Central Penn College PSY100 FL13 Z1
Unit 3 for week 3
Sensation and Perception
Credit is given to authors of PSY100 textbook, Morris & Maisto (2013) as well as additional resources to include Durand & Barlow (2013). Much thanks to the publishers for shared images and slide design.
PLEASE NOTE: Please refer to weekly professor guide for list of videos required in addition to this PPT presentation.
1. Sensation is the detection of stimuli by sensory receptors, while perception is the organization and interpretation of sensory information.
2. The eye detects light and converts it into neural signals through specialized sensory receptors like rods and cones in the retina. These signals are then organized and interpreted in the visual cortex of the brain.
3. Binocular and monocular depth cues like convergence, retinal disparity, relative size, and linear perspective allow us to perceive a three-dimensional world from the two-dimensional retinal image.
1. Sensation is the detection of physical stimuli by sensory receptors, while perception is the interpretation of sensory information by the brain.
2. The visual system detects color, brightness, and hue, using rods and cones in the retina to detect light, rather than functioning like a camera.
3. Gestalt principles describe how the brain organizes visual elements into meaningful patterns through principles of proximity, similarity, closure, and continuity.
- Stimuli are detected by sense organs and transmitted as sensations. Perception involves interpreting these sensations based on prior knowledge and experience.
- Key aspects of perception include grouping elements based on principles like proximity, similarity and continuity. It also involves figure-ground perception and maintaining constancies like size, shape, color and brightness despite changes in viewing conditions.
- Sensory receptors underlie different senses like vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Vision involves rods and cones detecting light, while hearing codes frequencies via place and volley theories.
This document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It discusses how sensation is the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment through sensory organs like the eyes, ears, skin, tongue and nose. Perception is described as the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning. Sensory receptors detect and transmit stimulus information to the brain. The document outlines concepts like sensory thresholds, habituation, adaptation and top-down and bottom-up processing. It provides examples of absolute and difference thresholds for different senses.
Sensory memory briefly records visual and auditory information for up to a few seconds. It has two forms: iconic memory holds visual stimuli like a snapshot for up to half a second, while echoic memory holds sound for one to two seconds, as demonstrated by someone asking "what did you say?" after a question. Sensory memory prevents being overwhelmed by stimuli and gives time to decide if information is important to transfer to short-term memory.
What is Sensation and perception? General Psychology discusses it's definition and I'ts differences. Credits To our Teacher: Professor Charmaine Maglangit for providing this powerpoint presentation.
This document defines attention and discusses various aspects of attention from a psychological perspective. It defines attention as the ability to focus selectively on a stimulus, sustain that focus, and shift it at will. It discusses factors that influence attention span such as age, enjoyment, and temperament. It also outlines different types of attention including overt vs covert and voluntary vs automatic attention. The document provides an overview of theories of attention such as the spotlight and premotor theories. It discusses the neural mechanisms underlying different types of attention shifts and outlines a clinical model of attention involving focused, sustained, selective, alternating, and divided attention.
Psychology Memory and Learning Power PointMrTimBradley
This document provides an overview of memory and learning concepts. It discusses the three stages of memory (encoding, storage, and retrieval). It describes the different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses how learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning, and how cognitive factors like latent learning, cognitive maps, insight, learned helplessness, and observational learning impact the learning process. Key terms and concepts related to memory and different types of learning are defined and explained with examples.
1. Sensation is the detection of stimuli by sensory receptors, while perception is the organization and interpretation of sensory information.
2. The eye detects light and converts it into neural signals through specialized sensory receptors like rods and cones in the retina. These signals are then organized and interpreted in the visual cortex of the brain.
3. Binocular and monocular depth cues like convergence, retinal disparity, relative size, and linear perspective allow us to perceive a three-dimensional world from the two-dimensional retinal image.
1. Sensation is the detection of physical stimuli by sensory receptors, while perception is the interpretation of sensory information by the brain.
2. The visual system detects color, brightness, and hue, using rods and cones in the retina to detect light, rather than functioning like a camera.
3. Gestalt principles describe how the brain organizes visual elements into meaningful patterns through principles of proximity, similarity, closure, and continuity.
- Stimuli are detected by sense organs and transmitted as sensations. Perception involves interpreting these sensations based on prior knowledge and experience.
- Key aspects of perception include grouping elements based on principles like proximity, similarity and continuity. It also involves figure-ground perception and maintaining constancies like size, shape, color and brightness despite changes in viewing conditions.
- Sensory receptors underlie different senses like vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Vision involves rods and cones detecting light, while hearing codes frequencies via place and volley theories.
This document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It discusses how sensation is the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment through sensory organs like the eyes, ears, skin, tongue and nose. Perception is described as the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning. Sensory receptors detect and transmit stimulus information to the brain. The document outlines concepts like sensory thresholds, habituation, adaptation and top-down and bottom-up processing. It provides examples of absolute and difference thresholds for different senses.
Sensory memory briefly records visual and auditory information for up to a few seconds. It has two forms: iconic memory holds visual stimuli like a snapshot for up to half a second, while echoic memory holds sound for one to two seconds, as demonstrated by someone asking "what did you say?" after a question. Sensory memory prevents being overwhelmed by stimuli and gives time to decide if information is important to transfer to short-term memory.
What is Sensation and perception? General Psychology discusses it's definition and I'ts differences. Credits To our Teacher: Professor Charmaine Maglangit for providing this powerpoint presentation.
This document defines attention and discusses various aspects of attention from a psychological perspective. It defines attention as the ability to focus selectively on a stimulus, sustain that focus, and shift it at will. It discusses factors that influence attention span such as age, enjoyment, and temperament. It also outlines different types of attention including overt vs covert and voluntary vs automatic attention. The document provides an overview of theories of attention such as the spotlight and premotor theories. It discusses the neural mechanisms underlying different types of attention shifts and outlines a clinical model of attention involving focused, sustained, selective, alternating, and divided attention.
Psychology Memory and Learning Power PointMrTimBradley
This document provides an overview of memory and learning concepts. It discusses the three stages of memory (encoding, storage, and retrieval). It describes the different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses how learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning, and how cognitive factors like latent learning, cognitive maps, insight, learned helplessness, and observational learning impact the learning process. Key terms and concepts related to memory and different types of learning are defined and explained with examples.
This document discusses human memory and its stages. It describes memory as having three stages - encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves processing incoming information. Storage refers to retaining information over time. Retrieval involves recovering stored information. It also discusses models of memory like the Atkinson-Shiffrin model which describes sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Mechanisms of forgetting like trace decay and interference are also summarized.
The document discusses the differences between sensation and perception. Sensation is defined as the passive process of bringing external stimuli into the body and brain through the senses. Perception is the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information in the brain to give it meaning. Sensation involves sensory receptors detecting stimuli and transmitting neural signals, while perception occurs as the brain organizes and interprets those signals. The key differences are that sensation is passive intake of raw stimuli, while perception is the active interpretation and understanding of sensory information.
