Paleontological techniques are important for accurately studying fossils and reconstructing Earth's history. Key techniques include careful excavation using specialized tools to remove fossils from the surrounding rock matrix without damage. Fossils are also prepared, preserved, and sometimes restored in the lab. Relative and absolute dating methods are used to determine the age of fossils based on the geological layers and radioactive decay. Reconstructing fossils aids in understanding ancient life and environments.

1. A Seminar on….
Techniques in Paleontology
Techniques in Paleontology

2. Contents
• Introduction
• Fossilization
• Excavation Techniques
• Tools which used for finding fossils
• Find a Marine fossil
• Preparing, Preserving and Restorations
• Determine the Species of a Fossil
• Fossils Age
• Important applications with the fossil
• Making of fossil
• Conclusion
• References

3. • Palaeontology or Paleontology is the study of prehistoric life during Past.
• It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms' evolution and
interactions with each other and their environments (their paleoecology).
• Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th
century.
• The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges
Cuvier’s work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th
century
• Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about
ancient life, and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the
evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave fossils.
• As knowledge has increased, Palaeontology has developed specialised
subdivisions, such as Vertebrate palaeontology, Invertebrate
palaeontology, Paleobotany, Palynology, Micropaleontology and
Paleoecology.
Introduction

4. Fossilization
• Fossilization is most likely to occur when an organism dies in
a body of water or falls into a body of water shortly after death.
The water insulates the organism from total deterioration, and
over time what remains becomes trapped beneath large
mounds of sediment.
• Fossil Preservation; Fossils are preserved in two main ways:
with and without alteration. Preservation with alteration
includes carbonization, petrifaction, recrystallization
replacement,casting and trace fossil.
• Preservation without alteration includes the use of molds and
the collection of indirect evidence.
• Preservation of original form as mold, cast and imprints.

5. Excavation Techniques
• Fossil Matrix Considerations: Paleontologists look for fossils in
rock called sedimentary rock. This comes from a matrix of sand and
mud that has accumulated over time. It is softer than rocks formed
through volcanic eruptions and thus less hard to chip through.
• Fossil Location: because the fossil layer is often preserved intact
by the actual order of fossilization, this gives paleontologists a
powerful clue about where to look for specific fossils. Knowing
the habitat of a specific organism may also help paleontologists
search locations that once contained the corresponding
environment.
• Excavation: To initially expose the fossil, broad chunks of rock
are taken out with picks or drills. Within a few inches, more
subtle tools like chisels, trowels, hammers, whisks and dental
drills are used. Larger fossils often require bigger tools, however.

6. Tools which used for / separation
/ in finding out of fossils
• Rock Hammers, Jackhammers,
Full-Sized Pick Hammer,
Sledge Hammer and Pry Bar,
Probes , Gloves and Goggles,
Brushes, Steel Points and
Magnifying Glasses , Rock
Chisel, Picks and Shovels,
Hand Lenses, Pneumatic Air
Scribe, Palaeo Bond, Diamond
Saw, Tile Nippers.

7. To Find a Marine fossil
• Marine fossils make up the vast majority of fossils from the
geological time periods when much of the Earth was under warm,
shallow oceans.
• Fish appeared in the Ordovician Period (438 to 505 million years
ago) as one of the first chordate life forms -- the first organism with a
face made up of eyes, a nose and a mouth.
Methods
• Aware about the different species to be found on the ancient 50-
million year old Eocene Epoch lake bed covering 25,000 square
miles.
• Familiarize with the stratigraphy and locate one of the several "U-
dig" fish fossil quarries in the Kemmerer area.
• Examine the edges of the slabs for signs of fish fossils. Look for thin,
very dark brown lines that contrast with the lighter colored stone.

8. Performing the excavation.

9. Preparing, Preserving and
Restoration of Fossils
• Palaeontologists’ use finer tools such as dental tools, trowels, small
chisels and hammers to carefully remove the fossil.
• If the sedimentary rock is soft, they will sometimes use a light acid
solution to eat away the surrounding rock.
• Pneumatic air scribes, diamond saws and rock splitters trim away
extraneous rock or sediment surrounding the fossil.
• Clear acrylic sprays are used in the field to preserve fragile organic
remains from drying out and disappearing from the rock.
• PaleoBond is used as a specialized glue for reassembling broken or
damaged fossil pieces during the excavation process.
• Palaeontologists use either quick-setting glue or a special jacket of
plaster of paris applied directly to the fossil before trying to remove
the fossil. The cast or glue helps keep the fossil stationary and
protects it like a cast a doctor uses to set people's broken bones.

10. • Seal a fossil with a sealant you can stabilize it, preventing the
fossil from flaking or chipping after you remove it from the
spot where you found it.
• Consolidating the fossil with a sealant hardener will allow to
preserve the fossil's imprint so that you can use the fossil for
continued research or simply keep it as a collector's item.
• Polishing the sample will ensuring the integrity of the fossil
study.
• Maceration Technique is the separation of microfossil from
the matrix by gravity separation or oil floatation method.
• Microphotography will help to analyze micro or nano fossil
by imaging its structure using microscopic cameras.

