Background Conservation of the unique biodiversity of mountain ecosystems needs trans-disciplinary approaches to succeed in a crowded colloquial world. Geographers, conservationists, ecologists and social scientists have, in the past, had the same conservation goals but have tended to work independently. In this review, the need to integrate different conservation criteria and methodologies is discussed. New criteria are offered for prioritizing species and habitats for conservation in montane ecosystems that combine both ecological and social data.
Scope Ecological attributes of plant species, analysed through robust community statistical packages, provide unbiased classifications of species assemblages and environmental biodiversity gradients and yield importance value indices (IVIs). Surveys of local communities’ utilization of the vegetation provides use values (UVs). This review suggests a new means of assessing anthropogenic pressure on plant biodiversity at both species and community levels by integrating IVI and UV data sets in a combined analysis.
Conclusions Mountain ecosystems are hot spots for plant conservation efforts because they hold a high overall plant diversity as communities replace each other along altitudinal and climatic gradients, including a high proportion of endemic species. This review contributes an enhanced understanding of (1) plant diversity in mountain ecosystems with special reference to the western Himalayas; (2) ethnobotanical and ecosystem service values of mountain vegetation within the context of anthropogenic impacts; and (3) local and regional plant conservation strategies and priorities.
Environmental studies and natural resourcesParul Tyagi
Introduction to environmental studies, multidisciplinary nature of environment, its scope and importance. Concept of sustainability and renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
Ecosystem Services for Biodiversity Conservation: Study of Corbett India Water Portal
Traditionally, the only market economic values Protected Areas recognised are tourism revenues and income from extractive activities.The difficulty in quantifying many of the economic, social, environmental and cultural values of protected areas lead to their undervaluation in land and resource use decisions
It is often perceived to be more profitable to convert a natural ecosystem than to leave it intact. A study of Corbett National Park shows indirect benefits like carbon storage and direct benefits like tourism.
Environmental studies and natural resourcesParul Tyagi
Introduction to environmental studies, multidisciplinary nature of environment, its scope and importance. Concept of sustainability and renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
Ecosystem Services for Biodiversity Conservation: Study of Corbett India Water Portal
Traditionally, the only market economic values Protected Areas recognised are tourism revenues and income from extractive activities.The difficulty in quantifying many of the economic, social, environmental and cultural values of protected areas lead to their undervaluation in land and resource use decisions
It is often perceived to be more profitable to convert a natural ecosystem than to leave it intact. A study of Corbett National Park shows indirect benefits like carbon storage and direct benefits like tourism.
Biodiversity Conservation, Sustainability, and Equity: Outcomes of India's NB...chikikothari
India's National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan process in 2000-2003 was possibly the world's largest such exercise, involving over 50,000 people from all walks of life. It resulted in over 70 action plans at local, state, thematic, ecoregional, and national levels. Several methods were used to elicit participation and get inputs, including from local communities. This presentation describes the process used, and the end results.
Biodiversity action plan
A biodiversity action plan (BAP) is an internationally recognized program addressing threatened species and habitats and is designed to protect and restore biological systems. The original impetus for these plans derives from the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As of 2009, 191 countries have ratified the CBD, but only a fraction of these have developed substantive BAP documents.
The principal elements of a BAP typically include: (a) preparing inventories of biological information for selected species or habitats; (b) assessing the conservation status of species within specified ecosystems; (c) creation of targets for conservation and restoration; and (d) establishing budgets, timelines and institutional partnerships for implementing the BAP.
Summary
Pakistan spans a number of the world’s ecological regions with its latitudinal spread and immense variations in altitude. These regions include the coastal mangrove forests of the Arabian Sea as well as some of the highest mountains of the world, where the western Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakoram ranges meet. This diversity encompasses a variety of habitats that support a rich biodiversity. A number of animals and plants have become endangered due to over-exploitation and loss of natural habitat. Rapid human population growth puts increasing pressure on the country’s natural resource base. Increased poverty has forced rural people to exploit biodiversity at unsustainable rates. Deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, salinity and waterlogging have become major threats to Pakistan’s remaining biodiversity. The continuing loss of forest habitat, with its associated fauna and flora, will have serious implications for the nation’s other natural and agricultural ecosystems. Protected areas have been established for in-situ conservation of biodiversity.
A wide range of laws also exists relating to conservation of various components of biodiversity. The key to protecting the biological diversity of Pakistan is involving local communities and obtaining support from relevant institutions in sustainable use initiatives. The Government of Pakistan recognised the importance of these measures in the preparation of the National Conservation Strategy (1992) and in becoming a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1994. The Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP), endorsed by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Council (PEPC) in 1999, calls for government agencies, local communities and NGOs to work together as partners in biodiversity conservation.
These are the most critical issues for biodiversity conservation in Pakistan:
The need for associated policy and institutional reforms and institutional strengthening; integration of biodiversity conservation measures into sectoral initiatives; better understanding of all aspects of biodiversity and effective means for ensuring their sustainable use; developing community-based biodiver
the delicate topic of Sustainable Development through a
book which I have co-authored and give to the audience also a perspective on
how Education can sensitively provide support for this framework.
I will participate in my role of affiliate professor of management and behavior
for Grenoble Graduate School of Business, France ( www.ggsb.com)
by mark esposito (m.esposito@ht.umass.edu)
Scope and Importance
•
Need for Public Awareness
• Depleting Nature of Environmental resources such as Soil, Water, Minerals,
and Forests.
• Global Environmental Crisis related to Population, Water, Sanitation and Land.
• Ecosystem: Concept, Classification, Structure of Ecosystem, overview of Food
chain, Food web and Ecological Pyramid
Ecosystem services for biodiversity conservation and sustainable agricultureExternalEvents
The presentation by Dr. Abigael Otinga (University of Eldoret) outlines the concept of “ecosystem services” and particularly their relevance not only for biodiversity conservation but also for ensuring sustainable production of healthy and abundant crops. The presentation was given at a national training workshops for stakeholders involved in the revision of the Kenya NBSAP that was held at ICRAF in Nairobi, 25-26 May 2016. More information on the event are available at: www.fao.org/africa/news/detail-news/en/c/417489/ .
Forest and tree ecosystem services for adaptation: six storiesCIFOR-ICRAF
Ecosystems such as forests produce services that could have a significant role in reducing human vulnerability to climate variability and change. Using case studies from around the world, this presentation explores six different ways that forests and trees serve in helping humans to adapt.
This presentation was given on 7 September 2012 at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Jeju, South Korea, during a session titled 'Building resilience to climate change through ecosystem-based adaptation'. It was also presented on 15 June 2012 at ‘Ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation: from concept to action’, an event held during Rio+20.
A look at how nature provides us with services and how valuing these services is important to well-being. Slideshow from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, UNEP
Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. They are indispensable to the well-being of all living organisms, everywhere in the world. They include provisioning, regulating, and cultural services that directly affect people, and supporting services needed to maintain the other services (Anon., 2005). From the availability of adequate food and water, to disease regulation of vectors, pests, and pathogens, human well-being depends on these services and conditions from the natural environment. Ecosystem services depend on ecosystem conditions, and if these are impacted via pressures, consequently ecosystem services will be as well (Daily G, 1997). Human use of all ecosystem services is growing rapidly. Approximately 60% of the ecosystem services (including 70% of regulating and cultural services) are being degraded or used unsustainably. Certain changes place the sustained delivery of ecosystem services at risk. Human activity is impairing and destroying ecosystem services. Services by the ecosystem are facing some serious threats from urbanization, climate change and introduction of invasive species and pathogens which have come into existence through human activities (Anon., 1997). Ecosystem evaluation is a tool used in determining the impact of human activities on an environmental system, by assigning an economic value to an ecosystem or its ecosystem services. Ecosystem values are measures of how important ecosystem services are to people – what they are worth. Economists classify ecosystem values into several types. The two main categories are use values and non-use, or passive use values. Whereas use values are based on actual use of the environment, non-use values are values that are not associated with actual use, or even an option to use, an ecosystem or its services (Brookshire, et al.,1983). There are several methods of valuation of environmental assets, goods and amenities, services and functions like market price method, productivity method, hedonic pricing method, travel cost method and contingent valuation method.
