Greek, French, and other languages it came into contact with through history.
HISTORICAL OF LINGUISTIC AND HISTORICAL OF ENGLISH
11lexic
1. Borrowings or Loan Words in English
Borrowing words from other languages are characteristic of English throughout More than two
thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Borrowed words are different from native
ones by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. English is very rich
in different types of contacts with other countries, that’s why it is very rich in borrowings. The
Roman invasion, the adoption of Christianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the
British colonialism, trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely the English
vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their
pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words. The main
languages from which words were borrowed into English are described, such as: Latin,
Scandinavian, French, Greek, Italian, Spanish, Russian and others. A loanword (or loan word)
is a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language. By
contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept where the meaning or idiom is
borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German
Lehnwort, while calque is a loanword from French. The terms borrow and loanword, although
traditional, conflict with the ordinary meaning of those words because nothing is returned to the
donor languages.However, note that this metaphor is not isolated to the concept of loanwords,
but also found in the idiom "to borrow an idea;" An additional issue with the term loanword is
that it implies that the loaning is limited to one single word as opposed to phrases such as déjà
vu, an English loanword from French. While this phrase may be used as one lexical item by
English speakers, that is to say, an English speaker would not say only déjà to convey the
meaning associated with the full term déjà vu, in the donor language (French), speakers would be
aware of the phrase consisting of two words. For simplicity, adopt/adoption or adapt/adaption
are used by many linguists, either in parallel to, or in preference to, these words. Some
researchers also use the term lexical borrowing.
Loanwords entering a language
Donor language terms generally enter a recipient language as a technical term (terminus
technicus) in connection with exposure to foreign culture. The specific reference point may be to
the foreign culture itself or to a field of activity where the foreign culture has a dominant role.
External associations (from travel abroad)
A foreign loanword is arguably still outside the recipient language, and not yet a "loanword"
when it is fixed in the local culture. What is "exotic" varies from language to language. Thus,
English names for creatures not native to Great Britain are almost always loanwords.
Loanwords from a dominant field of activity
Examples of loanwords from a dominant field of activity:
2. Arts - Most of the technical vocabulary referring to classical music (e.g. concerto,
allegro, tempo, aria, opera, soprano) is borrowed from Italian and likewise in ballet from
French .
Religion - religions may carry with them a large number of technical terms from the
language of the originating culture. For example:
o Hebrew (Judaism) - Some terms in the Hebrew Bible have been carried into other
languages due to being borrowed rather than translated in Bible translations. For
example Hebrew shabbat ("day of rest") has been borrowed into most languages
in the world: in Greek the word is Σάββατο; Latin sabbato; Spanish sábado; and in
English Sabbath. The major exceptions are languages like Chinese, Japanese and
Korean where pictographic characters traditionally prevent transliteration and the
ideogram is translated "peace-breath-day" (an soku jitsu in Japanese
pronunciation) rather than transliterated. Semantically this is still a loanword
since the concept is foreign to Japanese.
o Greek (Christianity) - Likewise Greek words like baptisma have entered many
languages as baptism or similar.
o Latin (Catholicism) - Latin words like missa and communio have entered English
as mass and communion
o Arabic (Islam) - Arabic words like hijab
o Sanskrit (Hinduism) - words like guru (teacher)
Business - English exports English terms to other languages in business and technology
(examples le meeting to French).
Science (Latin) - medicine (itself a Latin loanword) uses a large vocabulary of Latin
terms (sternum, appendix), as a result of medieval advances in medical science being
conducted in Latin - even if some of the earliest Latin medical texts were translations
from Greek and Arabic.
Philosophy - many technical terms, including the term philosophy itself, derive from
Greek dominance in philosophy, mathematics, linguistics, economic theory and political
theory in Roman times. Examples include democracy, theory and so on.
Loanword passing into general currency
When a loanword loses foreign cultural associations it has passed into general use in the
language. This is the case with many English language terms where a dictionary entry will show
that the etymology is French (typically from the Norman Conquest onwards) and not from
Anglo-Saxon origins, but any distinction between Anglo-Saxon and Norman French etymology
Loanword resistant areas
By contrast, function words such as pronouns, and words referring to universal concepts, are the
most static words within each language. These function words are borrowed only in rare cases
such as: (e.g., English they from Old Norse þeir). Sometimes only one word from an opposite
pair is borrowed, yielding an unpaired word in the recipient language.
Linguistic classification
3. The studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1939), Einar Haugen (1950, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich
(1953) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan influence. The basic theoretical
statements all take Betz’s nomenclature as their starting point. Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz’s
scheme by the type “partial substitution” and supplements the system with English terms. A
schematic representation of these classifications is given below.
In English
English has often borrowed words from the cultures and languages of the British Colonies. For
example:
4. Spanish
English definition
definition
sombrero
"hat" "a wide-brimmed festive Mexican hat"
Other examples of words borrowed to English
from Hindi from Afrikaans from Malay
syce/sais trek
dinghy aardvark orangutan
chutney laager shirang
pundit wildebeest amok
wallah veld
bungalow
jodhpurs
[via Afrikaans from Malay]
[from Persian origin] sjambok
pajama/pyjamas
Some English loanwords remain relatively faithful to the donor language's phonology, even
though a particular phoneme might not exist or have contrastive status in English. For example,
the Hawaiian word ʻaʻā is used by geologists to specify lava that is relatively thick, chunky, and
rough. The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the English
pronunciation, /ˈɑː.ɑː/ or /ˈɑːʔɑː/, contains at most one. In addition, the English spelling usually
removes the okina and macron diacritics.