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy from our environment. Perception involves organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events. Psychophysics studies the relationship between physical stimulus characteristics and our psychological experience of them. Thresholds refer to the minimum levels of stimulation needed for detection, and signal detection theory examines how we detect faint stimuli.
The document is a presentation on sensation and perception in psychology. It defines sensation as the simple experience received through the senses, while perception involves higher-level cognitive processing to interpret sensations and derive meaning. It discusses the different types of sensations based on the senses, as well as factors that influence perception like similarity, proximity, and mental sets. The document also distinguishes between illusions, which involve mistaken perceptions but are still related to a real stimulus, and hallucinations, which involve perceiving something without an external stimulus being present.
This document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It begins by defining sensation as detecting information from our environment and perception as interpreting sensory information. It discusses bottom-up and top-down processing, as well as selective attention. Later sections cover specific senses like vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. For vision, it explains the parts of the eye and how light is transduced into neural signals. For hearing, it discusses the parts of the ear and theories of pitch perception. It also addresses thresholds, adaptation, and localization of sounds. The document aims to help students understand the key concepts of sensation and perception.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in sensation and perception from David Myers' Psychology textbook. It covers topics like threshold, sensory adaptation, the five senses, and theories of vision, audition, pain, and other senses. For each sense, it describes the stimulus input, sensory processing in the body and brain, and factors that can influence perception, like adaptation, deficits, and culture. It aims to explain how physical stimuli are converted to neural signals and ultimately perceived.
The document discusses thinking and language. It provides details about concepts, categories, problem solving using algorithms and heuristics, and language development in children. Language involves structures like phonemes, morphemes, and grammar. While animals can communicate, there is no conclusive evidence they have a true language comparable to human language.
Camouflage is most effective when the appearance of an object, or figure, blends in with the characteristics of the background, or ground. A tiger's bright orange stripes strongly contrast with a grey urban landscape, making it easily visible, whereas in a jungle setting its camouflage allows it to blend in among the yellows, oranges, and browns of the vegetation. Perceptual constancy refers to perceiving an object as remaining the same despite changes to the image on the retina, while perceptual set is a predisposition to perceive something based on expectations.
lecture 20 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, Loftus, eyewitness memory
Sensation is the impact of external stimuli on our sensory receptors, while perception is our brain's interpretation of these sensory inputs. Transduction is the process where environmental stimuli are converted into neural impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain then processes these impulses to create useful information and meaning about the world. Key concepts in sensation and perception include absolute and difference thresholds, signal detection theory, and sensory adaptation in which we become less sensitive to unchanging stimuli over time.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in intelligence and intelligence testing. It discusses debates around whether intelligence is a single general ability or composed of multiple specific abilities. It describes theories of emotional intelligence and theories proposed by Gardner and Sternberg that identify additional types of intelligence. The document also summarizes research on the influences of genetics and environment on intelligence, differences in intelligence test scores between groups, and principles of constructing valid and reliable intelligence tests.
Pattern Recognition: A cognitive processMuna Shrestha
A brief introduction and basic information about Pattern Recognition and its types. These slides were prepared for class presentation. Sharing these here as they can be helpful to others too.
Sensation refers to the basic sensory experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses by the environment. It involves the detection of external or internal stimuli and the transmission of sensory signals to the brain. Perception is the interpretation and organization of sensory information. It allows us to give meaning to sensory input and understand the world around us. There are many ways that perception can be inaccurate, including illusions, which distort reality despite being based on physical stimuli, and hallucinations or delusions, which involve perceiving something not actually present.
This document summarizes key concepts in sensation and perception. It defines sensation as the activation of receptors by stimuli and perception as the organization of sensory information into meaningful experiences. The five traditional senses are described as vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Vision relies on light stimulating the eyes and optic nerve. Hearing depends on sound waves and the auditory nerve. Smell and taste are chemical senses detecting molecules. Touch provides information about pressure, warmth, cold, and pain via receptors in the skin. Perception involves organizing sensations according to Gestalt principles and making inferences to interpret the world. Depth perception allows perceiving distance using monocular and other cues.
The cognitive perspective focuses on internal mental processes like thinking and memory. Key aspects of this perspective include:
- Studying cognition, or how knowledge is acquired and organized mentally.
- Rejecting introspection and embracing the scientific method.
- Acknowledging the existence of internal mental states like beliefs and desires.
- Tracing its foundations to Gestalt psychology and Jean Piaget's work on child development.
- Being influenced by advancements in technology and computer science from the 1950s onward.
Major figures who contributed to the development of this perspective include Noam Chomsky, who argued psychology should study more than just behavior, and Aaron Beck, who pioneered cognitive therapy by
The document discusses various topics related to sensation and perception including:
- How different senses like vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch work through sensory receptors and neural pathways
- Factors that influence perception like constancies, gestalt principles, depth cues, and illusions
- Specifics on visual perception including parts of the eye, color vision, blind spots; and specifics on auditory perception including parts of the ear and theories of pitch
- Types of sensory impairments and ways to help people with impairments like cochlear implants
The document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It discusses the distinction between sensation, which is the activation of receptors, and perception, which is how sensations are interpreted. It describes various sensory thresholds and adaptation. The main senses are outlined, including vision, hearing, taste, and smell. Vision involves light stimulation of the eye and color perception. Hearing involves the detection of sound waves. Taste and smell involve the detection of chemicals.
This Presentation is on the Topic of Perception types Motion Perception and Time Perception and the Topic of Attention and its kinds.This Presentation contain Real Life Examples and Its very easy to understand these Topics b these contents.
classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)Dr Rajesh Verma
This document discusses classical methods of psychophysics developed by Fechner to measure the relationship between stimulus intensity and perception. It describes three main classical methods - the method of constant stimuli, method of limits, and method of adjustment. The method of constant stimuli involves presenting a range of stimulus intensities randomly and calculating the percentage of correct responses. The method of limits determines the detection limit by gradually increasing or decreasing the stimulus intensity. The method of adjustment involves subjects adjusting the stimulus intensity until a perception or disappearance is reached. These methods are used to measure absolute and differential thresholds.
Este documento proporciona información sobre el aceite lubricante MAXIGEAR ATOX Serie H1. Es un aceite sintético atóxico formulado para cumplir con la norma H1 para lubricantes en contacto indirecto con alimentos. Se destina a la lubricación de engranajes y otros elementos mecánicos en las industrias alimentaria y farmacéutica. El aceite ofrece ventajas como buena capacidad de carga, resistencia a la humedad, alta lubricidad y poder anticorrosivo.