Phytogeographic analysis and diversity of grasses and sedgesShujaul Mulk Khan
The monocot order Poales is one of the largest (ca. 20,000 species), and economically and ecologically most important group of flowering plants. Exploring this important component of the biodiversity is of paramount significance in conservation of species and developing climate change models. Northern Pakistan occupies a unique biogeographic position at the summit of the planet’s three highest mountain ranges i.e.Himalaya, Hindukush and Karakurum.These ranges contain the hot spots of floral and faunal diversity with high proportions of endemic and rare species.The studies revealed 117 species belonging to 30 genera in three families of the order Poales. Juncaceae is represented by single genus Juncuswith four species, Cyperaceae by 5 genera and 27 species, and Poaceae being the dominant family with 25 genera and 86 species. Carexand Poaare the largest genera having 21 and 16 species respectively. Phytogeographic analysis of the Poalesof temperate and alpine regions of Northern Pakistan shows twelve different phytogeographic elements. The highest percentage of species (30%) belongs to the western Himalayan floristic region (near endemics), with cosmopolitan elements (19%), Central Asian elements (17%) and Eurasian elements (12%) being the other significant elements. The proportion of Endemic species (8%) is less apparent, while the rest of the seven categories are poorly represented. The Two Way Cluster Analysis (TWCA) divided the sixteen districts into two major groups, and four subgroups based on environmental gradients of altitude, latitude and longitude. TWCA classified the data matrix including 114 species into seven clusters based on presence/absence data and elevation from mean sea level. Species in each cluster can be attributed to similar habitat conditions and altitudinal ranges. Hence it is clear that climatic characters associated with each category control the species distribution pattern.
Vegetation dynamics in the western himalayas, diversity indices and climate c...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Vegetation provides the first tropic trophic level in mountain ecosystems and hence requires proper documentation and quantification in relation to abiotic environmental variables both at individual and aggregate levels. The complex and dynamic Himalayas with their varying climate and topography exhibit diverse vegetation that provides a range of ecosystem services. The biodiversity of these mountains is also under the influence of diverse human cultures and land uses. The present paper is not only first of its kind but also quite unique because of the use of modern statistical techniques for the quantification of Diversity Indices of plant species and communities. The vegetation was sampled in three categories, i.e., trees, shrubs and herbs, as follows: a height of ≥ 5m were classified in the tree layer, shrubs were all woody species of height 1m and 5m and, finally, the herb layer comprised all herbaceous species less than 1m in height. The presence/absence of all vascular plants was recorded on pre-prepared data sheets (1, 0 data). For the tree layer, the diameter of trees at breast height was measured using diameter tape. Coverage of herbaceous vegetation was visually estimated according to Daubenmire and Braun Blanquet methods. It gives overall abundance of vascular plants on one hand and composition of these species on the other. Data was analysed in Canonical Community Coordination Package (CANOCO) to measure diversity indices of plant communities and habitat types. Results for five plant communities/habitat types indicated that plant biodiversity decreased along the altitude. Shannon Diversity Index values range between 3.3 and 4. N2 index and Index of Sample Variance were also designed. All of these Diversity Indices showed the highest values for the communities/habitats of north facing slopes at middle altitudes. Higher plant diversity at these slopes and altitudes can be associated to the period of snow cover which is longer and a relatively denser tree cover as compared to the southern slopes and hence the soil has high moisture which supports high biodiversity in return. Global warming causes desertification in number of fragile mountain ecosystem around the globe. These findings suggest that species diversity decreases along the measured ecological gradient under the influence of deforestation coupled with global climatic change.
Biodiversity Conservation, Sustainability, and Equity: Outcomes of India's NB...chikikothari
India's National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan process in 2000-2003 was possibly the world's largest such exercise, involving over 50,000 people from all walks of life. It resulted in over 70 action plans at local, state, thematic, ecoregional, and national levels. Several methods were used to elicit participation and get inputs, including from local communities. This presentation describes the process used, and the end results.
Biodiversity action plan
A biodiversity action plan (BAP) is an internationally recognized program addressing threatened species and habitats and is designed to protect and restore biological systems. The original impetus for these plans derives from the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As of 2009, 191 countries have ratified the CBD, but only a fraction of these have developed substantive BAP documents.
The principal elements of a BAP typically include: (a) preparing inventories of biological information for selected species or habitats; (b) assessing the conservation status of species within specified ecosystems; (c) creation of targets for conservation and restoration; and (d) establishing budgets, timelines and institutional partnerships for implementing the BAP.
Summary
Pakistan spans a number of the world’s ecological regions with its latitudinal spread and immense variations in altitude. These regions include the coastal mangrove forests of the Arabian Sea as well as some of the highest mountains of the world, where the western Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakoram ranges meet. This diversity encompasses a variety of habitats that support a rich biodiversity. A number of animals and plants have become endangered due to over-exploitation and loss of natural habitat. Rapid human population growth puts increasing pressure on the country’s natural resource base. Increased poverty has forced rural people to exploit biodiversity at unsustainable rates. Deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, salinity and waterlogging have become major threats to Pakistan’s remaining biodiversity. The continuing loss of forest habitat, with its associated fauna and flora, will have serious implications for the nation’s other natural and agricultural ecosystems. Protected areas have been established for in-situ conservation of biodiversity.
A wide range of laws also exists relating to conservation of various components of biodiversity. The key to protecting the biological diversity of Pakistan is involving local communities and obtaining support from relevant institutions in sustainable use initiatives. The Government of Pakistan recognised the importance of these measures in the preparation of the National Conservation Strategy (1992) and in becoming a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1994. The Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP), endorsed by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Council (PEPC) in 1999, calls for government agencies, local communities and NGOs to work together as partners in biodiversity conservation.
These are the most critical issues for biodiversity conservation in Pakistan:
The need for associated policy and institutional reforms and institutional strengthening; integration of biodiversity conservation measures into sectoral initiatives; better understanding of all aspects of biodiversity and effective means for ensuring their sustainable use; developing community-based biodiver
the delicate topic of Sustainable Development through a
book which I have co-authored and give to the audience also a perspective on
how Education can sensitively provide support for this framework.
I will participate in my role of affiliate professor of management and behavior
for Grenoble Graduate School of Business, France ( www.ggsb.com)
by mark esposito (m.esposito@ht.umass.edu)
Scope and Importance
•
Need for Public Awareness
• Depleting Nature of Environmental resources such as Soil, Water, Minerals,
and Forests.
• Global Environmental Crisis related to Population, Water, Sanitation and Land.
• Ecosystem: Concept, Classification, Structure of Ecosystem, overview of Food
chain, Food web and Ecological Pyramid
Ecosystem services for biodiversity conservation and sustainable agricultureExternalEvents
The presentation by Dr. Abigael Otinga (University of Eldoret) outlines the concept of “ecosystem services” and particularly their relevance not only for biodiversity conservation but also for ensuring sustainable production of healthy and abundant crops. The presentation was given at a national training workshops for stakeholders involved in the revision of the Kenya NBSAP that was held at ICRAF in Nairobi, 25-26 May 2016. More information on the event are available at: www.fao.org/africa/news/detail-news/en/c/417489/ .
Forest and tree ecosystem services for adaptation: six storiesCIFOR-ICRAF
Ecosystems such as forests produce services that could have a significant role in reducing human vulnerability to climate variability and change. Using case studies from around the world, this presentation explores six different ways that forests and trees serve in helping humans to adapt.
This presentation was given on 7 September 2012 at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Jeju, South Korea, during a session titled 'Building resilience to climate change through ecosystem-based adaptation'. It was also presented on 15 June 2012 at ‘Ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation: from concept to action’, an event held during Rio+20.
A look at how nature provides us with services and how valuing these services is important to well-being. Slideshow from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, UNEP
Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. They are indispensable to the well-being of all living organisms, everywhere in the world. They include provisioning, regulating, and cultural services that directly affect people, and supporting services needed to maintain the other services (Anon., 2005). From the availability of adequate food and water, to disease regulation of vectors, pests, and pathogens, human well-being depends on these services and conditions from the natural environment. Ecosystem services depend on ecosystem conditions, and if these are impacted via pressures, consequently ecosystem services will be as well (Daily G, 1997). Human use of all ecosystem services is growing rapidly. Approximately 60% of the ecosystem services (including 70% of regulating and cultural services) are being degraded or used unsustainably. Certain changes place the sustained delivery of ecosystem services at risk. Human activity is impairing and destroying ecosystem services. Services by the ecosystem are facing some serious threats from urbanization, climate change and introduction of invasive species and pathogens which have come into existence through human activities (Anon., 1997). Ecosystem evaluation is a tool used in determining the impact of human activities on an environmental system, by assigning an economic value to an ecosystem or its ecosystem services. Ecosystem values are measures of how important ecosystem services are to people – what they are worth. Economists classify ecosystem values into several types. The two main categories are use values and non-use, or passive use values. Whereas use values are based on actual use of the environment, non-use values are values that are not associated with actual use, or even an option to use, an ecosystem or its services (Brookshire, et al.,1983). There are several methods of valuation of environmental assets, goods and amenities, services and functions like market price method, productivity method, hedonic pricing method, travel cost method and contingent valuation method.