The majority of English affixes, such as un-, -ing, and -ly, were present in older forms in Old
English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the agentive suffix -er,
which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately from Latin -arius (with similar forms found in
other Germanic languages). The English verbal suffix -ize comes from Greek -ιζειν (-izein) via
Latin -izare.
In languages other than English
English loanword exports to other languages
Direct borrowings, calques (expressions translated word-by-word), or even grammatical
constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms. Similarly, a
straight clone from Swedish – like the word smörgåsbord – is called a sveticism (in Swedish
svecism). In French, the result of perceived over-use of English words and expressions is called
franglais. Such English terms in French include le week-end, le job (in France) or la job (in
Canada), and le bifteck (beefsteak). Denglisch is English influence on German. Another popular
term is Spanglish, the English influence on the Spanish language, and Dunglish, the English
5. influence on the Dutch language. The mix of Spanish and Catalan words or grammar structures
in a sentence is called Catanyol (Catalan-Espanyol).
Loanword transmission in the Ottoman Empire
During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire, the literary and administrative language of
the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic called Ottoman Turkish, considerably
differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many such words were exported to other
languages of the empire, such as Albanian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek and Ladino. After the
empire fell in World War I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language
underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language
Association, during which many adopted words were replaced with new formations derived from
Turkic roots. This was part of the ongoing cultural reform of the time, in turn a part in the
broader framework of Atatürk's Reforms, which also included the introduction of the new
Turkish alphabet. Turkish also has taken many words from French, such as pantolon for trousers'
(from French pantalon) and komik for funny (from French comique), mostly pronounced very
similarly. Word usage in modern Turkey has acquired a political tinge: right-wing publications
tend to use more Islamic-derived words, left-wing ones use more adopted from Europe, while
centrist ones use more native Turkish root words.
Linguistic protectionism
The Italian government has recently expressed its displeasure over the use of English words and
syntax in Italian. English words are often used in everyday language where they have fewer
syllables than a longer Italian expression, as in computer for elaboratore elettronico or week-end
for finesettimana; but also where equally short Italian words already exist, as in fashion for moda
and meeting for conferenza.
Cultural aspects
In order to provide a more well-rounded understanding of the complexities of loanwords, certain
historical and cultural factors must be taken into account. According to Hans Henrich Hock and
Brian Joseph, “languages and dialects… do not exist in a vacuum” -- there is always linguistic
contact between groups. This contact influences what loanwords are integrated into the lexicon
and why certain words are chosen over others. Using the example of Plautdietsch/Mennonite
Low German, the influence of many historical and cultural factors can be seen in the loanwords
adopted by this unique language. For example, as Mennonites were pushed from the lowlands of
Germany into Poland and then on to Russia due to religious persecution, Plautdietsch took
vocabulary from Dutch, Frisian, Russian, and Ukrainian and integrated it into their own
language. Mennonites also emigrated worldwide, where they took their language with them to
four continents and over a dozen countries.
Some examples of Plautdietsch loanwords are given below:
Plautdietsch Word Donor Language Word English Gloss
6. (Recipient Language)
drock Dutch drok busy
ladig Dutch ledig empty
kjast Frisian kest wedding
kjwiel Frisian kwyl spit
schessnikj Russian чеснок garlic
lauftje Russian лавка general store
Borscht Ukrainian борщ beet soup
Warenikje Ukrainian dumplings
Assimilation of loan words
The role words in the formation and development of English vocabulary is dealt with in the history of
language.The term assimilation of a loan word is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the
phonetical,graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its system.The degree
of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving
language,upon its importance for communication purpose and its frequency.
The following 3groups may be suggested:completely assimilated loan words ,partially assimilated
loan words and unassimilated loan words or barbarisms.
Completely assimilated loan words are found in all layers of older borrowings.They may belong to the
first layer of Latin borrowings(cheese,street,wall,wine ).Among Scandinavian loan words we find such
frequent nouns as fellow,gate,root,and wing;verbs-call,die,take,want;adjectives-happy,ill,low,wrong
Partially assimilated loan words can be subdivided into subgroups:
a)Loan words assimilated semantically,because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country
from which they come.They may denote foreign clothing:mantilla, sombrero ;foreign titles and
professions:shah,rajah,sheik,bei,toreador;food and drinks:pilaf,sherbet;foreign
currency:krone,rupee,cloty,peseta,and rouble.
b)Load words not assimilated grammatically,for example,nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek which
keep their original plural forms:crisis-crises;formula-formulae;index-indices;phenomenon-phenomena.
c)Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically.Some of them keep the accent on the final
syllable:machine,cartoon,and police.Others,alongside with peculiarities in stress,contain sounds or
combinations of sounds that are not standard for the English language and do not occur in native words.
d)Loan words not completely assimilated graphically.This group is fairly large and variegated.For
example,words borrowed from French in which the final consonant is not
pronounced:ballet,buffet,corps.Some may keep a diacritic mark:café
Barbarisms are words from other languages used by English people in concversation or in writing but not
7. assimilated in any way,and for which there are corresponding English equivalents:addio,ciao=good
buy;affiche=placard
Reborrowing
It is possible for a word to travel from the recipient language to another and then back to the
original donor language in a different form, a process called reborrowing. Some examples are:
Original Borrowed to: Reborrowed to Original as:
English as beef, the root of the
French bœuf “cow” bifteck
English word beefsteak
Greek κίνημα English as cinema “motion σινεμά (transliteration: sinema)
(transliteration: kinima) picture” “motion picture”
Hebrew keli-zemer “musical Yiddish as klezmer “(traditional klezmer “(traditional
instrument” Ashkenazic) musician” Ashkenazic) musician”