The document discusses motivation in educational psychology. It defines motivation as an inner drive that causes one to do something and persevere at it, and is the strength of the drive toward an action. There are two types of motivation: intrinsic motivation, which comes from within, and extrinsic motivation, which comes from outside rewards or punishment. Several theories of motivation are described, including instinct theory, incentive theory, drive theory, arousal theory, and humanistic theory as illustrated by Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
This document discusses human memory and its stages. It describes memory as having three stages - encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves processing incoming information. Storage refers to retaining information over time. Retrieval involves recovering stored information. It also discusses models of memory like the Atkinson-Shiffrin model which describes sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Mechanisms of forgetting like trace decay and interference are also summarized.
The document discusses the differences between sensation and perception. Sensation is defined as the passive process of bringing external stimuli into the body and brain through the senses. Perception is the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information in the brain to give it meaning. Sensation involves sensory receptors detecting stimuli and transmitting neural signals, while perception occurs as the brain organizes and interprets those signals. The key differences are that sensation is passive intake of raw stimuli, while perception is the active interpretation and understanding of sensory information.
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy from our environment. Perception involves organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events. Psychophysics studies the relationship between physical stimulus characteristics and our psychological experience of them. Thresholds refer to the minimum levels of stimulation needed for detection, and signal detection theory examines how we detect faint stimuli.
The document is a presentation on sensation and perception in psychology. It defines sensation as the simple experience received through the senses, while perception involves higher-level cognitive processing to interpret sensations and derive meaning. It discusses the different types of sensations based on the senses, as well as factors that influence perception like similarity, proximity, and mental sets. The document also distinguishes between illusions, which involve mistaken perceptions but are still related to a real stimulus, and hallucinations, which involve perceiving something without an external stimulus being present.
This document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It begins by defining sensation as detecting information from our environment and perception as interpreting sensory information. It discusses bottom-up and top-down processing, as well as selective attention. Later sections cover specific senses like vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. For vision, it explains the parts of the eye and how light is transduced into neural signals. For hearing, it discusses the parts of the ear and theories of pitch perception. It also addresses thresholds, adaptation, and localization of sounds. The document aims to help students understand the key concepts of sensation and perception.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in sensation and perception from David Myers' Psychology textbook. It covers topics like threshold, sensory adaptation, the five senses, and theories of vision, audition, pain, and other senses. For each sense, it describes the stimulus input, sensory processing in the body and brain, and factors that can influence perception, like adaptation, deficits, and culture. It aims to explain how physical stimuli are converted to neural signals and ultimately perceived.
The document discusses thinking and language. It provides details about concepts, categories, problem solving using algorithms and heuristics, and language development in children. Language involves structures like phonemes, morphemes, and grammar. While animals can communicate, there is no conclusive evidence they have a true language comparable to human language.
Camouflage is most effective when the appearance of an object, or figure, blends in with the characteristics of the background, or ground. A tiger's bright orange stripes strongly contrast with a grey urban landscape, making it easily visible, whereas in a jungle setting its camouflage allows it to blend in among the yellows, oranges, and browns of the vegetation. Perceptual constancy refers to perceiving an object as remaining the same despite changes to the image on the retina, while perceptual set is a predisposition to perceive something based on expectations.
lecture 20 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, Loftus, eyewitness memory
Sensation is the impact of external stimuli on our sensory receptors, while perception is our brain's interpretation of these sensory inputs. Transduction is the process where environmental stimuli are converted into neural impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain then processes these impulses to create useful information and meaning about the world. Key concepts in sensation and perception include absolute and difference thresholds, signal detection theory, and sensory adaptation in which we become less sensitive to unchanging stimuli over time.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in intelligence and intelligence testing. It discusses debates around whether intelligence is a single general ability or composed of multiple specific abilities. It describes theories of emotional intelligence and theories proposed by Gardner and Sternberg that identify additional types of intelligence. The document also summarizes research on the influences of genetics and environment on intelligence, differences in intelligence test scores between groups, and principles of constructing valid and reliable intelligence tests.
Pattern Recognition: A cognitive processMuna Shrestha
A brief introduction and basic information about Pattern Recognition and its types. These slides were prepared for class presentation. Sharing these here as they can be helpful to others too.
Sensation refers to the basic sensory experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses by the environment. It involves the detection of external or internal stimuli and the transmission of sensory signals to the brain. Perception is the interpretation and organization of sensory information. It allows us to give meaning to sensory input and understand the world around us. There are many ways that perception can be inaccurate, including illusions, which distort reality despite being based on physical stimuli, and hallucinations or delusions, which involve perceiving something not actually present.
This document summarizes key concepts in sensation and perception. It defines sensation as the activation of receptors by stimuli and perception as the organization of sensory information into meaningful experiences. The five traditional senses are described as vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Vision relies on light stimulating the eyes and optic nerve. Hearing depends on sound waves and the auditory nerve. Smell and taste are chemical senses detecting molecules. Touch provides information about pressure, warmth, cold, and pain via receptors in the skin. Perception involves organizing sensations according to Gestalt principles and making inferences to interpret the world. Depth perception allows perceiving distance using monocular and other cues.
The cognitive perspective focuses on internal mental processes like thinking and memory. Key aspects of this perspective include:
- Studying cognition, or how knowledge is acquired and organized mentally.
- Rejecting introspection and embracing the scientific method.
- Acknowledging the existence of internal mental states like beliefs and desires.
- Tracing its foundations to Gestalt psychology and Jean Piaget's work on child development.
- Being influenced by advancements in technology and computer science from the 1950s onward.
Major figures who contributed to the development of this perspective include Noam Chomsky, who argued psychology should study more than just behavior, and Aaron Beck, who pioneered cognitive therapy by
The document discusses various topics related to sensation and perception including:
- How different senses like vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch work through sensory receptors and neural pathways
- Factors that influence perception like constancies, gestalt principles, depth cues, and illusions
- Specifics on visual perception including parts of the eye, color vision, blind spots; and specifics on auditory perception including parts of the ear and theories of pitch
- Types of sensory impairments and ways to help people with impairments like cochlear implants
The document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It discusses the distinction between sensation, which is the activation of receptors, and perception, which is how sensations are interpreted. It describes various sensory thresholds and adaptation. The main senses are outlined, including vision, hearing, taste, and smell. Vision involves light stimulation of the eye and color perception. Hearing involves the detection of sound waves. Taste and smell involve the detection of chemicals.
This Presentation is on the Topic of Perception types Motion Perception and Time Perception and the Topic of Attention and its kinds.This Presentation contain Real Life Examples and Its very easy to understand these Topics b these contents.
classical methods of psychophysics (Three methods)Dr Rajesh Verma
This document discusses classical methods of psychophysics developed by Fechner to measure the relationship between stimulus intensity and perception. It describes three main classical methods - the method of constant stimuli, method of limits, and method of adjustment. The method of constant stimuli involves presenting a range of stimulus intensities randomly and calculating the percentage of correct responses. The method of limits determines the detection limit by gradually increasing or decreasing the stimulus intensity. The method of adjustment involves subjects adjusting the stimulus intensity until a perception or disappearance is reached. These methods are used to measure absolute and differential thresholds.
