This chapter discusses ethical considerations and methods for collecting data. It covers issues related to participants, researchers, and sponsoring organizations. The two major approaches to gathering information are through primary and secondary sources. Primary data is collected directly for the research purpose while secondary data comes from existing sources. Common primary collection methods include observation, interviews, and questionnaires. Observation can be participant or non-participant. Interviews are structured or unstructured. Questionnaires are administered via mail, in groups, or in public places. Secondary sources include government publications, organizations, earlier research, and media.

1. Chapter 4
CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT
FOR DATA COLLECTION
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2. Considering Ethical Issues in
Data Collection
• Being ethical means adhering to the codes of conduct
that has been involved over the years for an
acceptable professional practice.
 With regard to participants, ethical considerations
concern the following.
1. Collecting Information
2. Seeking Consent
3. Providing Incentives
4. Seeking Sensitive Information
5. The Possibility of Causing Harm to Respondents
6. Maintaining Confidentiality
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3. Considering Ethical Issues in
Data Collection
 Ethical Issues Related to the Researcher
1. Avoid Biases
2. Using Inappropriate Research Methodology
3. Incorrect Reporting
4. Inappropriate Use of the Information
 Ethical Issues Related to the Sponsoring
Organization
1. Restriction Imposed by the Sponsoring
Organization
2. The Misuse of Information
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4. Methods of Data Collection
• There are two major approaches to gathering
information about a situation, person, problem or
phenomenon
• Sometimes, information required is already
available and need only be extracted.
• However, there are times when the information
must be collected.
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5. Methods of Data Collection
 Approaches to information gathering
1. Primarily data, and
2. secondary data
• Information gathered using the first approach is
said to be collected from primarily sources,
• where as the sources used in the secondary
approach are called secondary sources.
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6. Methods of Data Collection
 The choice of a particular method of data
collection depends upon
 the purpose collecting information,
 the type if information is being collected,
 the resources available to you,
 your skill in the use of a particular method of data
collection, and
 the socio-economic demographic characteristics of
your study population
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7. Collecting Data using Primary
Sources
• Advantages
– They are collected to fit the precise purpose of the
current research topic.
– information is current
– The methodology of data collection is controlled.
– All the findings are available to the researcher.
– They are not conflicting from different sources.
– a study can be replicated ,if desired,
– When a secondary data dose not resolves all questions;
collecting and analyzing primarily data are the only
way to acquire information.
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8. Collecting Data using Primary
Sources
• Disadvantages
– collecting may be time-consuming
– costs may be high
– some type of information cannot be collected
– The researcher’s perspectives may be limited.
– the researcher may be incapable of collecting primarily
data
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9. Collecting Data using Primary
Sources
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10. Observation
• Observation is a purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
• when you are more interested in the behavior than
in the perceptions of the individuals, or when
subjects are so involved in the interaction that they
are unable to provide objective information about
it, observation is the best approach to collect the
required information
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11. Observation
Types of Observation
1. Participant observation is when you, as a
researcher, participate in the activities of the group
being observed; in the same manner, as its members,
with or without their knowing that they are being
observed.
2. Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is
when you, as a researcher, do not get involved in the
activities of the group but remains a passive
observer, watching and listening to its activities and
drawing conclusion from it.
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12. Observation
Problems with Using Observation
• When individuals or groups become aware that
they are being observed, they may change their
behavior.
• There is always the possibility of observer’s bias.
• The interpretation drawn from observations may
vary from observer to observer.
• There is the possibility of incomplete observation
and/or recording, which varies with the method of
recording.
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13. Observation
Situation in which Observations can be made
1. Observing a group in its natural operation rather
than intervening in its activities is classified as
natural observation.
2. Introducing a stimulus to the group for it to react
to and observing the reaction is called controlled
observation.
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14. The Interview
• Any person to person interaction between two or
more individuals with a specific purpose in mind is
called an interview.
Advantages
– It is useful for collecting in-depth information.
– The interview is more appropriate for complex situations
and sensitive areas.
– Information can be supplemented.
– Questionnaires can be explained.
– Interviewing has a wider application with almost any type
of information.