Phytogeographic analysis and diversity of grasses and sedgesShujaul Mulk Khan
The monocot order Poales is one of the largest (ca. 20,000 species), and economically and ecologically most important group of flowering plants. Exploring this important component of the biodiversity is of paramount significance in conservation of species and developing climate change models. Northern Pakistan occupies a unique biogeographic position at the summit of the planet’s three highest mountain ranges i.e.Himalaya, Hindukush and Karakurum.These ranges contain the hot spots of floral and faunal diversity with high proportions of endemic and rare species.The studies revealed 117 species belonging to 30 genera in three families of the order Poales. Juncaceae is represented by single genus Juncuswith four species, Cyperaceae by 5 genera and 27 species, and Poaceae being the dominant family with 25 genera and 86 species. Carexand Poaare the largest genera having 21 and 16 species respectively. Phytogeographic analysis of the Poalesof temperate and alpine regions of Northern Pakistan shows twelve different phytogeographic elements. The highest percentage of species (30%) belongs to the western Himalayan floristic region (near endemics), with cosmopolitan elements (19%), Central Asian elements (17%) and Eurasian elements (12%) being the other significant elements. The proportion of Endemic species (8%) is less apparent, while the rest of the seven categories are poorly represented. The Two Way Cluster Analysis (TWCA) divided the sixteen districts into two major groups, and four subgroups based on environmental gradients of altitude, latitude and longitude. TWCA classified the data matrix including 114 species into seven clusters based on presence/absence data and elevation from mean sea level. Species in each cluster can be attributed to similar habitat conditions and altitudinal ranges. Hence it is clear that climatic characters associated with each category control the species distribution pattern.
Vegetation dynamics in the western himalayas, diversity indices and climate c...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Vegetation provides the first tropic trophic level in mountain ecosystems and hence requires proper documentation and quantification in relation to abiotic environmental variables both at individual and aggregate levels. The complex and dynamic Himalayas with their varying climate and topography exhibit diverse vegetation that provides a range of ecosystem services. The biodiversity of these mountains is also under the influence of diverse human cultures and land uses. The present paper is not only first of its kind but also quite unique because of the use of modern statistical techniques for the quantification of Diversity Indices of plant species and communities. The vegetation was sampled in three categories, i.e., trees, shrubs and herbs, as follows: a height of ≥ 5m were classified in the tree layer, shrubs were all woody species of height 1m and 5m and, finally, the herb layer comprised all herbaceous species less than 1m in height. The presence/absence of all vascular plants was recorded on pre-prepared data sheets (1, 0 data). For the tree layer, the diameter of trees at breast height was measured using diameter tape. Coverage of herbaceous vegetation was visually estimated according to Daubenmire and Braun Blanquet methods. It gives overall abundance of vascular plants on one hand and composition of these species on the other. Data was analysed in Canonical Community Coordination Package (CANOCO) to measure diversity indices of plant communities and habitat types. Results for five plant communities/habitat types indicated that plant biodiversity decreased along the altitude. Shannon Diversity Index values range between 3.3 and 4. N2 index and Index of Sample Variance were also designed. All of these Diversity Indices showed the highest values for the communities/habitats of north facing slopes at middle altitudes. Higher plant diversity at these slopes and altitudes can be associated to the period of snow cover which is longer and a relatively denser tree cover as compared to the southern slopes and hence the soil has high moisture which supports high biodiversity in return. Global warming causes desertification in number of fragile mountain ecosystem around the globe. These findings suggest that species diversity decreases along the measured ecological gradient under the influence of deforestation coupled with global climatic change.
Aquaculture Times is an international magazine contains mainly general features, articles and news covering a variety of aquaculture related topics. Published bi-monthly, the magazine provides a platform to bring the salient features of aquaculture, problems relating to farmers, up to date events, information, and latest trends in aquaculture. Aquaculture has a great demand with a tremendous scope for improving the food security and national economy. However, aquaculture is increasingly confronted with several issues of water quality management, environmental protection and disease outbreak, particularly associated mainly with high-input high-output intensive systems, suffering with innumerable problems, and the result of which can degrade the coastal ecosystem and in turn can reduce the output. The Aquaculture Times can provide a platform for bringing out the various issues relating to the latest aspects of culture.
ALSO SEE African Presence in Early America - Dr. Ivan Van Sertima in RBG Black and Africana Studies e-Books Collection
http://www.scribd.com/collections/3691402/RBG-Black-and-Africana-Studies-e-Books-Collection
ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES ON THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEM OF THE NARAN VALLEY IN THE ...Shujaul Mulk Khan
People derive many essential goods from plant resources, including food, medicines and fodder. However, the link between biodiversity and ecosystem services and their role in the support of human well-being is often poorly understood. Mountain ecosystems support a high biological diversity including rare and endangered plant species. They also provide a home to some 12% of the world's human population, who use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilise local natural resources. The Himalayas are the world's youngest and largest mountain range that supports a high plant biodiversity and hence provides many ecosystem services. Due to remote location, harsh climate, rough terrain and topography, many areas in the Himalayas have been still poorly known for their vegetation ecosystem services. The people in the Naran Valley, in the western Himalayas, depend upon local plant resources for a range of services and goods, from grazing for livestock to use of medicinal plants. During this study abundance and uses of each species were computed using computational ecology; principal components analysis (PCA) and response curves (RC) using CANOCO. The analyses showed an increasing trend of grazing, but with a decrease in fodder availability, with altitude increase in the valley. The assessment of such ecosystem services may assist in developing conservation strategies, especially for endangered mountain ecosystems.
Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Mountain ecosystems support a high biological diversity and a large number of endangered plant species
many of which are ecological indicators of those specific habitats. The Himalayas are the world’s youngest,
highest and largest mountain range and support a high plant biodiversity. People living in this region
use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilize local natural resources and hence have valuable
understanding about their surroundings. Many areas within this region still remain poorly known for
their floristic diversity, plant species distribution and vegetation ecosystem services, yet the indigenous
people depend heavily upon local plant resources and, through unsustainable use, can cause an
irreversible loss of plant species. The valley used in this study is typical of such areas and occupies
a distinctive geographical location on the edge of the western Himalayan range, close to the Hindu
Kush range to the west and the Karakorum Mountains to the north. It is also located on geological
and climatic divides, which further add to its ecological interest. This paper focuses on (i) identification
of ecological indicators at various elevation zones across an altitudinal range of 2450–4100 m and
(ii) recognition of social perceptions of plant species populations based on the ecosystem services that
they provide. We used robust approaches to identify the plant indicator species of various elevation
zones. Using phytosociological techniques, Importance Values (IVs) for each plant species were calculated.
The statistical package PCORDS was used to evaluate the species area curves and indicator species
for each elevation zone. Data attribute plots derived from Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) using
CANOCO were deployed to illustrate the location of indicator species in each habitat type. Furthermore,
the social perceptions of the local inhabitants as to whether the populations of the recorded species
were increasing or decreasing over the recent past were recorded. We argue that the assessment of
ecological indicators combined with the ecological knowledge of the indigenous population can assist
in developing priorities for local and regional conservation strategies, especially for fragile mountain
ecosystems.
Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western H...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Background
Mountain ecosystems all over the world support a high biological diversity and provide home and services to some 12% of the global human population, who use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilise local natural resources. The Himalayas are the world's youngest, highest and largest mountain range and support a high plant biodiversity. In this remote mountainous region of the Himalaya, people depend upon local plant resources to supply a range of goods and services, including grazing for livestock and medicinal supplies for themselves. Due to their remote location, harsh climate, rough terrain and topography, many areas within this region still remain poorly known for its floristic diversity, plant species distribution and vegetation ecosystem service.
Methods
The Naran valley in the north-western Pakistan is among such valleys and occupies a distinctive geographical location on the edge of the Western Himalaya range, close to the Hindu Kush range to the west and the Karakorum Mountains to the north. It is also located on climatic and geological divides, which further add to its botanical interest. In the present project 120 informants were interviewed at 12 main localities along the 60 km long valley. This paper focuses on assessment of medicinal plant species valued by local communities using their traditional knowledge.
Results
Results revealed that 101 species belonging to 52 families (51.5% of the total plants) were used for 97 prominent therapeutic purposes. The largest number of ailments cured with medicinal plants were associated with the digestive system (32.76% responses) followed by those associated with the respiratory and urinary systems (13.72% and 9.13% respectively). The ailments associated with the blood circulatory and reproductive systems and the skin were 7.37%, 7.04% and 7.03%, respectively. The results also indicate that whole plants were used in 54% of recipes followed by rhizomes (21%), fruits (9.5%) and roots (5.5%).
Conclusion
Our findings demonstrate the range of ecosystem services that are provided by the vegetation and assess how utilisation of plants will impact on future resource sustainability. The study not only contributes to an improved understanding of traditional ethno-ecological knowledge amongst the peoples of the Western Himalaya but also identifies priorities at species and habitat level for local and regional plant conservation strategies.