Este documento proporciona información sobre el aceite lubricante MAXIGEAR ATOX Serie H1. Es un aceite sintético atóxico formulado para cumplir con la norma H1 para lubricantes en contacto indirecto con alimentos. Se destina a la lubricación de engranajes y otros elementos mecánicos en las industrias alimentaria y farmacéutica. El aceite ofrece ventajas como buena capacidad de carga, resistencia a la humedad, alta lubricidad y poder anticorrosivo.
The document discusses motivation in educational psychology. It defines motivation as an inner drive that causes one to do something and persevere at it, and is the strength of the drive toward an action. There are two types of motivation: intrinsic motivation, which comes from within, and extrinsic motivation, which comes from outside rewards or punishment. Several theories of motivation are described, including instinct theory, incentive theory, drive theory, arousal theory, and humanistic theory as illustrated by Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
This document provides an overview and introduction to the PSY100 course. It summarizes the instructor's background and contact information. It outlines the course learning objectives, structure, assignments including homework, projects, assessments and grading criteria. It discusses the instructor and students' responsibilities and provides next steps for students to review the syllabus, take pre-tests and begin the first week's content.
This document provides an overview of the material covered in Unit 2 of the Psychology 100 course. The unit focuses on the biological basis of behavior, including:
1) The structure and function of neurons, neurotransmitters, and the nervous system.
2) An introduction to psychobiology and neuroscience and their focus on the biological underpinnings of behavior and mental processes.
3) An overview of the central nervous system including the brain structures like the hindbrain, midbrain, cerebral cortex, and limbic system.
4) A discussion of tools used to study the brain such as imaging techniques.
This document contains information about the Rhode Island Geography Education Alliance (RIGEA) and its director Seth Dixon. It includes RIGEA's website URL and several URLs linking to maps and apps created by RIGEA on ArcGIS Online to teach geography. It also provides Dixon's Twitter accounts and email for further contact.
The document discusses the culture and geography of Mexico. It covers topics such as Mexico's Catholic and soccer traditions, as well as the Day of the Dead. It also discusses Mexico City as the primate city with over 20 million people, facing issues of pollution and limited capacity due to its high altitude basin location. Additionally, it summarizes Mexico's role in the regional context of North America and Latin America, and border issues with the United States such as maquiladoras, narcotics, and migration patterns.
This document discusses the key topics in motivation and emotion covered in Chapter 8, including several enduring issues and questions. It addresses whether motives and emotions are inborn or acquired, if they change over the lifespan, how individuals differ in their motivations and emotions, and how motives and emotions arise from and affect biological processes. Several theories of motivation are summarized, such as drive-reduction theory, arousal theory including the Yerkes-Dodson law, and Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Key motives like hunger, sex, aggression, achievement, and affiliation are explored. Theories of emotion like the James-Lange theory and Cannon-Bard theory are compared. Gender and cultural differences in emotion are also summarized.
This document discusses how teachers can help students understand the world through a geographic lens. It recommends that teachers provide geographic information, teach geographic concepts, use data, maps and geospatial technology, and ask questions that encourage spatial thinking. Developing geographic literacy allows students to see how the global and local are interconnected and how place still matters despite distance and time. Asking the right questions about images, landscapes and locations can reveal cultural and environmental insights.
AP Human Geography: Unit 1 - Introduction to Geography: Guided NotesDaniel Eiland
These are guided notes to go along with Mr. Eiland's AP Human Geography Unit 1 Powerpoint. You can find the Powerpoint at the following link: http://www.slideshare.net/deilands/ap-human-geography-unit-1
This chapter discusses psychological disorders. It begins by conceptualizing abnormality and how it has been defined, including statistical deviance, cultural norms, distress and dysfunction. It then discusses the medical model and problems with diagnostic labeling. The chapter outlines the DSM classification system and describes several common disorders like anxiety, mood, dissociative, somatoform, and personality disorders. It concludes by examining biological, genetic, cognitive and environmental factors that may contribute to psychological disorders.
This document discusses the Polish cultural landscape of Chicago's Avondale neighborhood. It describes how Avondale was settled primarily by Polish immigrants in the early 20th century and became known as the "Polish Village" due to its Polish churches, businesses, and cultural institutions. While Polish influence is still evident via landmarks like St. Hyacinth Basilica, the neighborhood is becoming more diverse as younger generations move out and new immigrant groups like Latinos move in, representing the changing nature of Chicago's neighborhoods over time.
NCGE Webinar: Teaching the Geography of FoodSeth Dixon
The document discusses ways to teach the geography of food by exploring various topics such as cultural geography, political geography, environmental issues, and the global food system. It provides examples of lessons and resources that use maps, data, and questions to help students understand complex relationships between places and develop geographic literacy and spatial thinking skills. Some key approaches highlighted are examining how development levels influence food concerns, questioning the industrial food production system, and making the global food network more personal and relatable to students. The overall goal is for students to gain geographic context and insight into interconnected global issues related to food.
Suburbanization in the United States greatly accelerated after World War II due to several factors: (1) the Federal Highway Act of 1956 funded the construction of an extensive interstate highway system, increasing accessibility to suburban areas; (2) large-scale developers mass-produced affordable single-family homes on cheap land in the suburbs; and (3) social trends like the postwar baby boom and preference for the suburban lifestyle drove demand for suburban housing. Transportation infrastructure and housing policies were the primary drivers of suburban growth in this period.
India does not have a primate city. While Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Bengaluru are the largest cities, none meet the threshold of being at least twice as large as the second largest city. Historically, colonial cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and Delhi grew to be major economic centers, but India's large size, federal system of government, and regional diversity have prevented extreme primacy of one city over others. Regionalism and lack of centralized infrastructure and resources have also contributed to the absence of a single primate city dominating India's urban hierarchy.
Wiga 2015 Geography in the Age of GlobalizationSeth Dixon
This document discusses the importance of geography education in an era of globalization. It argues that while globalization has made the world more interconnected, place still matters. It provides four recommendations for how competent geography teachers can help students understand our complex world: 1) by providing geographic information, 2) teaching geographic concepts, 3) using data, maps, and geospatial technology, and 4) asking questions that encourage spatial thinking in order to develop geographic literacy. The overarching message is that a spatial perspective is valuable for understanding global issues and students need diverse cultural understanding to interpret conflicts and changes around the world.
Sensation is the process of detecting and receiving sensory input, while perception involves interpreting and organizing that input based on past experiences. The document then discusses the key sensory organs - the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin - and how each detects different types of stimuli and transmits that information. It describes the basic processes of visual perception like constancy, contrast, and organization principles. Environmental and developmental factors that influence perception are also examined.
Building the Knowledge of Human Perception into E-LearningShalin Hai-Jew
Human perceptual systems—for sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell (and maybe even embodied proprioception)—may offer some guidelines for how to build multimedia e-learning: immersive 3D simulations, imagery for analysis, sight-and-sound distributions of information channels, and other applications. This will offer a brief overview of human perception (with a little human cognition thrown in) and some light applications to the design of e-learning.
