The presentation includes the basics of cell: Definition, criteria for defining a cell, differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, plat and animal cells, structure and function of organelles, symbiont theory and MCQs.
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.
Cell wall | structure composition and Functionssehriqayyum
Cell wall | structure composition and Functions
A cell wall is an outer layer surrounding certain cells that is outside of the cell membrane. All cells have cell membranes, but generally only plants, fungi, algae, most bacteria, and archaea have cells with cell walls. The cell wall provides strength and structural support to the cell, and can control to some extent what types and concentrations of molecules enter and leave the cell. The materials that make up the cell wall differ depending on the type of organism. The cell wall has evolved many different times among different groups of organisms.
The cell wall has a few different functions. It is flexible, but provides strength to the cell, which helps protect the cell against physical damage. It also gives the cell its shape and allows the organism to maintain a certain shape overall. The cell wall can also provide protection from pathogens such as bacteria that are trying to invade the cell. The structure of the cell wall allows many small molecules to pass through it, but not larger molecules that could harm the cell.
The main component of the plant cell wall is cellulose, a carbohydrate that forms long fibers and gives the cell wall its rigidity. Cellulose fibers group together to form bundles called microfibrils. Other important carbohydrates include hemicellulose, pectin, and liginin.
Presentation include Nucleus and its components like nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin fibers, ultra structure of nucleus and its general functions.
Structure and functions of endoplasmic reticulumICHHA PURAK
The presentation consists of 57 slides,describes following heads
• DISCOVERY
• INTRODUCTION
• BIOGENESIS OF ER
• ISOLATION OF MICROSOMES FROM E R
• STRUCTURE
• COMPONENTS OF ER
CISTERNAE
VESICLES
TUBULES
• MAIN FUNCTION OF ER
• TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER)
• FUNCTIONS OF SER
• ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)
• FUNCTIONS OF RER
• SUMMARY
• REFERENCES
• QUESTIONS
III Pharm.D - The Dynamic Cell - III Pharm.D - The Dynamic Cell - Cellular cl...Kameshwaran Sugavanam
III Pharm.D -Pharmacology II - The Dynamic Cell - III Pharm.D - The Dynamic Cell - Cellular classification, subcellular organelles ppt. As per PCI syllabus
Cell wall | structure composition and Functionssehriqayyum
Cell wall | structure composition and Functions
A cell wall is an outer layer surrounding certain cells that is outside of the cell membrane. All cells have cell membranes, but generally only plants, fungi, algae, most bacteria, and archaea have cells with cell walls. The cell wall provides strength and structural support to the cell, and can control to some extent what types and concentrations of molecules enter and leave the cell. The materials that make up the cell wall differ depending on the type of organism. The cell wall has evolved many different times among different groups of organisms.
The cell wall has a few different functions. It is flexible, but provides strength to the cell, which helps protect the cell against physical damage. It also gives the cell its shape and allows the organism to maintain a certain shape overall. The cell wall can also provide protection from pathogens such as bacteria that are trying to invade the cell. The structure of the cell wall allows many small molecules to pass through it, but not larger molecules that could harm the cell.
The main component of the plant cell wall is cellulose, a carbohydrate that forms long fibers and gives the cell wall its rigidity. Cellulose fibers group together to form bundles called microfibrils. Other important carbohydrates include hemicellulose, pectin, and liginin.
Presentation include Nucleus and its components like nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin fibers, ultra structure of nucleus and its general functions.
Structure and functions of endoplasmic reticulumICHHA PURAK
The presentation consists of 57 slides,describes following heads
• DISCOVERY
• INTRODUCTION
• BIOGENESIS OF ER
• ISOLATION OF MICROSOMES FROM E R
• STRUCTURE
• COMPONENTS OF ER
CISTERNAE
VESICLES
TUBULES
• MAIN FUNCTION OF ER
• TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER)
• FUNCTIONS OF SER
• ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)
• FUNCTIONS OF RER
• SUMMARY
• REFERENCES
• QUESTIONS
III Pharm.D - The Dynamic Cell - III Pharm.D - The Dynamic Cell - Cellular cl...Kameshwaran Sugavanam
III Pharm.D -Pharmacology II - The Dynamic Cell - III Pharm.D - The Dynamic Cell - Cellular classification, subcellular organelles ppt. As per PCI syllabus
The chapter contain detail descriptions regarding structures and functions of different cell organelles of plant and animal cells which is helpful to UG and PG students of Science. Cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms. The basic constituents of plant and animal cells are the same,
viz nucleic acid, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and various inorganic substances
They organized in the same fundamental manner. The shape of plant cell is rectangular and that of animal cell is round with irregular appearance. Cell organelles various membrane bound structures that are
found within a cell such as nucleus, plastids, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum etc.