Keywords: Biodiversity conservation; Ecosystem services; Medicinal plants; Vegetation
Analysis of Ecosystem Services in the Oaxacan Mixtec Region, (Tiltepec WatershedAgriculture Journal IJOEAR
The present work analyzes the sources of supply and regulation of ecosystem services (ES) in the Tiltepec watershed, Oaxaca, Mexico, specifically the production of fuelwood, water for human consumption, forage for domestic livestock, as well as regulation for runoff and sediments estimated with the MUSLE model (Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation), Random sampling points were defined according to the soil used and coverage, to determine production of fuelwood and forage. Firewood was evaluated in quadrants of 10 x 10 m for tree strata and 5 x 5 m for shrub strata. Forage production was determined with lines of 20 m and quadrants of 0.25 x 0.25 m to determine biomass and vegetation cover. Water supply was estimated with inflows from springs and the storage capacity of infrastructure works and water demand estimated with the current population and the maximum daily and hourly consumption. The estimated average fuelwood consumption was 1.4 kg person-1 day-1 for a total volume of 3,189.5 m 3. The estimated average forage yield was 856.6 kg ha-1 and a grazing coefficient of 13.9 ha animal unit (AU-1) , with a census of 171.7 AU. The springs produce a daily volume of 150.4 m 3 and the storage water capacity is 184.7 m 3 for human consumption and 718.5 m 3 for irrigation and recreational uses. With the MUSLE model, a reduction in runoff of 33.93% and 62.93% in specific degradation was estimated comparing the current scenario with that of 1984. The presence of ES in the Tiltepec watershed is essential to provide well-being to local people and regulation of erosion process through works, soil and water conservation practices. These will enable better provision of goods and services.
Residual value analyses of the medicinal flora of the western himalayasShujaul Mulk Khan
Statistical analyses of the medicinal flora of the Naran Valley in the Western Himalayas were performed using Moerman’s methods and Principal Components Analysis (PCA). The results demonstrate that the valley’s indigenous people utilize medicinal plants in a systematic way. Sixty-eight families of plants were identified during the study, of which 52 contained one or more species of medicinal value. The standard deviation for residual values of all the 68 families was 0.993 and the results of the residual analysis revealed that seven of these plant families were overused by the local people, indicated by residual values greater than the standard deviation. Residual values obtained from a regression analysis of plant species with their medicinal uses showed that the families with the highest rank were Polygonaceae, Gentianaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae and Plantaginaceae, indicating their medicinal importance. By comparison, Poaceae, Boraginaceae, Primulaceae, Salicaceae, and Ranunculaceae were the lowest ranking families, containing few species of medicinal value. Although a few of the most species-rich families in the valley contained a high number of medicinal plants and hence displayed high residual values, some other species-rich families contained few or no species of medicinal value. For example, the third largest family, Poaceae, is the lowest in terms of its residual value, while the largest family, Asteraceae, contains only seven species noted as having medicinal uses. Sixteen plant families in the valley contained no species with reported medicinal use, while seven families contained only one species with medicinal value. In contrast, all of the species in several of the least species-rich families were recorded as having a medicinal use. The results of a Principal Components Analysis showed a gradient of medicinal plant use along the valley. Using robust statistical approaches, our study provides a clear indication that the indigenous people of this Western Himalayan valley utilize wild plants according to their traditional knowledge and not on the basis of plant abundance.
Do fine-scale factors shape the use of riparian galleries by carnivores in a ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Riparian galleries are key structural elements of Mediterranean landscapes and their importance for carnivores has been widely demonstrated. However, humanization of the landscape has led to their degradation with consequences not fully understood. In this study we assessed the response of mesocarnivores to the fine-scale variation in the quality of a riparian gallery (Vale do Cobrão stream, central Portugal), evaluated on the basis of the QBR index (‘Qualitat del Bosc de Ribera’ in spanish) and an adaptation of the same considering mesocarnivore ecological requirements. These were represented through four parameters that could influence habitat quality for these species, namely refuge (total riparian cover, cover structure), disturbance and food availability. For the latter we considered the known main food resources for Mediterranean mesocarnivores: small mammals, lagomorphs, insects and fruits. Mesocarnivore use was evaluated through camera-trapping and sign surveys. For both indexes a concordance was observed between quality variation and its use by carnivores, and we also found a positive correlation between both indexes. The adapted QBR, being more laborious but also more realistic, could serve as guidance for conservation practice at the local scale, benefiting both land managers environmentally concerned, conservation practitioners and carnivore populations inhabiting humanized landscapes. However, for spatially wider approaches the original QBR proved to be a good indicator for the presence of mesocarnivores, being useful in the development of restauration or conservation strategies, as well as for research and monitoring activities of carnivore guilds.
Ecological assessment of plant communities in the peochar valley of the hindu...Shujaul Mulk Khan
This study quantified the effect of environmental variables on plant species composition in the Peochar Valley, located in the Hindu Raj mountains of the Hindu Kush. A mixture of quadrat and transect methods were used. Quadrat sizes were 10 × 10 m, 2 × 5 m, and 1 m2 for trees, shrubs, and herbs, respectively, determined using the minimal area method. Twenty-seven stations were established along 6 elevation transects on slopes with various aspects. Density, cover, and frequency were recorded for all species in each quadrat. Aspect, elevation, rock types, soil nature, and grazing pressure were also considered as edaphic and topographic variables. Preliminary results showed that the Peochar Valley hosts 120 species. Presence/absence data for these species were analyzed with cluster and 2-way cluster techniques to elaborate species composition in the study area; this resulted in 4 plant communities. Species abundance and environmental data matrices were developed to evaluate the ecological gradient of vegetation through canonical correspondence analysis. Of the environmental variables, elevation, aspect, grazing pressure, soil depth, and rock type showed a significant effect on species composition and diversity. We also identified the dominant and rare plant species in each plant community based on their low importance value indexes. Conservation measures are recommended for all flora of this valley and for rare species in particular.
Integrated bamboo + pine homegardens: A unique agroforestry system in Ziro Va...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Numerous “indigenous” and “traditional” land-use systems that exist in different parts of the world have not yet been properly documented. Considering that many agroforestry systems of today have evolved from such systems, it is important to understand the wisdom of the indigenous communities that have continually been experimenting in their own ways to improve and adapt them for their livelihood. The Apatani eco-cultural landscape in Ziro Valley of Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India signifies an excellent example of such a uniquely distinct natural resource management practice. This agroforestry system developed over the years by innovative efforts involves growing bamboo (Phyllostachys bambusoides Siebold & Zucc.) or pine (Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks.) or a mixture of both on their fields. The Apatani is the only tribes in the states that manages such a unique land-use system and are highly conscious of maintaining their heritage and commitment to safeguarding nature and natural resources. By enhancing livelihood security and quality of life, conserving ecosystems, and fostering economic growth, this farmer-developed indigenous agroforestry system stands out as an example of ecosystem protection and natural-resource conservation in Arunachal Pradesh where resource-depleting shifting cultivation is still the mainstay of livelihood. Scientific analyses of the experience gained from this system – could offer lessons of valuable traditional ecological knowledge, which when properly assimilated could be useful in the design of sustainable agroforestry land-use systems.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The Role of Soil Organisms and Functions in different Coconut based Multiple ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract—Sampling was done in wet and intermediate zones represented by the Walpita and Makandura research centers, respectively. Eleven land use systems were considered for the study; coconut mono culture (CM), bare land (BL) and coconut multiple cropping. Under coconut multiple cropping, nine different intercrops were selected separately for each zones. The treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates (n = 3). The experiment was conducted under mature baring coconut (>20 years) plantation. Soil Macrofauna was sampled using one transect with three replicates at each land use type using quadrate size (30×30cm) from 0-30 cm depth and visible organisms were handpicked and preserved in 75% alcohol. Dilute plate technique and Spread plate technique was used to determine the soil micro organisms’ density. Those techniques were used to cultivate the fungi and bacteria under 〖10〗^(-2) and 〖10〗^(-5) dilution level respectively.
Research identified 12 classes (Crusteacea, Oligochaeta, Hirudinea, Gastropoda, Acarina, Araneida, Scopionida, Chilapoda, Diplopoda, Amphibia, Reptelia) and 14 orders (Hemiptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Thysanura, Hymenoptera, Lepidotera, Orthoptera, Blattaria, Mantodea, Phasmida, Dermaptera, Isoptera, Siphonaptera, Thysanoptera) of soil organisms. Class insecta shows the high diversity with 14 orders. Colony forming unit (CFU) value of bacteria was higher than that of the fungi value. Findings of intermediate and wet zones’ studies suggested that coconut multiple cropping systems may have high diversity, abundance and functional role of soil organisms. Both zones studies suggested that coconut multiple cropping systems may increase soil moisture factor, respiration rate, biomass carbon content, organic carbon percentage, total nitrogen content, organic matter content and C:N ratio in 0-30cm depth other than the coconut monoculture systems. Overall data of two different zones indicated a significant positive correlation of soil organism diversity, abundance and their functional role with cropping systems. Those data can be used as a reliable basic bio indicator for payments for ecosystem services (PES). It supports to valorize the economic value of the ecological services returned by soil organisms.
