hermodynamics is the branch of physics that has to do with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics, irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the material or system in question. The laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering.
Basic Terminology,Heat, energy and work, Internal Energy (E or U),First Law of Thermodynamics, Enthalpy,Molar heat capacity, Heat capacity,Specific heat capacity,Enthalpies of Reactions,Hess’s Law of constant heat summation,Born–Haber Cycle,Lattice energy,Second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy(ΔG),Bond Energies,Efficiency of a heat engine
The term isolation refers to the separation of a strain from a natural, mixed population of living microbes, as present in the environment. It becomes necessary to maintain the viability and purity of the microorganism by keeping the pure culture free from contamination.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
2. SYNOPSIS
Interoduction
Defination
Terms used in chemical thermodynamics
Internal energy
Law’s of thermodynamics
Difference between 1st
and 2nd
low of thermodynamics
FREE ENERGY OR GIBB’S FREE ENERGY(G)
Energy crises in nature
Conclusion
Refrence
3. INTRODUCTION
The word ‘thermodynamics’ means study of
flow of heat.
DEFINATION
The branch of physical chemistry which deals
with the energy changes accompanying a
chemical reaction.
4. TERMS USED IN CHEMICAL
THERMODYNAMICS
System-
Surroundings.
Types of system-
- Open system
- Closed system
- Isolated system
5. Physical properties of a system-
1.Intensive properties-
eg. – temperature, pressure, viscosity, surface tension,
refractive index, specific heat, density, etc.
2.Extensive properties-
eg.- mass, volume, energy, heat capacsity, entropy, Gibb’s
free energy, ect.
Thermodynamic process-
-Isothermal process
-Adiabiotic process
-Isobaric process
-Isochoric process
-Reversible process
-irreversible process
6. INTERNAL ENERGY
Every substance possesses a definite amount of
energy which depends upon its chemical nature,
temperature, pressure and volume. This is
called internal energy (E).
Etotal= Et+Er+Ev+Ee+En+Ei
∆ E= E2 – E1
7. LAW’S OF THERMODYNAMICS
First law of thermodynamics or law of
conservation of energy-
-Frist stated by Meyer and Helmholtz in 1840.
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
although it can be transformed from one form
to another”.
OR
“The total amount of the energy of the
universe is a constant”.
8. E2 = E1 + q + w ………….(1)
E2 - E1 = q+w ……...(2)
E = q + w
9. E2 = E1+q + w ………….(1)
E2- E1= q+w ..………...(2)
∆E = q + w
If work is done by the system, then
∆E = q – w
+q= heat absorbed by the system.
–q= heat liberate by the system.
+w= work done on the system.
–w= work done by the system.
10. ENTHALPY(H) AND ENTHLPY
CHANGE(∆H)
Enthalpy is the amount of heat stored in the system under
particular condition and is termed as heat content of the system.
H=E+PV ………(1)
Enthalpy change, ∆H= H2-H1
On constent P,
Hp, Ep, and Vp. ……(A).
Heat absorp by the system on constent P, then
HR, ER, and VR. ………(B).
Eq. ( B)- Eq. (A ),
∆H=∆E+P∆V
11. SPONTANEOUS PROCESS
Spontaneous processes are those
that can proceed without any
outside intervention.
Processes that are spontaneous
in one direction are
nonspontaneous in the
reverse
direction.
12. ENTROPY(S)
Entropy can be thought of as a measure
of the randomness of a system.
Sgas >Sliquid>Ssolid
Like total energy, E, and enthalpy H, entropy is a state
function.
Therefore,
∆S = Sfinal − Sinitial
13. SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
The entropy of the universe does not change for
reversible processes and increases for
spontaneous processes.
Where,
∆S total >0 (Irreversible (real, spontaneous):
∆S total =0 (equillibrium) Reversible (ideal):
∆S total <0 non spontaneous
16. DIFFERENCE B/N 1st
and 2nd
law
1st
law is conserned with the accounting of the
various kinds of energy involved in a given
process.
2nd
low is conserned with the availabity of the
energy of a given system for doing useful work.
Combining the 1st
and 2nd
law of
thermodynamics (Gibb’s in 1878)
∆G=∆H-T∆S
17. FREE ENERGY OR GIBB’S FREE ENERGY(G)
In 1878 J.V. Gibb’s created the free energy function by
combining the 1st
and 2nd
law of thermodynamics.
∆G = ∆H – T(∆S)
Free energy change (∆G )
G1, H1 and S1
G2, H2 and S2
A/C to Gibb’s
G1, H1 and S1 ….......(a)
G2, H2 and S2 ……...(b) where T is constant.
Eq. (b)- Eq. (a),
∆G = ∆H – T(∆S)
18. FREE ENERGY CHANGES AND
SPONTANEITY OF A PROCESS
For spontaneous process-
∆Stotal =∆Ssystem+ ∆ Ssurroundings
or ∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem+(-q/T) system
(qpsurroundings= -qpsystem)
or ∆Stotal= ∆S–∆Η/Τ (qp = ∆Η)
Multiply of –T on both side,
−Τ∆Stotal= −Τ∆S+ ∆Η
Or −Τ∆S = ∆Η −Τ∆S
For Gibb’s Free energy,
∆G = ∆H – T(∆S) (For spontaneous process-)
19. Predicting Sign of ΔG in Relation to Enthalpy and Entropy
ΔH ΔS ΔG
- +
+ -
- -
+ +
Always negative (spontaneous)
Always positive (nonspontaneous)
Neg. (spontaneous) at low temp
Pos. (nonspontaneous) at high temp.
Pos. (nonspontaneous) at low temp
Neg. (spontaneous) at high temp.
20. CONCLUSION
The direction of a reaction weather from left to
right or vise versa.
The accomplishment of work weather useful of
not.
Weather the energy for driving a reaction must
be deliverd from on external source.
21. REFRENCE
A text book from:-
- Fundamental of biochemistry- Dr. A C Deb.
- Fundamental of biochemistry (Multicolored
Edition) by J.L. Jain.
Principle of biochemistry by Nelson, Cox and
Lehninger.