Aim : to study cell and it's organelle with help of electron microscope.
Cells are the basic building blocks of living things. The human body is composed of trillions of cells, all with their own specialised function.
Cells are the basic structures of all living organisms.
Cells provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food and carry out important functions.
Cells group together to form tissues?, which in turn group together to form organs?, such as the heart and brain.
Our cells contain a number of functional structures called organelles?.
These organelles carry out tasks such as making proteins?, processing chemicals and generating energy for the cell.
The nucleus? is based at the centre of the cell and is the ‘control room’ for the cell.
The genome? is found within the nucleus.
presentation includes chemistry, classification of carbohydrates, monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. It also includes properties of carbohydrates such as epimerism, cyclization of sugars, anomerism and mutarotation. Numerous biochemical, industrial and medical functions of various carbohydrates have been described.
Contribution of scientists in developing Microbiologyjigisha pancholi
CONTRIBUTIONS MADE BY ROBERT KOCH, LOUIS PASTEUR,JOSEPH LISTER, JOHN TYNDALL, ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY HAS BEEN DESCRIBED
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
1. Ms. Jigisha Pancholi
Head
Dept. of Biochemistry &
Microbiology
Indian Institute of
Ayurvedic Pharmaceutical
Sciences
Gujarat Ayurved University
Jamnagar
2. CONTENTS
Introduction
Criteria for defining a cell
Cell theory
Types of cells
Differences between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
Differences between animal and plant cells
Symbiont theory
4. Cell is the fundamental and basic unit of life.
All living systems are composed of cells.
Robert Hook was the first to discover cell in the
bark of cork tree.
5. CRITERIA FOR DEFINING A CELL
Cell should have a specific genetic material which
permits reproduction of new cells of same type.
A cell membrane should be present which forms a
selective boundary regulating all exchanges of
matter.
Catabolic machinery should be present to break
down food material to obtain required
metabolites and energy.
Cell should possess biosynthetic machinery for
synthesizing bio molecules.
6.
7. CELL THEORY
It is a scientific theory that describes properties of
cells.
The observations of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek,
Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow and others led to the
development of the cell theory.
The cell theory states:
All living things or organisms are made of cells
New cells are created by old cells dividing into two
Cells are the basic building units of life
8. TYPES OF CELLS
Prokaryotic cells: No nucleus but has single
circular chromosome , without histone proteins.
Mesokaryotic cells: Intermediate type of nucleus
with multiple chromosomes, without histone
proteins.
Eukaryotic cells: well defined nucleus with
multiple chromosomes, with histone proteins.
9. PROKARYOTIC CELL
Lack nucleus and other organelles
Have single circular chromosome
DNA not bound to histone proteins
Possess 70 S ribosome
Cell wall made up of peptidoglycan and
lipopolysaccharide
Metabolism: aerobic and anaerobic
Prokaryotes are divided into two domains: Archaea
and Eubacteria
Example: All the bacteria like E. Coli,
Staphylococcus, Salmonella etc.
10.
11. MESOKARYOTIC CELL
Contain an intermediate type of nucleus.
Have multiple chromosomes but they remain
permanently condensed
DNA not attached to histone proteins.
The mesokaryotic nucleus does not divide as a
eukaryotic cell's does; instead, it duplicates itself,
with one nucleus going with each cell half when
the rest of the cell divides.
Example: Dinoflagellates
12.
13. EUKARYOTIC CELL
Cells have well defined nucleus and organelles.
Can be both unicellular and multicellular.
Have multiple chromosomes
DNA bound to histone proteins
Possess 80 S and 70 S ribosomes (mitochondria
and chloroplast)
Cell wall present in plants, fungi and algae.
Animal cells don’t have cell wall.
Metabolism : Aerobic
Example: All the animals, plants, amoeba,
plasmodium, mushroom, algae etc.
16. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTES
AND EUKARYOTES
Properties Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Nuclear Membrane Absent Present
Organelles Absent Present
DNA Naked Bound to histones
Chromosomes Single Multiple
Nucleolus Absent Present
Ribosomes 70 S 80 S(except
mitochondria and
chloroplast)
Cell division Amitotic Mitotic and meiotic
Cell wall Made up of
peptidoglycan and
lipopolysaccharides
Present in plants,
fungi and some
protists. In plants
made up of cellulose
17. Properties Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Exocytosis and
endocytosis
Absent Present
Pilli Present Absent
Capsule Present Absent
Cytoskeletal network Absent Present
Metabolism Aerobic and
anaerobic
Aerobic
Cellular respiration Occurs in cell
membrane
Occurs in
mitochondria
Processing of RNA To little extent To greater extent
Transcription and
translation
In cytoplasm In nucleus and RER
respectively
Cell size 1- 10 um 10 -100 um
Example Bacteria,
archeabacteria
Plants, animals,
yeast, fungi
18. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND
ANIMAL CELLS
Plant cell Animal cell
Possess cell wall Cell wall absent
Contain chloroplast Chloroplast absent
Can do photosynthesis Cannot do photosynthesis
Glyoxysomes present Glyoxisomes absent
Cells are totipotent Cells are not totipotent
Starch is the storage form
carbohydrates
Glycogen is the storage form of
carbohydrates
A large sized central vacuole
present
Central vacuole absent
Presence of lysosomes is rare Lysosomes present
Centrioles present only in lower
plant, not in higher plants
Centrioles present in all animal
cells
19. QUESTIONS
Cellular totipotency is demonstrated by:
a. Only bacterial cell
b. Only gymnosperm cell
c. all plant cells
d. All eukaryotic cells
Which of the following is not found in prokaryotic
cell?
a. Plasma membrane
b. Cell wall
c. Nuclear envelop
d. Ribosomes
20. QUESTIONS
The cell is the basic unit of structure of living
things was discovered by:
a. Aristotle
b. Robert Hooke
c. Gregor Mendel
d. Shwann and Shleiden
A human egg is very large compared to human
sperm due to:
a. Nucleus
b. Membranes
c. Cytoplasm
d. Both a and c
21. NUCLEUS
Largest organelle of the cell and spherical in
shape.
Robert Brown in 1831 discovered nucleus.
Most eukaryotic cells have single nucleus, fungi
has multiple nucleus.
22. STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
Two membranes:
Outer membrane + Inner membrane Nuclear
envelope.
Outer membrane is continuous with R.E.R.
Nuclear pore complex located at 50 – 80 nm
apart.
Nuclear pore are made up of proteins, facilitates
transport of molecules.
23. Genetic material is present in the form of
chromatin/ chromosomes.
Dense and spherical Nucleolus is the site of
rRNA synthesis.
Nucleoplasm is the fluid inside the nucleus.
24. FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
Contains DNA that is genetic material inherited
in the offspring from parents.
Control center or brain of the cell.
Required for long term survival of the cell.
Nucleolus is the site for the synthesis of r RNA.
DNA replication and RNA transcription occurs in
the nucleus.
25. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic means ‘within the cytoplasm’ and reticulum is
‘net’.
Forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles and
cisternae.
The term endoplastic reticulum was first used by Porter
and Kallman in 1952.
Two types:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Contains ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Does not contain
ribosomes.
27. FUNCTIONS OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Site for protein synthesis.
Folding of newly formed peptide chain by
chaperone proteins.
Glycosylation of proteins.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lipid and steroid synthesis.
Drug detoxification
Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium and
promotes muscle contraction.
28. RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are made up of RNA and Proteins
They are negatively charged
Do not have a membrane
Discovered by Palade and so called ‘Palade particles’
Can be either bound to E.R. or is in the soluble form
in cytoplasm
Has small and large subunits, attached at a critical
concentration of Mg2+
Two types:
70 S- In prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplast
80 S- In eukaryotes
29. QUESTIONS
How many membranes make the nuclear
envelope?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. None
The principal site for synthesis of r RNA is:
a. Mitochondria
b. Golgi bodies
c. Nucleolus
d. Lysosomes
30. QUESTIONS
The major site for synthesis of lipids is:
a. SER
b. Nucleoplasm
c. RER
d. Mitochondria
The main organelle involved in modification and
routing of newly synthesized proteins to their
destinations is:
a. Mitochondria
b. ER
c. Lysosome
d. Chloroplast
31. QUESTIONS
Which of these organelles does not have a
membrane?
a. Ribosome
b. Nucleus
c. Chloroplast
d. Mitochondria
The two subunits of ribosomes remain united at a
critical level of:
a. Calcium
b. Copper
c. Manganese
d. Magnesium
32. QUESTIONS
What will happen if nucleus is removed?