Agroforestry systems restoration of semiaridCharlieSC4
Se revisó información ecológica y etnobotánica sobre bosques y sistemas agroforestales del Valle de Tehuacán, en el
centro de México, con el fin de analizar la utilidad de las técnicas de manejo tradicional para la restauración de zonas
semiáridas de México. Los sistemas agroforestales de la región involucran el uso de múltiples recursos vegetales por la
gente del área, promoviendo la conservación de la diversidad biológica en los sistemas agrícolas. Estimamos que estos
sistemas mantienen en promedio 57% de las especies presentes en las comunidades de cactáceas columnares, y cerca
del 94% de la diversidad genética de las especies de cactáceas columnares dominantes. Entre las especies mantenidas en
estos sistemas se incluyen algunas especies de árboles y arbustos de valor cultural y económico, los cuales son además
reconocidos por ecólogos como plantas nodrizas cruciales para el reclutamiento de plántulas de numerosas especies de
plantas nativas. El mantenimiento de elementos nativos de la vegetación en general y de plantas nodrizas en particular
favorece la conservación de la biodiversidad y de interacciones bióticas importantes para la restauración de la vegetación
y de la fertilidad del suelo tanto en ecosistemas naturales como transformados a nivel de paisaje.
Climatic variability and spatial distribution of herbaceous fodders in the Su...IJERA Editor
This study focused on future spatial distributions of Andropogon gayanus, Loxodera ledermanii and Alysicarpus
ovalifolius regarding bioclimatic variables in the Sudanian zone of Benin, particularly in the W Biosphere
Reserve (WBR). These species were selected according to their importance for animals feed and the
intensification of exploitation pressure induced change in their natural spatial distribution. Twenty (20)
bioclimatic variables were tested and variables with high auto-correlation values were eliminated. Then, we
retained seven climatic variables for the model. A MaxEnt (Maximum Entropy) method was used to identify all
climatic factors which determined the spatial distribution of the three species. Spatial distribution showed for
Andropogon gayanus, a regression of high area distribution in detriment of low and moderate areas. The same
trend was observed for Loxodera ledermannii spatial distribution. For Alysicarpus ovalifolius, currently area
with moderate and low distribution were the most represented but map showed in 2050 that area with high
distribution increased. We can deduce that without bioclimatic variables, others factors such as: biotic
interactions, dispersion constraints, anthropic pressure, human activities and another historic factor determined
spatial distribution of species. Modeling techniques that require only presence data are therefore extremely
valuable.
Similar to Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane ecosystems: the western Himalayas as a case study (20)
Methods of grapes cultivation انگور کی کاشت کے طریقےShujaul Mulk Khan
This presentation explains in a comprehensive way, how to cultivate Table Grapes nursery and establish its gardens. Preparation of demonstration blocks, nurseries, arrangement of training workshops and handing over the mother plants to the local farmers of the selected agencies of Bajaur, Kurram, Orakzai and FR Region of Bannu will be done according to the standard protocols. Keeping in mind the arrangement of the seven pillars of Vision 2025 new opportunities could be created via viticulture development. Horticulture is a fast growing sector with rising exports and increasing demand in domestic and international markets. Pakistani fruits, both fresh and dry, have great potential for exports. So, the present project will also contribute in the vision of 2025 (One nation One vision) not only to help in the development of FATA but also in the development of adjacent region. It will give rise to development of industries related to Grapevines products like raisins, juices, jams etc. that will be source of new jobs and development in the region. For the alleviation of poverty by enhancing the socioeconomic status of FATA people through viticulture development, we will further extend our work via developing a new project to extend our work to the remaining agencies like Khyber, Mohmand and Waziristan etc. The selected potential and successful varieties of grapes will be introduced for nurseries development and handing over to farmers of the FATA region in future as mother plants.
Environmental determinants of plant associations and evaluation of the conser...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Hindu Kush is the largest mountain range of Central Asia that forms part of a vast alpine zone that stretches across the Eurasia from east towards the South Asia. We studied vegetation structure and the role of edaphic and topographic factors on distribution and formation of plant associations with specific emphais on Parrotiopsis species of the Districts Dir regions in the Hindu Kush Mountains. We also assessed the conservation status of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, an endemic species of the western Himalayan floristic province. We hypothesized that edaphic and climatic factors were responsible for the formation of different plant associations each with distinct indicators. A combination of transect and quadrat based methods were used for sampling. We used two way cluster analysis (TWCA), cluster analysis (CA), indicator species analysis, detrended correspondence analysis and canonical correspondence analysis to analyze and elaborate the vegetation pattern and formation. We used Google Earth Path software (V 1.4.6) for the calculation of extant of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO) for evaluation of conservation status of P. jacquemontiana. A total of 142 plant species were reported belonging to 62 families. CA and TWCA clustered four plant associations within altitudinal range of 1556–2313 m. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana should be designated as endangered species under ‘EN A2acd; B1B2 bc (i, ii, iii) of IUCN red list categories and criteria in the region. We found that high phosphorous and potassium concentration, elevation, aspect, slope, lower pH, electrical conductivity and soil texture were significant environmental variables that play an important role in the determination of vegetation structure, formation of plant associations and its indicators in the region. This information will be useful for conservation and management practices for endemic and rare plant taxa, and evaluation of vegetation structure.
Mazri (nannorrhops ritchiana (griff) aitch.) a remarkable source of manufact...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Background: Mazri palm (Nannorrhops ritchiana (Griff) Aitch.) is a member of the family Arecaceae, native to Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Oman, and Saudi Arabia. In Pakistan, it is used since long time for various purposes. This species plays a significant cultural and economic role in the daily lives of many rural areas in Pakistan and adjacent countries. However, the handcrafted products made up of this palm are often mainly known by specific local communities rather than by a broader range of people.
Methods: Eighty-six structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted from Mazri growing areas, villages, and markets of urban centers during the fieldwork that was conducted in diverse regions of Pakistan. Interviewees
included 27 Mazri farmers, 17 locals retaining Traditional Knowledge in handcrafting Mazri palm (12 were men and 5 were women), 23 handicrafts experts (21 were men and 2 were women), and 19 sellers. The age of the informants ranged from 14 to 83 years. Study participants shared detailed information about various traditional utilizations of the Mazri palm.
Results: Mature leaves of Mazri palm are used to produce mats, baskets, hand fans, hats, cages, hot pots, salt pots, brooms, etc. in the sudy area. Hot pots, salt pots, mats, baskets, and ropes represent highly used items. The mats are used for various purposes like drying grains, performing prayers, sitting, and sleeping. As a whole, 39 different kinds of handcrafted products from the leaves were found. Our findings revealed also that other parts of the plant, ie. petioles, fruits, and bark, have been used, although more rarely, by the locals. The palm uses differ accordingly to the different cultural areas of Pakisitan, thus demonstrating that local cultural heritage significantly informs
Traditional Knowledge and practices related to the use of Mazri palm. The findings suggest also that this plant represents a crucial resource for the livelihood of the local communities in dry areas of the western borders of Pakistan, starting right from the coastal areas of Baluchistan up to District Bajaur in the North, where other farming activities there are difficult due to drought conditions.
Conclusions: Traditional Knowledge about the sustainable utilization of Mazri palm is eroded in Pakistan among the younger generations due to rapid globalization and industrialization processes and appropriate strategies for
revitalizing this heritage in a sustainable way should be urgently fostered.
Characterization of cobalt oxide and calcium aluminumShujaul Mulk Khan
The Cobalt Oxide and Calcium-Aluminum Oxide nano-catalysts were analyzed using Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) techniques. Preliminary results showed that the particles of Cobalt Oxide exhibit sponge like morphology and homogenous distribution as per confirmation via SEM. Its average particle size ranges to 30.6 nm demonstrating enormous number of pores and aggregative in nature. Its various peaks were ranging
from 19.2 to 65.4 after XRD analysis. The highest intensity was observed at 36.9 position. The energy dispersive spectroscopy techniques were used to calculate the elements present in sample according to their weight and atomic percentage. The
cobalt oxide contain cobalt as the most abundant element with 46.85 wt% and 18.01 atomic percent. It contain oxygen with 30.51 wt% and 43.19 atomic percent. Whereas, SEM of calcium aluminum oxide showed random morphology. According to the calculation of Scherrer equation regarding XRD analysis, it was distributed homogenously with particle size ranges from 30 to 40 nm. Its porous morphology was due to the interconnecting gaps between different particles. It result the eight peaks ranging from 18.1 to 62.7 in XRD spectrum. The highest intensity observed at 35.1 with average crystallite particle size of 25.6 nm. The calcium aluminum oxide contain aluminum 7.45 wt% and 6.93 atomic percent. The calcium was the most abundant element with54.7 wt% and 34.24 atomic percent followed by oxygen with 37.26 wt% and 58.42 atomic percent. It was concluded that the SEM, XRD, and EDX are the most significant techniques to characterize nano-catalysts in particular and other compounds generally.
