The document discusses various techniques for creating cohesion in text, including repetition, reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. It defines each technique and provides examples to illustrate how they link ideas and give text meaning and coherence.

1. 14.1 Introduction: beyond the sentence
14.2 Cohesion: Repetition; Reference;
Substitution; Ellipsis; Conjunction and
Lexical Cohesion
Reporter:
Villaceran, Ruth Klaribelle C.
BSED 3

2.  the grammatical and lexical relationship
within a text or sentence.
 the links that hold a text together and give it
meaning. It is related to the broader concept
of coherence.
• Coherence in linguistics is what makes a
text semantically meaningful. It is especially dealt with
in text linguistics. Coherence is achieved through
syntactical features such as the use
of deictic, anaphoric and cataphoric elements or a
logical tense structure, as well
as presuppositions and implications connected to
general world knowledge.

3.  Two main types of cohesion:
• Grammatical- referring to the structural content
• Lexical- referring to the language content of the
piece

4.  Aninstance of using a word, phrase, or
clause more than once in a short passage-
-dwelling on a point.
 Used deliberately, repetition can be an
effective rhetorical strategy for
achieving emphasis.

5.  Anadiplosis
• Repetition of the last word of one line or clause to
begin the next.
 "My conscience hath a thousand several tongues,
And every tongue brings in a several tale,
And every tale condemns me for a villain."
(William Shakespeare, Richard III)

6.  Anaphora
• Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of
successive clauses or verses.
 "I want her to live. I want her to breathe. I want her
to aerobicize."
(Weird Science, 1985)

7.  Antistasis
• Repetition of a word in a different or contrary
sense.
 "A kleptomaniac is a person who helps
himself because he can't help himself."
(Henry Morgan)

8.  Commoratio
• Emphasizing a point by repeating it several times
in different words.
• "Space is big. You just won't believe how
vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I
mean, you may think it's a long way down the road
to the chemist's, but that's just peanuts to space."
(Douglass Adams, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the
Galaxy, 1979)

9.  Diacope
• Repetition broken up by one or more intervening
words.
 "A horse is a horse, of course, of course,
And no one can talk to a horse of course
That is, of course, unless the horse is the famous
Mister Ed."
(Theme song of 1960s TV program Mr. Ed)

10.  Epanalepsis
• Repetition at the end of a clause or sentence of
the word or phrase with which it began.
 "Swallow, my sister, O sister swallow,
How can thine heart be full of the spring?"
(Algernon Charles Swinburne, "Itylus")

11.  Epimone
• Frequent repetition of a phrase or question;
dwelling on a point.
"And I looked upwards, and there stood a man
upon the summit of the rock; and I hid myself
among the water-lilies that I might discover the
actions of the man. . . .

12.  Epimone (continuation)
 "And the man sat upon the rock, and leaned his head
upon his hand, and looked out upon the desolation. . . .
And I lay close within shelter of the lilies, and observed
the actions of the man. And the man trembled in the
solitude;--but the night waned, and he sat upon the
rock."
(Edgar Allan Poe, "Silence")

13.  Epiphora
• Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of
several clauses.
 "She's safe, just like I promised. She's all set to marry
Norrington, just like she promised. And you get to die
for her, just like you promised."
(Jack Sparrow, The Pirates of the Caribbean)

14.  Epizeuxis
• Repetition of a word or phrase for
emphasis, usually with no words in between.
 "If you think you can win, you can win."
(William Hazlitt)

15.  Gradatio
• A sentence construction in which the last word of
one clause becomes the first of the next, through
three or more clauses (an extended form
of anadiplosis).
 "To exist is to change, to change is to mature, to
mature is to go on creating oneself endlessly."
(Henri Bergson)

16.  Negative-Positive Restatement
• A method of achieving emphasis by stating an
idea twice, first in negative terms and then in
positive terms.
 "Color is not a human or personal reality; it is a political
reality."
(James Baldwin)

17.  Ploce
• Repetition of a word with a new or specified
sense, or with pregnant reference to its special
significance.
 "If it wasn't in Vogue, it wasn't in vogue."
(promotional slogan for Vogue magazine)

18.  Polyptoton
• Repetition of words derived from the
same root but with different endings.
 "I hear the voices, and I read the front page, and I know
the speculation. But I'm the decider, and I decide what
is best."
(George W. Bush, April 2006)

19.  Symploce
• Repetition of words or phrases at both the
beginning and end of successive clauses or
verses: a combination of anaphora and epiphora.