The document provides an overview of sensation and perception. It defines sensation as the detection of physical stimuli and perception as how the brain interprets sensory information. It discusses the different senses including vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. For vision, it describes the eye anatomy and visual processes like color vision, depth perception, and visual illusions. For hearing, it discusses the ear anatomy and auditory localization. It also addresses topics like sensory thresholds, adaptation, and influences on perception.
Understanding the perception and its role in successful management of organiz...bp singh
The document discusses the concept of perception and the perceptual process. It defines perception as the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information to understand one's environment. The key aspects of perception covered include selective attention, subjective interpretation, perceptual constancy, illusions, and how factors like stimulus characteristics, motivation, and interest influence one's perceptions.
This document discusses chapters from a psychology textbook on sensation and perception. It covers topics like the basic principles of sensation including thresholds and sensory adaptation. It describes the senses of vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell and how they work. It discusses perceptual organization including form, depth, motion and constancy. It examines perceptual interpretation and how experience and expectations shape perception. It also questions whether there is evidence for extrasensory perception.
This document discusses chapters from a psychology textbook on sensation and perception. It covers topics like the basic principles of sensation including thresholds and sensory adaptation. It describes the senses of vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, and kinesthesia. It discusses perceptual organization including principles of form, depth, motion and constancy. It examines perceptual interpretation and how experience shapes perception. It analyzes studies on sensory deprivation and adaptation. In 3 sentences or less, it provides an overview of the key topics and concepts covered in the textbook chapters on sensation and perception.
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent information about our internal and external environment. There are 5 main sensory systems - vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Each system contains receptor cells that transduce physical stimuli into electrochemical signals to the brain. The brain then interprets these signals to form our perceptions. Sensory thresholds, adaptation and neural processing help us detect changes in our environment. Defects in these systems can impair our sensory abilities.
The document discusses perception and the perceptual process. It defines perception as the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information to represent and understand the environment. The perceptual process involves two stages - processing sensory input into higher-level information, and processing based on a person's knowledge and expectations. Features like constancy, grouping, contrast effects, experience, and motivation and expectations can influence perception. How people perceive situations affects their behavior, as perception impacts whether one sees situations positively or negatively. The conclusion emphasizes that perception is important for human behavior and how people deal with problems.
Chapter 6: Perception
Selective Attention
At any moment we are conscious of a very limited amount of all that we are capable of experiencing. One example of this selective attention is the cocktail party effect—attending to only one voice among many. Another example is inattentional blindness, which refers to our blocking of a brief visual interruption when focusing on other sights.
Perceptual Illusions
Visual and auditory illusions were fascinating scientists even as psychology emerged. Explaining illusions required an understanding of how we transform sensations into meaningful perceptions, so the study of perception became one of psychology’s first concerns. Conflict between visual and other sensory information is usually resolved with the mind’s accepting the visual data, a tendency known as visual capture.
Perceptual Organization
From a top-down perspective, we see how we transform sensory information into meaningful perceptions when we are aided by knowledge and expectations.
The early Gestalt psychologists were impressed with the seemingly innate way we organize fragmentary sensory data into whole perceptions. Our minds structure the information that comes to us in several demonstrable ways:
Form Perception
To recognize an object, we must first perceive it (see it as a figure) as distinct from its surroundings (the ground). We must also organize the figure into a meaningful form. Several Gestalt principles—proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, and closure—describe this process.
Depth Perception
Research on the visual cliff revealed that many species perceive the world in three dimensions at, or very soon after, birth. We transform two-dimensional retinal images into three-dimensional perceptions by using binocular cues, such as retinal disparity, and monocular cues, such as the relative sizes of objects.
Motion Perception
Our brain computes motion as objects move across or toward the retina. Large objects appear to move more slowly than smaller objects. A quick succession of images, as in a motion picture or on a lighted sign, can also create an illusion of movement.
Perceptual Constancy
Having perceived an object as a coherent figure and having located it in space, how then do we recognize it—despite the varying images that it may cast on our retinas? Size, shape, and lightness constancies describe how objects appear to have unchanging characteristics regardless of their distance, shape, or motion. These constancies explain several of the well-known visual illusions. For example, familiarity with the size-distance relationships in a carpentered world of rectangular shapes makes people more susceptible to the Müller-Lyer illusion.
Perceptual Interpretation
The most direct tests of the nature-nurture issue come from experiments that modify human perceptions.
Sensory Deprivation and Restored Vision
For many species, infancy is a critical period during which experience must activate the brain’s innate visual mechanisms. If cataract removal restores eyesight to adults who were blind from birth, they remain unable to perceive the world normally. Generally, they can distinguish figure from ground and can perceive colors, but they are unable to recognize shapes and forms. In controlled experiments, animals have been reared with severely restricted visual input. When their visual exposure is returned to normal, they, too, suffer enduring visual handicaps.
Perceptual Adaptation
Human vision is remarkably adaptable. Given glasses that shift the world slightly to the left or right, or even turn it upside down, people manage to adapt their movements and, with practice, to move about with ease.
Perceptual Set
Clear evidence that perception is influenced by our experience—our learned assumptions and beliefs—as well as by sensory input comes from the many demonstrations of perceptual set and context effects. The schemas we have learned help us to interpret otherwise ambiguous stimu
The document provides an overview of key concepts in sensation and perception. It discusses the basic principles of sensation including thresholds, adaptation and psychophysics. It then examines the senses of vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell and movement. For vision it explores light characteristics, the eye anatomy, visual processing and color vision. For hearing it covers sound characteristics, ear anatomy, theories of audition and localization of sounds. It emphasizes that sensation and perception involve both bottom-up and top-down processing to construct representations of the external world.
This document discusses human behavior and the factors that influence it. It covers several topics related to behavior, including perception, sensation, attention, memory, thinking, and cognition. Regarding memory, it describes the different types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term), the mechanisms that underlie memory formation and storage, and how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved from memory. It also discusses various theories of learning and conditioning that seek to explain human behavior.
Sensation and Perception (Cognitive Psychology) - Chenaye MercadoChenayeMercado1
This document provides an overview of cognitive psychology and sensation and perception. It discusses:
- The emergence of cognitive psychology as a field focused on studying cognition and mental processes.
- Key topics in sensation and perception, including the distinction between sensation and perception, thresholds, attention, sensory adaptation, and the roles of vision and hearing.
- Concepts like wavelength, amplitude, pitch, decibels and how they relate to visual and auditory stimuli.
- Anatomy of the eye and how light is sensed by the retina through rods and cones before visual information is transmitted by the optic nerve.
The document discusses various topics related to sensation and perception including:
1. It describes the different sensory systems including vision, hearing, taste, smell, body position, and movement.
2. It discusses concepts like sensation, perception, receptors, transduction, and adaptation as they relate to how the sensory systems work.
3. It provides details about specific topics within each sensory system, such as the parts of the eye, visual pathways, color vision theories, types of hearing loss, taste receptors, and cutaneous senses.