11. • Fossil kit is used to correlate fossils specimens according to their
occurrence, stratigraphic depth wise etc.,

12. Determine the Species of a Fossil
• There are many resources that a fossil collector can arm himself with
to name a species, but it takes a diligent researcher with a keen eye
for detail.
• Linnean Taxonomy is commonly used for classifying
living organisms, but runs into difficulties when dealing
with newly-discovered organisms that are significantly
different from known ones.
• Linnean rules for naming groups are tied to their levels,
and hence if a group is moved to a different level it must
be renamed, i.e. binomial nomenclature.
Levels in the Linnean
Taxonomy

13. Assessment of Fossils Age
• Fossils do leave certain clues in the environment that can help
determine their age.
• The age of the very ground or rock it was unearthed from may
indicate how long a fossil was laid to rest before taking up residence
in a museum.
Methods of Dating Fossils
• Relative dating is based on the laws of stratigraphy. Relative dating
does not give you a specific age of the fossil but can tell you a
general time period based on the geologic beds above and below the
place the fossil was found
• Absolute dating or chronometric dating is based primarily on the
physical process of radioactive decay. Many minerals contain pure,
radioactive, chemical elements.eg; Carbon dating, Potassium-
argon dating, Argon-argon dating, etc.,
• Scientists measure the relative proportions of different elements in
rocks, to deduce when the mineral formed.

14. • Palaeomagnetism is as rocks formed, the Earth's magnetic field
affected the small iron-rich particles within the rock, causing the
particles to line up. The Earth's magnetic field varies through time,
both in strength and orientation. Certain rocks, usually volcanic in
origin, preserve these magnetic changes. Palaeontologists’ have
dated these sequence changes; therefore, the age of fossils found is
directly related to the age of the volcanic layers above or below the
specimen.
• Compass- Clinometer is the device that palaeontologists’ used to
measure the incline, or dip, of the boundary separating one layer of
rock from the layers above and below at various magnetic compass
orientations. Paleontologists assess the nature, formation and
movement of each rock layer with the exposed fossil, enabling them
to approximate the fossil's age.
• Index Fossils Some organisms are extremely widespread as fossils
with recognizable characteristic changes, making these sequences
useful for dating. These well-known fossils are known as index or
dating fossils, and help to pinpoint the time of more obscure fossils
found with them

15. Important Applications with
the Fossil
• Natural Gas Products acts as a desiccant in the manufacturing of
consumer products from fossil fuels removing any moisture from the
material and ensuring the integrity of the product. Because the
presence of moisture during the processing of plastic can cause
blemishes and other breakdowns in the makeup of the manufactured
substance.
• Petroleum has been used for making products for over 150 years.
One of the first uses of petroleum in the manufacture of consumer
products was invented by Robert Chesebrough, a chemist whose use
of balm from an oil well in 1872 gave birth to Vaseline. Vehicle tires
are colored black from a process that involves the combustion of oil.
This introduction of "carbon black" by the B.F. Goodrich Company
in 1910 changed the standards for tire production, which previously
were colored white.

16. • Coal has been in use as a heating fuel for centuries, and is probably
one of the first fossil fuels to be adapted to the manufacture of
products for consumer use. Early coal processing produced the by-
products coal tar and coke. Coal tar is used for making insecticides,
paint thinner, disinfectants, batteries and insulation. Coke is used in
the manufacture of synthetic rubber materials, artificial silk and soda
water.
• Oil is one of the most-often used fossil fuels for the manufacture of
consumer products. Toys, telephones, floor coverings, contact lenses,
dyes, upholstery, dishes, diapers, analog recording tape, shower
curtains and a variety of chemical products such as paints, varnishes,
and adhesives are just a few of the products made from oil.
• Recognized Products, the earliest of all consumer products made
from fossil fuels is vehicle fuel. Gasoline products were developed
hand-in-hand with the automobile as the main fuel for the internal
combustion engine. Later innovations in engine technology have
forced the gasoline-producing industry to keep up with changes in
engine performance and fuel economy guidelines and mandates
demanded by both vehicle manufacturers and consumers.

17. Making of fossil
• The fossils they find are rare and as such can be valuable tools for
research into life on Earth in the time of the dinosaurs. For much of
the research, scientists prefer to use casts of the fossil rather than the
actual fossil to prevent damaging the rare find. Making a mold and
cast of a fossil can be a great lesson for middle and high school class
students.
Methods
• Simply shape some heavy-duty aluminium foil so that it forms a
bowl, with the centre area being flat and smooth and the surrounding
walls secure from leakage.
• Pour a small amount of prepared plaster of paris or 2 to 3 pinches of
sand with a ball of clay in the centre of the aluminium bowl. The
sand will give the clay a rock like appearance when it hardens.
• Insert a shell or other small object into the plaster or mix and let the
mixture harden.
• Remove the aluminium foil to reveal your fossil.

18. Conclusion
•Paleontological Techniques are important stage in Palaeontology. If any
mistake in the field, that mistake enters into laboratory, from laboratory
to report.
•Utmost care should taken in paleontological techniques to get
appropriate results.
• Fossils reconstruction helps in understanding its habit, its
paleoenvironmental studies.
•Techniques will change time to time in exploration of fossils.
•Paleontological techniques play a vital role in reconstruction of Earth’s
history.

19. References
• Dr. P.C. Jain and Dr. M.S. Anantharaman 2010 -Paleontology,
Evolution and Animal Distribution; (7th
edition) Pp.13-35.
• Henry Woods 1961 -Paleontology Invertebrate, Cambridge
Publication.
websites
• eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_6494983_do-
paleontologists-date-fossils_.html#ixzz29ATejY00
• www.intellicus.com
• www.buriedtreasurefossils.com
• www.tecwriter.com
• siemens.co.in/Fossil-Power