The document summarizes the process of translation. It describes:
1) The machinery involved including mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes and other proteins.
2) The three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves binding of the ribosome and first tRNA. Elongation is the repetitive addition of amino acids by tRNA and peptide bond formation. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached and release factors trigger the release of the complete protein.
3) Key processes within each step like activation of amino acids, charging of tRNA, translocation during elongation, and hydrolysis of the peptide bond during termination.
An Overview...
Definition of Translation.
Def. of Eukaryotes.
Translation: An Overview.
Components of Translation.
Some Enzymes .
Ribosome Role.
Mechanism of Translation.
Initiation.
Scanning Model of Initiation.
Initiation Factors.
Animation.
Elongation.
Chain Elongation: Translocation.
Animation.
Termination.
Animation....
It's not perfect still... what are your views friends?
An Overview...
Definition of Translation.
Def. of Eukaryotes.
Translation: An Overview.
Components of Translation.
Some Enzymes .
Ribosome Role.
Mechanism of Translation.
Initiation.
Scanning Model of Initiation.
Initiation Factors.
Animation.
Elongation.
Chain Elongation: Translocation.
Animation.
Termination.
Animation....
It's not perfect still... what are your views friends?
Transcription in eukaryotes: A brief view
Transcription is the process by which single stranded RNA is synthesized by double stranded DNA. Transcription in eukaryotes and prokaryotes has many similarities while at the same time both showing their individual characteristics due to the differences in organization. RNA Polymerase (RNAP or RNA Pol) is different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Coupled transcription is seen in prokaryotes but not in Eukaryotes. In eukaryotes the pre-RNA should be spliced first to be translated.
In Eukaryotic transcription, synthesis of RNA occurs in the 3’→5’ direction. The 3’ end is more reactive due to the hydroxide group. 5’ end containing phosphate groups meanwhile, is not very reactive when it comes to adding new nucleotides. In Eukaryotes, the whole genome is not transcribed at once. Only a part of the genome is transcribed which also acts as the first, principle stage of genetic regulation.
Eukaryotes have five nuclear polymerases:
• RNA Polymerase I: This produces rRNA (23S, 5.8S, and 18S) which are the major components in a ribosome. This also produces pre-rRNA in yeasts.
• RNA Polymerase II: Helps in the production of mRNA (messenger RNA), snRNA (small, nuclear RNA), miRNA. This is the most studied type and requires several transcription factors for its binding
• RNA Polymerase III: This synthesizes tRNA (transfer RNA), 5S rRNA and other small RNAs required in the cytosol and nucleus.
• RNA Polymerase IV: Synthesizes siRNA (small interfering RNA) in plants.
• RNA Polymerase V: This is the least studied polymerase and synthesizes siRNA-directed heterochromatin in plants.
Eukaryotic transcription can be broadly divided into 4 stages:
• Pre-Initiation
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
Transcription is an elaborate process which cells use to copy the genetic information stored in DNA into RNA. This pre-RNA is modified into mRNA before being transcribed to proteins. Transcription is the first step to utilizing the genetic information in a cell. Both Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes employ this process with the basic phases remaining the same. However eukaryotic transcription is more complex indicating the changes transcription has undergone towards perfection during evolution.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
It is the process of synthesis of protein by encoding information on mRNA.
Protein synthesis requires mRNA, tRNA, aminoacids, ribosome and enzyme aminoacyl tRNA synthase
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
Prokaryotic translation machinery by kk KAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
Definition
Factors required for Translation
Formation of aminoacyl t-RNA
1)Activation of amino acid
2) Transfer of amino acid to t-RNA
Translation involves following steps:-
1)Initiation
2)Elongation
3)Termination
Conclusion
Reference
Introduction
Definition
Factors required for Translation
Formation of aminoacyl t-RNA
1)Activation of amino acid
2) Transfer of amino acid to t-RNA
Translation involves following steps:-
1)Initiation
2)Elongation
3)Termination
Conclusion
Reference
Transcription in eukaryotes: A brief view
Transcription is the process by which single stranded RNA is synthesized by double stranded DNA. Transcription in eukaryotes and prokaryotes has many similarities while at the same time both showing their individual characteristics due to the differences in organization. RNA Polymerase (RNAP or RNA Pol) is different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Coupled transcription is seen in prokaryotes but not in Eukaryotes. In eukaryotes the pre-RNA should be spliced first to be translated.
In Eukaryotic transcription, synthesis of RNA occurs in the 3’→5’ direction. The 3’ end is more reactive due to the hydroxide group. 5’ end containing phosphate groups meanwhile, is not very reactive when it comes to adding new nucleotides. In Eukaryotes, the whole genome is not transcribed at once. Only a part of the genome is transcribed which also acts as the first, principle stage of genetic regulation.
Eukaryotes have five nuclear polymerases:
• RNA Polymerase I: This produces rRNA (23S, 5.8S, and 18S) which are the major components in a ribosome. This also produces pre-rRNA in yeasts.