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Perception involves interpreting and organizing these sensory inputs into meaningful experiences. Psychophysics studies the quantitative relationships between physical stimuli and perceptual experiences. The key senses are vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch, and the vestibular and kinesthetic senses. Perception involves organizing sensory information and making inferences to interpret our experiences.
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors detect stimuli, while perception is how our brain interprets and organizes these sensations. Some key differences are that sensation is largely sensory-based, while perception involves higher-level cognitive processes. An example is that hearing sounds is a sensory process, but forming a melody from those sounds is perceptual. Our sensations and perceptions are closely intertwined, making them difficult to separate in everyday experiences.
The document then discusses sensory thresholds and adaptation, as well as various Gestalt principles that govern our perception of forms and organization of visual elements, such as proximity, similarity, closure and continuity. Depth perception relies on both binocular cues like retinal disparity and monocular cues involving relative
The document summarizes key concepts about sensation and perception from a psychology textbook chapter. It defines sensation as the basic detection of stimuli by sensory receptors and perception as the interpretation and organization of sensory information. It describes the structure of the eye and visual system, including rods and cones, and discusses thresholds, color vision, perceptual organization principles like Gestalt, illusions, and depth perception cues.
The document discusses concepts related to sensation and perception including illusions, which involve misinterpretation of stimuli, and delusions, which represent abnormal beliefs. It also describes hallucinations, experiencing things that aren't real, which can be caused by conditions like schizophrenia, Parkinson's, or Alzheimer's. The types of illusions, delusions, and hallucinations are defined along with their characteristics and common causes.
This document discusses types of perception and errors in perception. It describes the main types of human perception, including visual, auditory, gustatory, tactual, and extrasensory perception. Within each type, it examines how stimuli are detected and interpreted. The document also covers Gestalt laws of organization, figure-ground relationship, top-down and bottom-up processing, and perceptual constancy. Regarding errors in perception, it defines illusion, hallucination, and delusion as distortions that can occur in sensory perception.
The document discusses sensation and perception. It defines sensation as the detection of physical stimuli by the senses and perception as the interpretation and organization of sensory information. It describes bottom-up processing as analysis starting with sense receptors and working up to the brain, and top-down processing as information guided by higher-level mental processes and experience. It also discusses psychophysics, sensory thresholds, adaptation, and the senses of vision and audition.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
17. Afterimage
“The gray-and-white afterimage (in the figure at right)
appears because the part of the retina that is exposed to the
dark stripes of the upper square becomes more sensitive
(dark adapted). The area exposed to the white part of the
upper square becomes less sensitive (light adapted). When
you shift your eyes to the lower square, the less sensitive
parts of the retina produce the sensation of gray rather than
white. The afterimage fades within a minute as the retina
adapts again, this time to the solid white square.”
– Page 88 (Morris & Maisto)
41. Perceptual Constancies
“Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive objects as relatively
stable and unchanging despite changing sensory information. Once we have
formed a stable perception of an object, we can recognize it from almost any
position, at almost any distance, under almost any illumination. A house looks
like a house day or night and from any angle.”
– Page 110 (Morris & Maisto)
50. When we look at the world around us, how
much are we really seeing? Let’s find out.
On the following slide you will be shown two
images flashing alternately. The images are
identical except for one major change. See if
you can spot the change before time runs out.
Then try this again with another set of images.
55. These slides illustrate that human
beings are able to pay attention to
only part of the visual sensations that
they are exposed to on a moment-bymoment basis. These are the parts
that are remembered. This
demonstration reminds us that the
road between sensation and
perception has many twists and
turns.
56. The Blind Spot
Draw two small circles (about six inches apart)
on your paper. Hold the paper out in front of you.
Close your right eye and stare at the right dot
with your left eye. Slowly bring the paper closer
to your face. As you do this, the left dot will
disappear.
57. After Images
Visual sensations that persist after the
initial stimulus has been removed are
called “afterimages.”
On the next slide you will see a picture
of a flag with a white dot in the middle.
Stare at the dot until the screen
changes. Do not take your eyes off of
the white dot.
59. Trichromatic theory cannot account
for afterimages like the one that you
just saw (and may still be seeing).
In order to explain such perceptual
phenomena, a theory is needed that
explains photoreceptor activity
differently.
As I develop and begin to expect of the outside world, do those expectations come true? We will learn that while the sensory information may be the same, our perception varies based on us.
At the end we will highlight how individuals have different experiences based on a variety of personal factors which you will later discuss in the discussion board. But remember neural plasticity? If the neural pathways are similar, are then expectations similar so perception is similar?
There is much on the biological processes of the senses in this chapter. In what ways do our experiences depend on the biological processes?
Let’s establish what sensation is first.
Sensation – occurs when energy from an external or internal source stimulates a receptor cell in one or more sense organs.
receptor cell - a specialized cell that responds to a particular type of energy.
This is what happens. There is energy in the environment. An example of energy is a sound wave, a vibration of air molecules. When that energy stimulates a receptor cell, which a specialized cell that is designed for that particular type of energy, a series of dominos is started. It does not mean the ear interprets the information. Sensation is simply the experience of sensory stimulation. If you consider what is needed for a neuron to fire to get the signal out, you know that there needs to be sufficient energy to alert the brain. But how much is needed?
In order for the neuron to fire, the all-or-none law is in place. There is an absolute threshold, the least amount of energy detected as stimulus 50% of time presented. So, 1 out of 2 times, you see the stimulus e.g. the light, the sound, the taste, etc. If the energy does not cross that absolute threshold, the energy will absolutely not be detected. On page 82, there is a listing of approximate absolute thresholds under ideal circumstances.
Yet what about changes in stimulus? Ever watch a movie that goes quiet from a loud scene? When you reach for the remote to turn it up, how soon before you notice the difference? How much louder do you need it? The difference threshold is the smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time. It varies according to the strength or intensity of the original stimulus.
Absolute thresholds – the smallest amount of energy needed for conscious detection of a stimulus at least half the time it is present.
Difference threshold or just-noticeable difference – the smallest change in stimulation that can be detected 50% of the time.
Producing a jnd for sound requires a 0.3% change.
Producing a jnd for taste requires a 20% change.
Producing a jnd for weight requires a 2% change.
Weber’s law – the principle that the jnd for any given sense is a constant fraction or proportion of the stimulation being judged.
Have you ever found yourself more or less vulnerable to stimuli? Like loud noises at the circus vs. a room of test takers? Adaptation is the adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving. We will discuss this principle with each sense. Think of it as adapting to the environment – you change your expectations and your experience changes.
Honestly, I am not sure why the book manufacturer put the picture of this dude. I am not sure if they were applying that over time, one adapts to the pain of getting tattoos.