20.  Symploce (continuation)
 "They are not paid for thinking--they are not paid to fret
about the world's concerns. They were not respectable
people--they were not worthy people--they were not
learned and wise and brilliant people--but in their
breasts, all their stupid lives long, resteth a peace that
passeth understanding!"
(Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad, 1869)

21.  Thereare two referential devices that can
create cohesion:
• Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer
refers back to someone or something that has
been previously identified, to avoid repetition.
Some examples: replacing "the taxi driver" with
the pronoun "he" or "two girls" with "they". Another
example can be found in formulas such as "as
stated previously" or "the aforementioned".

22.  Themonkey took the banana and ate it.
 Pam went home because she felt sick.

23.  What is this?
 The dog ate the bird and it died.
 I went home to take a nap because I
thought it would make the headache go
away.

24.  Thereare two referential devices that can
create cohesion:
• Cataphoric reference is the opposite of
anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to
backward in the discourse. Something is
introduced in the abstract before it is identified.
For example: "Here he comes, our award-winning
host... it's John Doe!" Cataphoric references can
also be found in written text, for example "see
page 10".

25.  If you want some, here's some parmesan
cheese.
 After he had received his orders, the
soldier left the barracks.
 If you want them, there are cookies in the
kitchen.
 He's the biggest slob I know. He's really
stupid. He's so cruel. He's my boyfriend
Nick.

26.  Thereis one more referential device which
cannot create cohesion:
• Exophoric reference is used to describe generics
or abstracts without ever identifying them: e.g.
rather than introduce a concept, the writer refers
to it by a generic word such as "everything". The
prefix "exo" means "outside", and the persons or
events referred to in this manner will never be
identified by the writer.

27. A word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is
substituted for another, more general word.
• Example:
• "Which ice-cream would you like?" – "I would like
the pink one" where "one" is used instead of
repeating "ice-cream."

28.  Ellipsis
is another cohesive device. It
happens when, after a more specific
mention, words are omitted when the
phrase needs to be repeated.

29. A simple conversational example:
• (A) Where are you going?
• (B) To town.
 Thefull form of B's reply would be: "I am
going to town".

30. A simple written example:
• The younger child was very outgoing, the older
much more reserved.
 The omitted words from the second clause
are "child" and "was".

31.  sets up a relationship between two
clauses.
 the most basic but least cohesive is the
conjunction and.
 transitions are conjunctions that add
cohesion to text and
include then, however, in
fact, and consequently.
 can also be implicit and deduced from
correctly interpreting the text.

32. a linguistic device which helps to create
unity of text and discourse. In contrast to
grammatical cohesion, lexical cohesion
“[…] is the cohesive effect achieved by the
selection of vocabulary.” (Halliday 1994).

33.  Repetition- sometimes called reiteration, is
the most direct and obvious source of lexical
cohesion since it is the mere identical
recurrence of a preceding lexical item.
 Synonymy- refers to “[…] the fact of two or
more words or expressions having the same
meaning.” In this case, “[…] lexical cohesion
results from the choice of a lexical item that is
in some sense synonymous with a preceding
one […]” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 331).

34.  (a)
with identity of reference: Here, lexical
cohesion is established by synonyms in the
narrower sense on the one hand
and superordinates on the other hand, both
types referring back to the same entity.
• Example: I heard a sound, but I couldn’t figure out
where that noise came from.
-> Noise refers back to sound. Both terms have the
same level of generality and are therefore synonyms
in the narrower sense.

35. • (b) without identity of reference: In this case, a
lexical item that synonymously refers back to a
preceding one is not of the same entity.
• Example: Why does this little boy have to wriggle all the
time? Good boys don’t wriggle.

36.  Hyponymy: Describes a “specific-general”
relationship between lexical items.
• Example: Then they began to meet vegetation –
prickly cactus-like plants and coarse grass… .
-> Plants and grass are specific parts of
vegetation and therefore altogether form a
cohesive relationship.

37.  Meronymy: Describes a “part-whole”
relationship between lexical items.
• Example: She knelt down and looked along the
passage into the loveliest garden you ever saw. How
she longed to […] wander about among those beds of
bright flowers and those cool fountains, […].
-> Flowers and Fountains are typical parts of a garden
and therefore altogether form a cohesive relationship.

38.  3.
Antonymy: Describes a relationship
between lexical items that have opposite
meanings.
• Example: He fell asleep. What woke him was a
loud crash.
-> Asleep and woke are antonyms and therefore
form a cohesive relationship

39.  Collocation-“[…] a natural combination of
words; it refers to the way English words are
closely associated with each other.” (2005: 4).
 it is the tendency of at least two lexical items
to co-occur frequently in a language.
 can serve as a source of lexical cohesion
since it is “[…] one of the factors on which we
build our expectations of what is to come
next.” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 333).