Phytogeographic classification using multivariate approachShujaul Mulk Khan
Phytogeography is concerned with the past and present distribution of vegetation on the earth surface. The distribution
of plants is neither even nor random on earth surface but follow a definite geographic pattern. The present study was aimed
to find out phytogeographic pattern of plants distribution and subsequent classification of plant species of the Jambil Valley,
District Swat Pakistan using multivariate statistic techniques. Sampling of vegetation was done using quadrats of 1 × 1 m2
for herbs, 5 × 5 m2 for shrubs and 10 × 10 m2 for trees. The data were analyzed by PCORD v. 5 and CANOCO 4.5. The
studies revealed that the vegetation of Jambil valley belongs to eighteen different phytogeographic elements. The highest percentage of elements (19.4%) belongs to Western-Himalayan region, followed by Cosmopolitan (13.9%), Eurasian (10.6%), Irano-turanian (10%), Paleotropical (9.4%), Eastern Asiatic and Mediterranean (6.7% each), Euro-Siberian (5.6%),
Holoarctic (3.9%), Pantropical (3.3%), Sub-cosmopolitan 2.8%), Saharo-Arabian (2.2%), Eastern-Himalayan (1.7%),
Central Asian and Neotropical (1.1% each), Pantemperate, Australian and Sudano-Zambezian (0.6% each). CANOCO correlated phytogeographical data with environmental factors, which showed significant effect of environmental variables on phytogeographical patterns. It is clear from our results that higher pH, electrical conductivity, moderate sand and silt, phosphorous and nitrogen have great impact on distribution of phytogeographical elements. The Western Himalayan elements having narrow geographic range require immediate attention and conservation efforts.
The indispensable bond between mazri palm (nannorrhops ritchiana) and the ind...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Keeping in mind the economic importance of this palm, the Government of Pakistan passed an act on the conservation of Nannorrhops namely “Kohat Mazri Control Act 1953” (http://kp.gov.pk/page/the-kohat -mazri -contr olact-
1953/page-type/rules ) in 1953 where laws and rules were devised for the conservation of Nannorrhops in Pakistan in general and for the Kohat Division in particular (which then
covered the whole southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). Regionally, it has been categorized as Endangered (EN) under the IUCN criteria. Murad et al. (2011) reported that in the Hazar
Nao Forest of Malakand Nannorrhops ritchiana is on the verge of extinction due to over exploitation by the local population for commercial purposes.
Pollen morphological variation of berberis l. from pakistan and its systemati...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Due to overlapping and diverse morphological characters, Berberis is among the most taxonomically complex genera. Palynology is one of the taxonomic tools for delimitation and identification of complex species. In this study, pollens of 10 Berberis species were analyzed through light and scanning electron microscopy. Qualitative as well as quantitative
features (pollen shape, size, presence or absence of colpi, colpi length and width, exine thickness, ornamentation, pollen class, aperture, and polar–equatorial ratio) were measured. Five species were observed to have colpate (pantocolpate) with elongated ends, radially symmetrical, isopolar, monads, and psilate-regulate pollens. In polar view, six pollen were spheroidal, two were ovoid, one spherical, and one oblate. Similarly, variation in pollen length was prominent and the largest pollen on polar view was recorded for B. psodoumbellata 60–65 μm (62.4 ± 0.9), while the smallest one was observed for B. lycium 29–35 μm (32.2 ± 1). The observed variation in both quantitative and qualitative features were important in taxonomic identification. This shows that palynological haracters
are helpful in identification of Berberis genus at the species level.
A new ethnobiological similarity index for the evaluation of novel use reportsShujaul Mulk Khan
Similarity Indices are widely applied in the field of ecology to measure species diversity as well as to map patterns of conservation and monitor threats to biodiversity. Among the known, Jaccard’s and Sorensen’s indices are the most frequently employed similarity Indices. Here, we propose a new and efficient statistical approach in the field of ethnobiology and validate its efficacy by comparing the results with predefined similarity Indices used in previous studies. The core objective was to propose a new index for quantitative ethnobiological analyses and to find out solutions for sorting the plants having
similar ethnobiological uses in allied, aligned, national and global regions; as the pre-existing indices like Jaccard’s and Sorensen’s indices provides best estimates in the field of ecology but not in ethnobiological studies. In comparative ethnobiological studies, ethnobiologists use conventional ecological tools for evaluation of similarities and dissimilarities. Our proposed similarity index is based on the quantification
of similar uses of common medicinal plants via comparing present study with previously published reports from various areas where, the author(s) have used the Sorensen’s index and/or Jaccard’s index. To assess the significance and validity of this newly developed index, similarities and differences in
ethnomedicinal studies on medicinal plants in different regions were evaluated. Data regarding medicinal plants usage here was compared with 20 previously published studies and then analyzed through preexisting indices as well as Rahman’s index to examine the novelty in the study. Our preliminary results
revealed noteworthy coherence with the existing similarity indices, albeit, the new index was more efficient than the previous. Our comparison revealed, that as far as common vegetation and floral levels are concerned, the existing ecological coefficients of similarity are efficient and precise; but for similarities in the field of medicinal plant studies certain constraints are overcome by the proposed similarity index. Inferences derived from Rahman’s similarity index (RSI) are as reliable as the previously known and well-established similarity indices. Further, RSI specifically targets the ethnobiological similarities, a limitation in Jaccard’s and Sorensen’s indices. Thus, RSI would be a useful tool/index in the assessment of rigorous quantitative ethnobiological data.
Hec news and views august 2017- Participation of Pakistani Researchers in the...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Dr. Shujaul Mulk Khan, Assistant Professor of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad Pakistan and Dr. Zia-ur-Rahman Mashwani, Assistant Professor of Botany, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi Pakistan presented their research papers in the World’s largest botanical event ‘XIX International Botanical Congress (IBC 2017)’ that held at Convention and Exhibition Centre, Schenzhen China http://ibc2017.cn/. This event is organized after an interval of five years over the last two centuries. There were 6856 participants from 110 countries in this congress. Presentations of both the Pakistani speakers were highly appreciated by the participants.
Ecological assessment of plant communities along the edaphic and topographic ...Shujaul Mulk Khan
A study was conducted to explore the plant biodiversity and vegetation structure of Biha Valley, District Swat, Pakistan. On the basis of the physiognomy of the vegetation the study area was divided into 19 stands. Line transect (50 m) method was used to sample the phytosociological attributes of the study area. PCORD software (version 5) was used to recognize communities by two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) and CANOCO software (version 5) for ordination analysis was done for detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) to find variation directories of different plant species. Different life-form classes and leaf size spectra were recorded according to the Raunkiaer classification. The floristic composition of the area consists of 203 plant species belonging to 154 genera and 70 families. The biological spectrum of the area indicated that
Therophytes was dominant with 46.60% among the life-classes, followed by Hemicryptophytes having 15.53%. Leaf spectra of study area revealed that Microphylls was dominant (41.26%) followed by Nanophylls (32.04%). Seven plant communities were recognized by TWINSPAN classification, which showed that species diversity decreased with altitude. Moreover, the result indicates the importance of soil organic matter in top soil layers for plant species distribution. The increases in soil nutrients (OM, P, N, and K), improvement in site conditions (community cover, depth of litter, depth of humus, soil water
content) and decrease in soil bulk density indicated the natural habitat restoration following abandonment.
The morpho-agronomic characterization study of Lens culinaris germplasm under...Shujaul Mulk Khan
The present research study evaluate and identify the most suitable and high yielding genotypes of Lens culinaris for the salt marsh habitat of Swat in moist temperate sort of agro climatic environment of Pakistan. A total of fourteen genotypes were cultivated and analyzed through Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). These genotypes were AZRC-4, NL-2, NL4, NL-5, NL-6, NARC-11-1, NARC-11-2, NARC-11-3, NARC-11-4, 09503, 09505, 09506, P.Masoor-09 and Markaz-09. Different parameters i.e., germination rate, flowering, physiological maturity, plant height, biological grain yield, seed weight, pods formation and its height, pods per plants and protein content were focused specially throughout the study. Preliminary the Lentil genotypes have significant variability in all the major morpho-agronomic traits. The days to germination, 50% flowering and 100 seed weight ranged from 7 to 9, 110 to 116 days, and from 5.4 to 7.3 gm respectively. Biological yield and grain yield ranged from 5333 to 9777 kg ha−1 and 1933 to 3655 kg ha−1 respectively. Whereas, protein contents ranged from 23.21% to 28.45%. It was concluded that the genotype AZRC-4 is better varity in terms of grain yield plus in 100 seed weight and moreover, 09506 genotype was significant under salt marsh habitat in early maturing for the Swat Valley, Pakistan.