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15. The Interview
• Disadvantages
– interviewing time-consuming and expensive
– The quality of the data depends on the quality of
interaction.
– the quality of the data depends on the quality of the
interviewer
– The quality of the data may vary when many
interviewers are used.
– The interviewer may be biased.
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16. The Interview
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17. The Interview
Unstructured interviews
• Complete freedom in terms of content and
structure.
• You are free to order these questions in whatever
sequence you wish.
• You also have complete freedom in terms of the
wording you use and the way you explain
questions to your respondents.
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18. The Interview
Unstructured interviews
• Complete freedom in terms of content and
structure.
• You are free to order these questions in whatever
sequence you wish.
• You also have complete freedom in terms of the
wording you use and the way you explain
questions to your respondents.
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19. The Interview
Unstructured interviews
1. In-depth interviews, interviewing is repeated face-to-face
encounters between the researcher and informants directed towards
understanding informants’, perspectives on their lives, experience
or situations as their expressed in their own words.
2. Focus group interviews: The only difference between a focus
group interview and an in-depth interview is that the former is
undertaken with a group and the latter with an individual.
3. Narratives: have almost no predetermined contents except that the
researchers seek to hear the personal experience of a person with
an incident or happening in his/her life. Essentially the person tells
his/her story about an incident or situation and you, as a
researcher, listen passively.
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20. The Interview
Structured interview
• in a structured interview, the researcher asks a
predetermined set of questions using the same
wording(content) and order (structure) of
questions as specified in the interview schedule.
• An interview schedule is a written list of questions,
open-ended or closed-ended, prepare for use by the
interviewer in a person-to-person interaction (this may be
face-to-face, by telephone or by other electronic media).
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21. The Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the
answers to which are recorded by respondents.
• In a questionnaire respondents read the questions,
interprets what is expected and write down the
answers.
• The only difference between an interview schedule
and a questionnaire is that in the former it is the
interview that asks the questions and records the
respondents’ replies; and in the latter replies are
recorded by the respondents themselves.
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22. The Questionnaire
Advantages
1. it is less expensive
2. it offers greater accuracy
Disadvantages
1. application is limited
2. response rate is low
3. there is a self-selecting biases
4. opportunity to clarify issues is lacking
5. spontaneous responses are not allowed for
6. the response to a question may be influenced by the response
to other questions
7. it is possible to consult others
8. A response cannot be supplemented with other information.
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23. The Questionnaire
Different Types of Administrating a Questionnaire
• A questionnaire can be administered in different ways.
• The mailed questionnaire
• Collective administration
• Administration in a Public Place
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24. The Questionnaire
The Contents of the Covering Letters
• Introduce you and the institution you are representing,
• Describe in two or three sentences the main objective of the
study
• Explain the relevance of the study,
• Convey any general instructions,
• Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary,
• Assure respondents of the confidentiality of the information
provided by them,
• Provide a contact number in case they have any questions,
• Give a return address for the questionnaires and a dead line
for its return,
• Thank them for their participation in the study.
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25. The Questionnaire
Forms of Questions
1. In an open-ended question, the possible responses are
not given.
2. In a closed-ended question the possible answers are set
out in the questionnaire/schedule and the
respondent/investigator ticks the category that best
describes the respondents’ answer.
 It is usually wise to provide a category “Other, Please
explains” to accommodate any response unlisted.
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26. Collecting Data using
Secondary Sources
• Some of the many secondary sources that can be grouped
into the following are listed below:
– Governmental or semi-governmental publications
– Non-government organizations
– Earlier research
– Personal records
– Mass-media-news papers, magazines
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27. Collecting Data using
Secondary Sources
• Advantages
– it is inexpensive
– data assembly is fast
– there may be several sources/and perspectives
– a source may obtain data a research could not get itself
– there is a high credibility for data assembled by independent sources
– They are helpful when exploratory research is conducted.
• Disadvantages
– available data may not fit the current research purpose due to incompleteness
and generalness
– information may be out-dated or obsolete
– The methodology used in collecting the data may be unknown.
– all the findings of a research may not be made possible
– Conflicting results may exist.
– The reliability of the data may not be proven.
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28. Thank You!
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