Have you ever heard of songs or TV shows having subliminal messages in order to influence the consumer to do something? Beyond the conspiracy theory, there are some messages and marketing strategies to cause behavior through stimuli below the level of conscious awareness. There is a link explaining where the marketing strategy can from. Do subliminal messages influence behavior though? The evidence is the following: in a controlled laboratory setting, people can process and respond to information presented subliminally, but subliminal message outside the laboratory have no significant effect on behavior.
Let’s get into the senses.
Page 85 goes through how the visual system works. Here is a diagram depicting this process. The retina is the back lining of the eyeball and are where the receptor cells are located. They are sensitive to visible light only.
The Structures of the Eye:
Cornea – transparent protective covering over the front part of the eye.
Pupil – a small opening in the iris through which light enters the eye.
Iris – the colored part of the eye that regulates the size of the pupil.
Lens – the transparent part of the eye behind the pupil that focuses light onto the retina
Retina – the lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light.
Fovea – the area of the retina that is the center of the visual field.
Optic nerve – the bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brain (see slide 21).
Blind spot – the place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and where there are no receptors (see slide 21).
Rods and cones are the receptor cells. The cones allow for day vision and color whereas the rods allow for night vision. See the summary table for a description of the roles.
Rods – receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightness.
Cones – receptor cells in the fovea responsible for color vision.
Bipolar cells – neurons that have only one axon and one dendrite; in the eye, these neurons connect the receptors on the retina to the ganglion cells.
Visual acuity – the ability to distinguish fine details visually.
Again, adaptation is the process by which our senses adjust to the different levels of stimulation. How does it occur for vision? As the sensitivity of rods and cones changes according to how much light is available. It is like walking into a dark theatre on a bright sunny day. “Your eyes adjust”
Adaptation – the process by which our senses adjust to different levels of stimulation.
Dark adaptation – increased sensitivity of rods and cones in darkness. First the cones and then the rods slowly adapt (over the course of 30 minutes) until they reach their maximum sensitivity.
Light adaptation – decreased sensitivity of rods and cones in bright light. When moving from darkness to bright light, the rods and cones become less sensitive to light (over the course of 1 minute).
Afterimage – sense experience that occurs after a visual stimulus has been removed.
You will do this for your worksheet! You will also review blind spots.
The optic nerve carries messages from each eye to the brain. See figure 3.9 on page 89 on how the optic nerves cross at the optic chiasm. Not all information goes to the occipital lobe although that is the main destination for registration and interpretation. The next slide goes through optical illusions.
Bipolar cells – neurons that have only one axon and one dendrite; in the eye, these neurons connect the receptors on the retina to the ganglion cells.
Ganglion cells – neurons that connect the bipolar cells in the eyes to the brain.
Optic nerve – the bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brain.
Blind spot – the place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and where there are no receptors.
I struggled with placement of this video. I want it to start the conversation about color but there are other topics we will reference back to later in the PowerPoint.
Spinning diamond – spinning dancer
See pages 89-91 on color discussing hues, brightness, and saturation. Great topics for those of you in photography! Because of saturation and brightness, the 150 hues we can see multiple colors seen to 2 million or more. The next video shows an artist using a device similar to the one Beau discussed to help overcome color blindness.
Let’s transition into hearing.
Sound – a psychological experience created by the brain in response to changes in air pressure that are received by the auditory system. It is our brain’s interpretation of the sensory information from the ear’s receptor cells of the vibrations. Sound Waves – changes in pressure caused when molecules of air or fluid collide with one another and then move apart again. How they are formed is reviewed on page 93. Frequency is also discussed. Pitch – auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations resulting in a higher or lower tone.
Frequency – the number of cycles per second in a wave.
Hertz (Hz) – unit of measurement (in cycles per second) for the frequency of sound waves.
The human ear responds to frequencies from approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz.
In sound, frequency is the primary determinant of pitch.
Amplitude – the magnitude of a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of loudness.
Decibel – unit of measurement for the loudness of sounds.
As we grow older, we lose some of our ability to hear soft sounds.
Sound waves gathered by the outer ear are passed along to the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. The vibration of the eardrum causes the hammer, the anvil, and stirrup to hit each other in sequence, amplifying and carrying the vibrations to the oval window and on to the fluid in the cochlea of the inner ear. In the inner ear, movement of the basilar membrane stimulates sensory receptors in the organ of Corti, and this stimulation of the hair cells produces auditory signals that travel to the brain through the auditory nerve.
Oval window – membrane across the opening between the middle ear and inner ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea.
Cochlea – part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates, which in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate.
Basilar membrane – vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it contains sense receptors for sound.
Organ of Corti – structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptor cells for hearing.
Auditory nerve – the bundle of axons that carries signals from each ear to the brain.
Neural Connections: Each ear sends messages to both cerebral hemispheres. The nerve fibers from the ears cross over in the medulla, and then they are sent to various areas of the brain. Ultimately, their destination is the temporal lobe of each hemisphere.
Why do you have to wear ear plugs in a factory? Approximately 28 million Americans have some form of hearing loss, and about 10 million of those cases are the result of exposure to noise (e.g., leaf blowers, chain saws, etc.). Wear ear plugs at home when operating this machinery!
Hearing aids that utilize digital technology can enhance speech sounds while reducing background noise.
There are interventions possible as stated on your screen.
If a child is born deaf or become deaf at an early age, the National Association of the Deaf argues that surgical procedures that only partially restore hearing may not prove beneficial to the child. Check out the focus book in the text on page 97. Do you believe intervention should be done?
What other senses do we have?
How humans smell remains an open question. We have 12 million odor-detecting cells in the naval cavity. Each of these cells responds only to some odorant molecules, sending messages to the olfactory bulb, and then on to the olfactory cortex in the temporal lobes of the brain where we are able to recognize and remember about 10,000 different smells. How the message from the nose results in the sensation of smell remains a mystery. Odor sensitivity is related to gender and age. Women and adults age 20-40 have the best sense of smell.
Pheromones – chemicals that communicate information to other organisms through smell. Your textbook has an interesting review of research on how pheromones allegedly influence human behavior and may influence sexual orientation? What are your thoughts?
Adaptation occurs with smell as well.
Taste (the sensory qualities of sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami – sensitivity to MSG and other proteins) is different from flavor (a complex interaction of taste and smell). Taste buds – structures on the tongue that contain the receptor cells for taste. Not the bumps!! All areas of the tongue can distinguish all taste qualities, but some areas may be more sensitive to certain tastes than others. The sensation of taste occurs when the chemical substances in the food we eat come into contact with the taste buds. The taste buds then release a neurotransmitter that causes adjacent neurons to fire, sending a nerve impulse to the parietal lobe of the brain and to the limbic system.
We have adaptation that occurs with taste.
Kinesthetic senses – senses of muscular movement, posture and strain on muscles and joints.
Receptors provide constant feedback from the stretching and contraction of muscles. This information travels via the spinal cord to the parietal lobes (the same brain area that perceives the sense of touch).
Vestibular senses – the senses of equilibrium and body position in space. Which way is up and which way is down.