• RNA Polymerase II: Helps in the production of mRNA (messenger RNA), snRNA (small, nuclear RNA), miRNA. This is the most studied type and requires several transcription factors for its binding
• RNA Polymerase III: This synthesizes tRNA (transfer RNA), 5S rRNA and other small RNAs required in the cytosol and nucleus.
• RNA Polymerase IV: Synthesizes siRNA (small interfering RNA) in plants.
• RNA Polymerase V: This is the least studied polymerase and synthesizes siRNA-directed heterochromatin in plants.
Eukaryotic transcription can be broadly divided into 4 stages:
• Pre-Initiation
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
Transcription is an elaborate process which cells use to copy the genetic information stored in DNA into RNA. This pre-RNA is modified into mRNA before being transcribed to proteins. Transcription is the first step to utilizing the genetic information in a cell. Both Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes employ this process with the basic phases remaining the same. However eukaryotic transcription is more complex indicating the changes transcription has undergone towards perfection during evolution.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
It is the process of synthesis of protein by encoding information on mRNA.
Protein synthesis requires mRNA, tRNA, aminoacids, ribosome and enzyme aminoacyl tRNA synthase
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
Prokaryotic translation machinery by kk KAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
Definition
Factors required for Translation
Formation of aminoacyl t-RNA
1)Activation of amino acid
2) Transfer of amino acid to t-RNA
Translation involves following steps:-
1)Initiation
2)Elongation
3)Termination
Conclusion
Reference
Introduction
Definition
Factors required for Translation
Formation of aminoacyl t-RNA
1)Activation of amino acid
2) Transfer of amino acid to t-RNA
Translation involves following steps:-
1)Initiation
2)Elongation
3)Termination
Conclusion
Reference
This presentation includes process of protein synthesis for B.Sc. level. Presentation shows stepwise process for easy understanding.Many steps includes very simple non-grahical figures scanned from the book.
This is a process by which the genetic code contained within a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule is decoded to produce a specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Protein synthesis and processing: Ribosome, formation of initiation complex, initiation factors and their regulation, elongation and elongation factors, termination, genetic code, aminoacylation of tRNA, tRNA-identity, aminoacyl tRNA synthetase, and translational proof-reading, translational inhibitors, Post Translational modification of proteins. Protein targeting.
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it encodes.
Introduction
Definition
History
central dogma
Major components
mRNA,tRNA,rRNA
Energy source
Amino acids
Protien factor
Enzymes
Inorganic ions
Step involves in translation:
Aminoacylation of tRNA
Initiation
Elongation
termination
Importance of translation
Conclusion
Reference
Extinction of Species , Conservation of Species , Project tigerNavdeep Singh
The slide includes various topics such as Extinction of Species , Conservation of Species , Project tiger, Impotrance of wildlife, wildlife protection act 1972 introduction etc.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
1. Submitted to – Dr. Umesh Gautam
Submitted by- Jaskirat Singh ( 11715744)
Navdeep Singh (11700891)
Thounaojam Ronald (11715437)
Smita Bhattacharjee (11713639)
Section – B1724
2. Translation
The genetic information contained within the order of
nucleotides in the messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to
generate the linear sequences of amino acids in
proteins.
These linear chains of amino acids are further
processed and modified.
3. Translation is highly conserved among all the
organisms and is energetically costly for the cells.
The machinery responsible for translating the
lanaguage of messenger RNA into the language of
proteins
It occur in cytoplasm where ribosomes arelocated
It is a universal process
4.
5. Machinery of Translation
mRNA
tRNA
Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases
Ribosome
The proteins coding region of mRNA consists of an
ordered series of three nucleotide long units called
Codons.
6. Steps of translation
Activation of amino acids
Charging of tRNA (loading of tRNA)
TRANSLATION
1. Initiation of polypeptide chain
2. Elongation of polypeptide chain
3. Termination of polypeptide chain
7. Activation of amino acids
20 types of amino acids partcipate in protein synthesis
Amino acids reacts with ATP to form “amio acyl AMP
enzyme complex” which is also known as “activated
Amino acid”
This reaction is catalyzed by specific ‘amino acyl
tRNA synthetse’ enzyme
9. Charging of t-RNA
Specific amino acid is recognized by its specific tRNA
Now amino acid attaches to the ‘amino acid
attachement site’ of its specific t-RNA and AMP and
Enzyme are separated from it.
Amino acyl t-RNA complex is also called ‘charged t-
RNA’
10. Now amino acyl t-RNA moves to the ribosome for
protein synthesis,
13. Initiation of polypeptide chain
In this step 30’s’ and 50’s’ sub units of ribosome, GTP,
Mg2+, charged t-RNA, mRNA and some initiation factors
are required
In prokaryotes there are three initiation factors IF1, IF2,
IF3
Initiation factors are specific protiens
GTP and initiation factors promote the initiation process.