Eco-floristic studies of the Beer Hills along the Indus River in the district...Shujaul Mulk Khan
The present study was conducted to elaborate vegetation composition structure to analyze role of edaphic and topographic factors on plant species distribution and community formation during 2013–14. A mixture of quadrat and transect methods were used. The size of quadrat for trees shrubs and herbs were 10 × 5, 5 × 2, 1 × 1 meter square respectively. Different phytosociological attribute were measured at each station. Primary results reported 123 plant species belong to 46 families. Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were dominant families with 8 species each. PCORD version 5 were used for Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analyses that initiated 4 plant communities within elevation range of 529–700 m from sea level. Indicator species analyses (ISA) were used to identify indicator species of each community. CANOCO Software (version 4.5) was used to measure the influence of edaphic and topographic variables on species composition, diversity and community formation. Whereas Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to measure the effect of environmental variables which showed elevation and aspect were the stronger environmental variable among topographic and CaCO3 contents, electric conductivity, soil pH were the stronger edaphic factors in determination of vegetation and communities of the Bheer Hills. Grazing pressure was one of the main anthropogenic factors in this regard.
Ecological gradient analyses of plant associations in the thandiani forests o...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Abstract: In the summers of 2012 and 2013, vegetation of Thandiani in the Western Himalayas of Pakistan was surveyed and quantified. We took evidence from relationships between 252 species and 11 measured environmental factors as well as changes in the associations’ structure among 50 analysed stations with 1500 m2 plots. We analysed how the plant associations differ and develop under the influence of their respective ecological gradients. Preliminary results showed that the family Pinaceae was the most abundant family with a
family importance value (FIV) of 1892.4, followed by Rosaceae with FIV = 1478.2. Rosaceae, represented by 20 species, was the most dominant family, followed by Asteraceae and Ranunculaceae with 14 and 12 species each, respectively. Analyses via CANOCO software version 4.5 and GEO database demonstrated strong correlations among species distributions and environmental variables, i.e. elevation, topography, and edaphic factors. Our findings show an increase in species diversity and richness from lower elevation (1290 m at sea level (m asl) to higher elevation (2626 m asl). It is evident that aspect, elevation, and soil factors were the decisive variables affecting qualitative and quantitative attributes of vegetation in the study area. The P value ≤ 0.002 confirms a significant impact of abiotic factors that bring variation in vegetation. A 3D view of the study area was generated in ArcScene showing all the five plant associations. Graphs of scatter plot, point profile, and 3D line profile were added to the layout of plant association maps. The habitats of the five association types overlapped broadly but still retained their specific individuality. The execution of GIS framework gave spatial modelling, which ultimately helped in the recognition of indicator species of specific habitat or association type. These findings could further be utilised
in devising the forest policy and conservation management. This study also opens new doors of research in the field of biogeography, systematics, and wildlife.
Plant species and communities assessment in interaction with edaphic and topo...Shujaul Mulk Khan
The current analyses of vegetation were aimed to study the different effects of environmental variables on plant species and communities and their combined interactions to these variables, identified threats to local vegetation and suggestion for remedial measures in the Mount Eelum, Swat, Pakistan. For assessment of environmental variability quantitative ecological techniques were used through quadrats having sizes of 2 × 2, 5 × 5 and 10 × 10 m2 for herbs, shrubs and trees respectively. Result of the present study revealed 124 plant species in the study area. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to analyze the ecological gradient of vegetation. The environmental data and species abundance were used in CANOCO software version 4.5. The presence absence data of plant species were elaborated with Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analysis techniques using PC-ORD version 5 to show different species composition that resulted in five plant communities. Findings indicate that elevation, aspect and soil texture are the strongest variables that have significant effect on species composition and distribution of various communities shown with P value 0.0500. It is recommended to protect and use sensibly whole of the Flora normally and rare species particularly in the region.
Weed species composition and distribution pattern in the maize crop under the...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Weeds are unwanted plant species growing in ordinary environment. In nature there are a total of 8000 weed species out of which 250 are important for agriculture world. The present study was carried out on weed species composition and distribution pattern with special reference to edaphic factor and farming practices in maize crop of District Mardan during the months of August and September, 2014. Quadrates methods were used to assess weed species distribution in relation to edaphic factor and farming practices. Phytosociological attributes such as frequency, relative frequency, density, relative density and Importance Values were measured by placing 9 quadrates (1 × 1 m2) randomly in each field. Initial results showed that the study area has 29 diverse weed species belonging to 27 genera and 15 families distributed in 585 quadrats. Presence and absence data sheet of 29 weed species and 65 fields were analyzed through PC-ORD version 5. Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analyses initiated four different weed communities with significant indicator species and with respect to underlying environmental variables using data attribute plots. Canonical Correspondence Analyses (CCA) of CANOCO software version 4.5 was used to assess the environmental gradients of weed species. It is concluded that among all the edaphic factors the strongest variables were higher concentration of potassium, organic matter and sandy nature of soil. CCA plots of both weed species and sampled fields based on questionnaire data concluded the farming practices such as application of fertilizers, irrigation and chemical spray were the main factors in determination of weed communities.
Weed species distribution pattern in maize crop of mardan, pakistanShujaul Mulk Khan
Weeds are unwanted plant species growing in the domesticated crops. Like other crops maize also faces the problem of competition with weeds. Severe loses in yield up to 70% of maize have been reported in small scale farming due to weeds. Composition and abundance of weeds is influenced by a number of environmental variables as well as farming practices in an ecosystem. Present study was formulated to measure the effect of environmental variables on weed species composition, abundance, distribution pattern and formation of various weeds communities in District Mardan, Pakistan. Phytosociological attributes such as density, frequency, relative density, relative frequency and Importance Values were measured for each field.Presence absence data of 29 species and 65 fields were analyzed using Cluster and Two Way Cluster Analyses via PC-ORD version 5 that resulted in four major weed communities. CANOCO software version 4.5 was used to evaluate the environmental gradients of weeds through Canonical Correspondence Analyses (CCA). Results showed that among all environmental variables the strongest variables were CaCO3, high phosphorous concentration, and higher electric conductivity.
Ethnobotany of the balti community, tormik valley, karakorum range, baltistan...Shujaul Mulk Khan
BACKGROUND:
Limited health facilities and malnutrition are major problems in the Karakorum Range of Northern Pakistan, often resulting in various human disorders. Since centuries, however, local communities in these areas have developed traditional methods for treating various ailments and local foods capes that can be significant for devising public health and nutritional policies. This study was intended to document the ethnobotanical knowledge of the local peoples in the Tormik Valley, especially in the medical and food domains.
METHODS:
Field trips were undertaken in 14 different villages of the study area from 2010 to 2012. Ethnobotanical data were gathered using semi-structured interviews and group conversation with 69 informants. Details about local uses of plant species were recorded along with demographic characteristics of the visited communities. Relative frequency citation index (RFCi) and preference ranking index (PRi) tools were applied to determine the cultural significance of the reported species.
RESULTS:
Sixty-three plant species, with a predominance of Asteraceae and Fabaceae family members, as well as their detailed folk uses were documented. Forty-three percent of the species were used to treat various diseases, 21 % were consumed as wild fruits and vegetables and 53 % of the species had multipurpose applications. Thymus linearis Benth, Hippophae rhamnoides ssp. turkestanica L. and Convolvulus arvensis L. were found to be the most utilized medicinal plant species, i.e. those with significant RFCi values (0.54, 0.51 and 0.48, respectively). Betula utilis D. Don was the most versatile taxon (seven different ways of utilization); being this species a common and easily accessible subalpine tree and then under anthropogenic pressure, the implementation of concrete strategies aimed at its in-situ and ex-situ conservation is strongly recommended.
CONCLUSION:
The valleys in the Karakorum Mountains in the Northern Pakistan host significant Traditional Knowledge on local food and medicinal plant species, which need to be reconsidered and cautiously re-evaluated by ethnopharmacologists, and public health/nutrition actors. Furthermore, germane trans-disciplinary investigations are suggested to ensure the dynamic conservation of precious local knowledge systems, as well as plant diversity in Pakistani mountain regions.
KEYWORDS:
Ethnobotany; Indigenous knowledge; Karakorum; Medicinal plants; Pakistan
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Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane ecosystems: the western Himalayas as a case study
1. INVITED REVIEW
Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane
ecosystems: the western Himalayas as a case study
Shujaul Mulk Khan1,5,2,*, Sue E. Page3, Habib Ahmad4 and David M. Harper5,1,*
1
Centre for Landscape and Climate Research, University of Leicester, UK, 2
Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra,
Pakistan, 3
Department of Geography, Universityof Leicester, UK, 4
Department of Genetics, Hazara University Mansehra, Pakistan
and 5
Department of Biology, University of Leicester, UK
* For correspondence. E-mail shuja60@gmail.com or dmh@le.ac.uk
Received: 28 January 2013 Returned for revision: 6 March 2013 Accepted: 17 April 2013
† Background Conservation of the unique biodiversity of mountain ecosystems needs trans-disciplinary approaches
to succeed in a crowded colloquial world. Geographers, conservationists, ecologists and social scientists have, in the
past, had the same conservation goals but have tended to work independently. In this review, the need to integrate
different conservation criteria and methodologies is discussed. New criteria are offered for prioritizing species
and habitats for conservation in montane ecosystems that combine both ecological and social data.