a. Metabolism will increase
b. Cell will die
c. Metabolism will decrease
d. None of the above
33. MITOCHONDRIA
Tubular or sausage shaped organelles, shape
may vary to spherical, loop, rod or filamentous
Called as ‘power house of cell’
Plants have less number of mitochondria than
animal cells
34. STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRIA
Membrane : Outer membrane (Smooth)
Inter membrane space
Inner membrane (Folded to form cristae)
Matrix
DNA
70 S ribosome
F1 – Fo ATPase
35. FUNCTIONS OF MITOCHONDRIA
F1- Fo ATPase by oxidative phosphorylation
synthesizes ATP.
Site for many metabolic processes like TCA,
gluconeogenesis, oxidation of lipids etc.
Involved in apoptosis.
In brown adipose tissue of hibernating animals,
by the action of thermogenin produces heat.
36. LYSOSOMES
Unit membrane bound digestive vesicles contain
high levels of degrading enzymes like nuclease,
lipase, amylase, protease, phospholipase,
esterase etc.
Called as ‘suicidal bags’
Breaks down proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and
carbohydrates.
37. Size varies from 01- 1.2 um.
Enzymes work in acidic pH 4.5.
Low pH maintained within lysosomes by
pumping protons in.
Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized by soluble
ribosomes in cytoplasm and on R.E.R.
The leader sequence in enzymes targeted for
lysosome is Mannose -6- phosphate.
38. FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOME
Degrade food molecules obtained by phagocytosis or
endocytosis.
Digest foreign antigens entering inside the cell.
Hylauronidase enzyme from lysosome of sperm digest
the limiting layer around ovum and facilitate
fertilization.
For transformation from tadpole to frog.
Degrade worn out and un needed organelles.
Involved in autophagy required for growth,
development and during starvation.
39. GOLGI APPARATUS
These are flattened stacks of membranes, often
interconnected with one another.
Were discovered by Camillo Golgi, the Italian
Physician.
Number varies in a cell from 1 or few in protists, 20 or
more in animal cells and hundreds in plant cells.
Especially abundant in glandular cells.
Golgi bodies are collectively called as Golgi apparatus.
40. STRUCTURE OF GOLGI BODIES
It is composed of individual flattened
membranous structures called cisternae.
Components of Golgi include:
Cis cisterna (Near E.R.)
Medial cisterna (Between cis and trans)
Trans cisterna (Near Cell membrane)
Golgi vesicles (Transports molecules)
41.
42.
43. FUNCTION OF GOLGI APPARATUS
Packaging of secretory molecules into vesicles
and target to the cell membrane for secretion.
Glycosylation of proteins and lipids.
44. QUESTIONS
Which of these cellular organelles breaks down
cell and foreign particles of a cell?
a. Golgi complex
b. Lysosome
c. Mitochondria
d. RER
Within the cell, the site of the respiration is:
a. Nucleus
b. Mitochondria
c. Lysosome
d. Ribosome
45. QUESTIONS
Important site for the formation of glycoproteins
and glycolipids is:
a. Vacuole
b. Golgi apparatus
c. Lysosome
d. RER
Lysosomes are considered as suicidal bags
because they:
a. Kill neighbouring cells
b. Kill engulfed bacteria
c. Are responsible for intracellular digestion
d. Oxidize food in the cells
46. CHLOROPLAST
In Greek, ‘chloros’ means green and ‘plast’ means
form or entity.
Flat discs usually 2- 10 um in diameter and1 um
thick. In land plants 5 um and 2.3 um thick.
A typical parenchyma cell contains about 10 -100
chloroplasts.
47.
48. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
CHLOROPLAST
Chloroplast membrane: Outer membrane
Inter membrane space
Inner membrane
Grana / Granum made up of thylakoids
Chlorophyll on the surface of thylakoids.
Stroma
DNA
70 S ribosome
Synthesizes ATP by reduction of NAD through
the process of photosynthesis
Synthesizes ATP by reduction of NAD through the process
of photosynthesis
49. SYMBIOSIS THEORY OR SYMBIONT
THEORY
Given by Lynn Margulis.
For the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts
into the eukaryotic cells.
These were free living aerobic prokaryotes that
invaded other prokaryotic anaerobic cells early in
the evolution of life.