14. Both subunits of ribosomes are separated with the
help of IF3 factor
In prokaryotes with the help of “S D sequence mRNA
recognises the smaller subunit of the ribosome. A
sequence of 8 N2 base is present before the 4-12 N2
base of initiation codon og mRNA called SD sequence.
In smaller subunit of ribosome, a comlementary
sequence of SD sequence is present on 16’s’ rRNA,
which is called as anti shine delgarno sequence.
15. With the help of SD and ASD sequence of rRNA
mRNA recognises smaller unit of ribosomes
This 30’s’ mRNA complex reacts with ‘formyl
methionyl tRNA complex’ and “30’s’ mRNA fromyl
metthionyl tRNA complex” is fromed . This tRNA
attaches with codon parrt of mRNA . A GTP molecule
is required.
16. Now the larger subunit of ribosome (50s sub unit)
joins the complex. The initiation factor released and
complete 70s ribosome is formed.
In larger sub unit of ribosome there are three sites for
tRNA
‘P site’ = peptidtyl site
‘A site’ = amino acyl site
‘E site’ = Exit site
20. Elongation – It’s the addition of amino acids by the
formation of peptide bonds. Elongation is a chain of
amino acid eventually forming a polypeptide bond .
Steps of elongation – Elongation mainly consists of
two steps :-
1) Binding of new Aminoacyl t-RNA : codon in m-
RNA determines the incoming AA. EF 1 & GTP
required.
2) PEPTIDE BOND FORMATION : alpha- NH2
group of incoming AA in A site forms peptide
bond with COOH group of AA in P site .
Enzyme is Peptidyl Transferase . No need for
energy as AA is activated.
22. Step 1
The second charged tRNA binds to the first ribosome at
the latter’s ‘A’ site with the help of the proteins ,called
elongation factors (EF-Tu). EF-Tu carries a molecule of
GTP. Correct hydrogen bonding with the mRNA
template dictates the selection of a new tRNA , and the
activity of ghe EF-Tu ensures the proper positions of the
tRNA in the A site. After performing its function , the
EF-Tu protein dissociates from the ribosome , and in the
cytoplasm is subsequently regenerated to its active form
by another elongation fator, the EF-Ts. At this point ,
both sites of the ribosome are occupied by the tRNA’s
,each of which carries an amino acid ,and each of which
is hydrogen bonded to the template mRNA.
25. 2nd step
The next step is the formation of a peptide bond
between the two amino acids. To accomplish this job ,
the first amino acid ( N- formylmethionine) is removed
from its attachment to its tRNA and transferred to the
free-NH2 terminus of the second amino acid . The first
amino acid is thus placed on the top of second amino
acid. The resulting compound is a dipeptide whose
carboxyl end is still bonded to the second tRNA, but
whose amino end ids free. The reaction is catalysed by
an enzyme associated with the 50S subunit and called
peptidyl transferase.
The energy for peptide bond formation is supplied by
the dissolution of the aminoacyl bond between the first
amino acid and its carrier tRNA,this energy having
originally been donated by ATP .
26.
27. 3rd step (translocation)
Although a dipeptide has been generated ,continued
synthesis requires that the next codon be made available and
that the next tRNA be admitted to the A site on the ribosome :
this site being still occupied by dipeptide-carrying tRNA . The
problem is solved by a movement of the entire ribosome
relative to the mRNA strand. This is called translocation and
consists of following three steps-
Ejection of discharged tRNAfmet from the P site .
Movement or physical shifting of tRNA dipeptide from the ‘A’
site to the P site.
Movement of the mRNA is such that the effect is the apparent
movement of the ribosome in 5’→3’ direction by the length of
one codon (3 nucleotide) . This step requires the presence of
an elongation factor EF-G called translocase and GTP.
28.
29. Contd.
The sequential formation of a polypeptide continues
in the manner described above. A tRNA in the p site
shifts its burden of growing polypeptide to the next
succeeding tRNA,followed by translocation ,exit of the
discharged tRNA ,and entrance of a new charged tRNA
to base pair with anew codon at A aite . Thus, the
growing polypeptide is adopted in turn by each tRNA
,with each successive amino acid being added in effect
, to the bottom of stack . As process continues , the
mRNA ia progressively translated from 5’→3’ end.
30.
31.
32. 1. This is the last phase of translation.
2. Termination occurs when one of the three termination
codons moves into the A site.
3. These codons are not recognized by any tRNAs. Instead,
they are recognized by proteins called release factors,
namely RF1 (recognizing the UAA and UAG stop codons)
or RF2 (recognizing the UAA and UGA stop codons).
4. These factors trigger the hydrolysis of the ester bond in
peptidyl-tRNA and the release of the newly synthesized
protein from the ribosome.
5. A third release factor RF-3 catalyzes the release of RF-1
and RF-2 at the end of the termination process.