The vestibular senses originate in the inner ear, where the impulses from hair cells travel to the brain along the auditory nerve. Some messages from the vestibular senses go to the cerebellum (which plays a role in reflexes and coordinated movement) while other go to the parietal lobe for analysis and response.
The Skin Senses
The skin is the largest sense organ.
Some information from the receptors in the skin is sent through the medulla and thalamus to the sensory cortex of the parietal lobes of the brain. Other information goes through the thalamus and then to the reticular formation, which is responsible for arousal of the nervous system.
Skin receptors contribute to sensations of pressure, temperature, and pain.
The skin senses are remarkably sensitive, especially those in the face and fingertips.
Touch is important for interaction and emotional experience.
More people visit doctors for relief of pain than for any other reason. Yet, the sensation of pain in many ways remains mysterious.
Gate-Control Theory – the theory that a “neurological gate” in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain; if the gate is open, we experience more pain than when the gate is closed.
Biopsychosocial Theory – the theory that the interaction of biological, psychological and cultural factors influences the intensity and duration of pain.
Biological mechanisms involve the degree to which tissue is injured and our pain pathways have adapted. Genetics also plays a role in pain sensitivity.
Psychological mechanisms such as thoughts, beliefs and emotions can affect our experience of pain. For example, the amount of pain people expect to feel is predictive of how much pain they actually perceive. The ability to cope with pain also mediates the perception of pain.
Social mechanisms such as the degree of family support can also influence pain perception. Those who report greater levels of family support report lower levels of perceived pain, less reliance on medication, and greater activity levels than those with lower levels of family support.
Organizing and making sense!
Gestalt researchers wanted to understand this further. The history of the Gestalt psychologists is available in your resources folder. There is also more explanation of their principles for perceptual organization.
Gestalt psychologists believed that the brain creates a coherent perceptual experience that is more than simply the sum of the available sensory information and that is does so in predictable ways.
One of the basic perceptual processes involves distinguishing the object of one’s attention (i.e.., the “figure”) from the background (i.e., “ground”). There is a video about attention at the end of this PowerPoint.
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As seen in the picture with the Dalmatian, the figure must be noticeable enough to draw our attention.
Figure with clear contours can be perceived in 2 very different ways. Check out Figure 3-26 and 3-27. Which is ground? Figure?
Proximity – when objects are close to one another, we tend to perceive them together rather than separately.
“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts”
Similarity – objects that are of a similar color, size, or shape are usually perceived as part of a pattern.
Closure – we are inclined to overlook incompleteness in sensory information and to perceive a whole object even when none really exists.
Continuity – items that continue a pattern or direction tend to be grouped together as part of the pattern.
Perceptual constancy – a tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation.
Size constancy – the perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed.
Shape constancy – a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from.
Color constancy – an inclination to perceive familiar objects as retaining their color despite changes in sensory information.
Brightness constancy – the perception of brightness as the same, even though the amount of light reaching the retina changes.
Perception of movement is a complicated process involving:
Visual messages from the retina
Messages from the muscles around the eyes as they shift to follow a moving object
Autokinetic illusion – the perception that a stationary object is actually moving.
Stroboscopic motion – apparent movement that results from flashing a series of still pictures in rapid succession, as in a motion picture.
Phi phenomenon – apparent movement caused by flashing lights in a sequence as on a theater marquee.
When we experience a visual illusion, we are fooled into “seeing” something that is not there. Perceptual illusions occur because the stimulus contains misleading cues that give rise to inaccurate or impossible perceptions.
Despite the fact that all humans have the same sense organs and perceptual capabilities, several personal factors can influence one’s perceptions.
Motivation and Emotion – People’s desires, needs and fears shape their perceptions.
Values – The value that people place on an object can influence their perception of the object.
Expectations – People see what they expect to see, overlooking stimuli that are inconsistent with their expectations.
Cognitive style – People develop ways of dealing with the environment that affect how they perceive the world. For example, field-dependent individuals tend to perceive the environment as a whole and do not tend to focus on individual features or objects in their visual field. Field-independent individuals tend to maintain perceptual distinctions among the various aspects of their visual environment.
Experience and Culture – Cultural differences cause people to attend to different things while viewing the same image; a person’s attention is often drawn to what is novel. Also, a person with much experience or expertise in a subject can perceive more subtle features of a stimulus than someone with less experience or expertise.
Personality – Personality characteristics can serve to prime individuals or make them more likely to perceive stimuli that are consistent with characteristics of their personality.
Check out the next two videos on the observer characteristics.
Lecture/Discussion: Unattended Information and the “Cocktail Party Phenomenon”
It has happened to all of us. You are at an office party, a holiday party, or a gathering of friends at the home of a neighbor; and you are engaged in conversation with a friend about the merits of Golden Retrievers compared to German Shepherds. More people are talking behind you, but you are not paying attention to their conversation. Suddenly, you hear your name mentioned by one of the individuals engaged in the conversation behind you. You become unable to concentrate on the puppy discussion, because you are too busy trying to hear what the other people are saying about you. You know you were not deliberately eavesdropping on this conversation, but you know that you heard your name. Is it possible that you were unconsciously eavesdropping?
You have just experienced what Broadbent and Cherry referred to as the “Cocktail Party Phenomenon.” Part of consciousness is attention. We must attend to incoming stimuli in order to process it and act on it in an appropriate manner. Does that imply that in the case presented above, the listener was attending to the conversation behind her? Possibly, although the attention being paid to that conversation was not intentional. The listener in this conversation was engaged in what is known as dichotic listening, which refers to hearing two channels of sound, one in each ear, at the same time. In dichotic listening, we listen, or shadow, the message to which we are attending, and tune out the second, unattended message. Nonetheless, some characteristics of that unshadowed message still get through. The individual above was shadowing the message in which she was engaged and, until hearing her name, could not have told us the content or characteristics of the unshadowed (unattended) message of conversation. How then, did she manage to hear her name, if she was not attending to the message?
Triesman offers as an explanation the fact that in dichotic listening, attention acts as an attenuator, in that it turns down the volume on unattended channels but does not completely block them out. Moray took this notion a bit further, observing that it is very difficult to ignore the sounds of our own names, even if that sound comes in on an unattended channel. Deutsch and Deutsch, followed by Norman, proposed that all channels that reach the system get some degree of attention and analysis. Specifically, the channels get attended to enough to be represented in long-term memory. While none of these models completely explains the attentional aspect of consciousness, they do at least give us some insights as to why we suddenly find ourselves “eavesdropping” on the conversations of others, once we have heard them mention our names.
Instructor: Behind the little girl’s right shoulder, a black carousel horse appears and disappears.
Instructor: The change in this slide appears on the left side. A smokestack appears and disappears.
This demonstration can be used to remind the students that in between sensation and perception are a whole host cognitive steps that must be completed in order for us to make sense of our world.
Blind spot - area in the retina where the axons of the three layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve, insensitive to light.