These two obtained proteins, nutrients and other
bio molecules from the host cells and host cells
got energy from these invading organisms.
50. SUPPORTIVE EVIDENCE FOR SYMBIONT
THEORY
The cell membrane is similar in composition to
that of prokaryotic cell.
Contain their own DNA that occurs in simple,
circular strands as DNA of prokaryotes.
The genetic code of their DNA is slightly different
from that of chromosomal DNA.
The mitochondria and chloroplast can reproduce
and multiply by themselves.
51. CENTRIOLES
Barrel shaped organelles.
Found in animals and protists.
Plants do not have centrioles except algae.
They occur in pairs, at right angles to each other
near the nucleus.
They are made up of microtubules.
52. FUNCTIONS OF CENTRIOLES
Cell division: forms spindle fiber during mitosis
and meiosis.
Celiogenesis: process of formation of cilia and
flagella.
Sperm tail formation: helps in the formation of
tail fiber of the spermatozoa.
53. CELL WALL
Thick and hard covering surrounding the cell
membrane.
Present in plants, fungi, algae, some protists and
bacteria.
Not present in animal cells.
PLANT CELL WALL
Made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and
lignin.
Has minerals like calcium and magnesium in the
form of carbonates and silicates.
54. Three parts:
Primary cell wall: outermost layer, thin, permeable
and composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and
lignin.
Secondary cell wall: thick, permeable, lies near the
plasma membrane and has cellulose, hemicellulose,
lignin and sometimes has xylem.
Tertiary cell wall: some plants have it which is in the
interior most side of the cell wall.
Middle lamella joins the two cells, gummy
intracellular matrix, rich in pectin.
55.
56. FUNCTIONS OF CELL WALL
Provides shape and strength to the cell.
Protects cell from mechanical and osmotic
rupture.
57. QUESTIONS
Which of the following sets of organelles have
DNA?
a. Mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplast
b. Nucleus, ribosomes, chloroplast
c. Nucleus, ribosome, mitochondria
d. Nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast
Chlorophyll in chloroplast is present in:
a. Membrane
b. Thylakoid
c. Stroma
d. Both grana and stroma
58. QUESTIONS
Centrioles are:
a. Cylindrical structures
b. Rectangular structures
c. Cuboidal structures
d. Square structures
Cell wall of plants is made up of:
a. Chitin
b. Lipids
c. Xylan
d. Cellulose
59. PEROXISOMES
Present in almost all eukaryotic cells.
Identified as organelles by Belgian cytologist
Christian de Duve in 1967.
Participate in the metabolism of fatty acids and
many other metabolites.
They have enzymes that remove toxic peroxides.
Single membrane structure.
60. FUNCTIONS OF PEROXISOMES
They have oxidative enzymes such as catalase, D-
amino acid oxidase and uric acid oxidase. The
generation and breakdown of H2O2 occurs in
peroxisomes.
RH2 + O2 ----------- > R +H2O2
H2O2 + R’H2 ----------- > R’ + 2H2O
2H2O2 ------------ > 2H2O + O2
Involved in breakdown of fatty acid molecules
through beta- oxidation. In animal cells, it also
occurs in mitochondria but in yeast and plant
cells, it exclusively occurs in peroxisomes.
61. GLYOXISOMES
These are specialized form of peroxisomes.
Found in yeast and oil rich seeds of many higher
plants.
62. FUNCTIONS OF GLYOXISOMES
Site for glyoxylate pathway. During germination
of oil rich seeds, the stored lipid molecules are
hydrolyzed by lipases to glycerol and fatty acids.
Glycerol through gluconeogenesis is converted to
glucose which is utilized by the seedling.
63. CELL MEMBRANE
Separates the cell from the external environment.
Made up of lipids, proteins and small amount of
carbohydrates.
Has fluid mosaic model proposed by ‘Sanger and
Nicholson’
Is hydrophilic from outer and inner side and has a
hydrophobic core
Shows selective permeability
64.
65. LIPIDS
The lipid bilayer shows free lateral movement of its
compounds, hence the membrane is said to be fluid in
nature.
Lipids in membrane are: Phospholipids
Glycolipids
Cholesterol
Phospholipids are the most common lipids present and
they are amphipathic in nature.
The phospholipids are arranged in bilayers with the
polar head groups oriented towards the extracellular
side and the cytoplasmic side with a hydrophobic core.
67. PROTEINS
Proteins form the mosaic part in the membrane.
Two types:
1. Integral Proteins- they pass through the membrane. Some
proteins span the whole membrane called transmembrane
proteins.
2. Peripheral Protein-Present either inside or outside the
membrane.
These proteins act as either adhesion molecules,
carrier proteins, channel proteins, receptors or
enzymes.
68. VACUOLE
A membrane-bound organelle which is present in
all plant and fungal cells and some protist,
animal and bacterial cells.
Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments
which are filled with water containing inorganic
and organic molecules including enzymes in
solution.
The organelle has no basic shape or size; its
structure varies according to the needs of the cell.
69.
70. FUNCTIONS
Isolate materials that might be harmful or a
threat to the cell
Store waste products
Store water in plant cells
Maintain internal hydrostatic pressure or turgor
within the cell. Turgor pressure in a plant cell is
between 5 and 20 atm.
71. CYTOSKELETON
Skeletal system present inside the cytoplasm.
In 1903 Nikolai K Koltsov proposed the term
cytoskeleton.
Types: 1. Microtubule
2. Intermediate filament
3. Microfilament
72. MICROTUBULE
Long ,hollow structure
23 nm in diameter
Made up of two subunits Alpha and Beta tubulin
They play key roles in:
Intracellular transport
The axoneme of cilia and flagella
The mitotic spindle
Synthesis of the cell wall in plants
73. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
10 nanometers in diameter
It may be useful to think of micro- and
intermediate filaments as cables and of
microtubules as cellular support beams.
Different intermediate filaments are:
Made of vimentins, being the common structural
support of many cells.
Made of keratin, found in skin cells, hair and nails.
Neurofilaments of neural cells.
74. MICROFILAMENTS
These are the thinnest filaments of the
cytoskeleton.
About 7 nm in diameter
They are composed of linear polymers of actin
subunits.
They also act as tracks for the movement of
myosin molecules that attach to the
microfilament and "walk" along them.
75. CYTOPLASM
the cytoplasm is the material or protoplasm
within a living cell, excluding the cell nucleus.
It comprises cytosol (the gel-like substance
enclosed within the cell membrane) and the
organelles – the cell's internal sub-structures.
The cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually
colorless
It also contains proteins, of which 20-25 percent
are soluble proteins including enzymes.
76. CYTOPLASM
The concentrated inner area is called the
endoplasm and the outer layer is called the cell
cortex or the ectoplasm.
The cytoplasm constitutes of dissolved nutrients
and it aids to dissolve waste products.
77. CYTOPLASM FUNCTIONS
Cytoplasm is the site of many biochemical
reactions that are vital and crucial for
maintaining life.
The cytoplasm provides a medium for the
organelles to remain suspended.
The cytoskeleton of the cytoplasm provides shape
to the cell and it also facilitates movement.
78. CYTOPLASM FUNCTIONS
It also aids in the movement of the different
cellular elements.
The cytoplasm acts as a buffer
79. CYTOPLASM FUNCTIONS
The cytoplasmic organelles are specialized structures
that haves its own functions like cellular respiration,
protein synthesis etc.
The cytoplasmic inclusions are non-soluble molecules,
they are seen floating in the cytoplasm, they act as
stored fats and sugars that are ready for cellular
respiration.
The cytoplasm and the proteins prevent the grouping
of organelles in place due to gravity, that would
impede their function.
80. QUESTIONS
The supporting framework of a cell consists of:
a. Microfilaments
b. Microtubules
c. Both of these
d. None of these
Peroxisomes are bound by:
a. Single membrane
b. Double membrane
c. Triple membrane
d. No membrane
81. QUESTIONS
Turgor pressure in plant cells is generally
between:
a. 5 and 20 atm
b. 20 and 40 atm
c. 10 and 30 atm
d. 1 and 5 atm
Which of these is true for flip flop movement of
membrane lipids and proteins?
a. Both lipids and proteins can flip flop
b. Neither lipids or proteins can flip flop
c. While proteins can, lipids cannot
d. While lipids can rarely flip flop, proteins cannot
82. QUESTIONS
In germinating seeds, fatty acids are exclusively
degraded in:
a. Mitochondria
b. SER
c. Peroxisomes
d. Glyoxisomes
The most abundant lipid in plasma membrane is:
a. Phospholipid
b. Cholesterol
c. Steroids
d. Glycolipid
83. QUESTIONS
According to fluid mosaic model, the fluidity of a
membrane is due to:
a. Lipids
b. Proteins
c. Cholesterol
d. Glycolipids