† Scope Ecological attributes of plant species, analysed through robust community statistical packages, provide un-
biased classifications of species assemblages and environmental biodiversity gradients and yield importance value
indices (IVIs). Surveys of local communities’ utilization of the vegetation provides use values (UVs). This review
suggests a new means of assessing anthropogenic pressure on plant biodiversity at both species and community
levels by integrating IVI and UV data sets in a combined analysis.
† ConclusionsMountainecosystemsarehotspotsforplantconservationeffortsbecausetheyholdahighoverallplant
diversity as communities replace each other along altitudinal and climatic gradients, including a high proportion of
endemic species. This review contributes an enhanced understanding of (1) plant diversity in mountain ecosystems
with special reference to the western Himalayas; (2) ethnobotanical and ecosystem service values of mountain vege-
tation within the context of anthropogenic impacts; and (3) local and regional plant conservation strategies and pri-
orities.
Key words: Anthropogenic impacts, conservation, ecosystem services, montane ecosystems, plant biodiversity,
sustainable utilisation, western Himalayas.
INTRODUCTION
Ecosystem ecology is a major part of the discipline of ecology
(Barbault, 1997); the term ecosystem was invented by Sir Arthur
Tansley (Tansley, 1935) for a community of organisms and their
environment. Ecosystem ecology has become very important in
the 21st century because of the highlyaccelerated rate of anthropo-
genic modification of natural systems. Human alteration of natural
ecosystems dates back millenniato the use of fire, overexploitation
andlatertotheintroductionofagriculture.Themorerecentagricul-
tural expansions in the past 200 years, however, linked to increases
in population, industrialization and anthropogenic climatic
changes, are recognized as the main causal factors of the massive
degradation of natural ecosystems that we now experience
(Billings, 1972; Odum and Odum, 1972; Macdonald and
Service, 1996; Macdonald and Willis, 2013).
On a global scale, mountain, highland and plateau ecosystems
above 1500 m, which cover approximately one-fifth of the
earth’s land surface (Geist, 2005), support a high and varied
plant biodiversity due to their diverse landscape and climate,
despite supporting about 12 % of the world’s human population
(Cincottaetal.,2000;Loucksetal.,2008).Mountainecosystems
do not just provide direct and indirect ecosystem services for the
sustenance of human life; their influence is far more widespread
becauselowlandecosystemsandhumanpopulationsalsodepend
on them for services. The western Himalayan region provides an
example, where there is a long-established tradition of using
plants directly for medicinal purposes and as a source of
fodder for livestock. Here, as well as all over South Asia, the
mountains are crucial for the resilience of lowland human settle-
ments which depend on their major river catchments for both
agricultural and domestic water supplies (Manandhar and
Rasul, 2009; Xu et al., 2009; Rasul, 2010). The Himalayas are
the origin of ten of the largest rivers in Asia and the economies
of several south Asian countries are mainly based on the flow
of these rivers, which ensure food security by providing irriga-
tion water for rice and wheat – the major staple foods
(Adhikari et al., 1995; Archer and Fowler, 2004; Rasul, 2010).
The shrubby vegetation of high altitudes also regulates ava-
lanche movements and protects soils from wash-out and
erosion (Hester and Brooker, 2007). Unwise use of montane
plant resources is a direct threat to biodiversity maintenance
and the continued proper functioning of mountain ecosystems
(Sharma et al., 2010; Tarraso´n et al., 2010), as well as to the con-
tinuance of traditional livelihoods at both local and regional
scales. High-altitude species and ecosystems are also potentially
under threat of biodiversity loss from global warming – a conse-
quenceofbothgeographicalrangecontractionandmountain-top
ecosystem extinction risk (La Sorte and Jetz, 2010; Mondoni
et al., 2011, 2012).
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2. Increasingawarenessofhumanimpactsonecosystemshasgen-
eratedagrowingappreciationofthewiderangeofbenefitsthatbio-
logical resources and ecological processes provide to human
societies in the past decade and a half, called ecosystem services
(MEA, 2005). These are defined as ‘conditions and processes
through which ecosystems and species in them sustain and fulfil
human life’ (Deane, 1999) or as the ‘components of nature used
for human well-being’(Boyd andBanzhaf,2006).Ecosystem ser-
vices result from interactions between biotic and abiotic compo-
nents of ecosystems (Adhikari et al., 1995; Singh, 2002) and can
be grouped into four categories according to the benefits that
they provide for people – provisioning, regulating, supporting
and cultural services (MEA, 2003). Plant species are the
primary producers in every ecosystem and also the primary
source of direct and indirect goods and services to humans
(Fig. 1). Their direct provisioning services to humans are food,
fodder, medicines, timber, fuel-wood and grazing, while regulat-
ing services include moderating air and water quality and erosion
control. They also play a vital role in supporting services such as
soil formation, and nutrient and water cycling and in cultural ser-
vices, including traditional human knowledge systems.
Maintaining a high level of plant diversity is connected to the
maintenance of ecosystem services provision, even though the
mechanismsmaynotyetbeentirelyclear,anditiswidelybelieved
thatmorespecieswillbeneededtoprovideecosystemfunctioning
under future environmental change scenarios (Haines-Young and
Potschin,2010;Isbelletal.,2011).Thus,preservingasmuchplant
biodiversity as possible across the widest range of ecosystems is
generally seen as an indispensable approach to maintain the ben-
efits that they provide to humans.
Ecosystems in high mountain regions are intricate and signifi-
cant cost and time factors are involved in their study, particularly
where they are remote. Conserving plant biodiversity requires
consistent and sound qualitative as well as quantitative records
of botanical data on a regular basis (Clubbe et al., 2010) and
robust phytosociological (quantitative ecological) techniques
are essential to achieve this. Ethnobotanical methods can be
linked to this, to describe and evaluate the nature and value of
the ecosystem services that plant communities provide for
local people. Data obtained through acombination of these tech-
niques provides basic knowledge forconservation managers and
biodiversity plannersto evaluate the services provided by moun-
tain ecosystems and to formulate sustainable management
options.
This review provides an overview of ecological knowledge
about montane ecosystems in a way which seeks to integrate
the previously different approaches, drawing upon the authors’
experience of the western Himalayas. Until our recent work
undertaken there, no previous attempt had been made to
combine quantitative and qualitative ecological (phytosociolo-
gical) and ethnobotanical data in order to describe and assess
plant communities and their associated provisioning services
as a basis for plant conservation planning. These two methodo-
logical approaches are now described in more detail. The
reviewaddressestheapplicationofphytosociologicaltechniques
to vegetation description and quantification and then goes on to
review ethnobotanical approaches to the assessment of plant
uses. It discusses how importance value indices (IVIs), derived
from phytosociological data, can be combined with use values
(UVs), derived from ethnobotanical studies, to provide a new
• Food
• Fodder and grazing land
• Medicine
• Timber
• Fuel
• Ornamental resources
• Soil formation
• Nutrient cycling
• Water cycling
• Primary production
• Climate regulation
• Air quality
• Water regulation
• Water quality
• Flood and erosion control
• Biodiversity
• Pollination
• Pest regulation
• Cultural diversity
• Knowledge systems
• Recreation and
ecotourism
• Aesthetics
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
Provisioning
services
Ecosystem functions,
interactions and services
Supporting
services
Cultural
services
Regulating
services
FIG. 1. Classification of ecosystem services in the western Himalayan region with modifications to the broad categories specified in the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MEA, 2003; Kremen, 2005; Wallace, 2007).
Khan et al. — Plant biodiversity conservation in montane ecosystemsPage 2 of 23
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3. gateway to the assessment of anthropogenic pressures on plant
biodiversity at both species and community levels. In the
western Himalayas, there is well-established traditional eco-
logical knowledge of plant use for human well-being, but this
isatriskoflossalongsidethegrowingthreatstothespeciesthem-
selves as a result of a range of anthropogenic impacts.
PHYTOSOCIOLOGY AND ETHNOBOTANY
USED TO IDENTIFY AND QUANTIFY
VEGETATION-DERIVED ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES
Phytosociology
The distribution of individuals of the same and different plant
speciesinacommunityisafunctionofmicro-environmentalvar-
iations, time and biotic relationships. Plant species assemble in a
community in a definite fashion and understanding this can be
helpful during quantification and evaluation of ecosystem ser-
vices (Daubenmire, 1968; Billings, 1972; Mueller-Dombois
and Ellenberg, 1974; Rieley and Page, 1990; Greig-Smith,
2010). Phytosociology is the science of vegetation classification
based on each species’ co-occurrence and its relation to the sur-
rounding environment. This has provided valuable methods for
vegetation assessment that have been applied in vegetation
mapping, ecosystem services quantification and biodiversity
conservation (Rieley and Page, 1990; Ewald, 2003; Biondi,
2011). The health of ecosystems is closely allied to their plant
biodiversity (Ruiz et al., 2008; Scha¨fer, 2011) and thus vegeta-
tion classification is a vital first step towards ecosystem manage-
mentandconservation.Thisknowledgeisparticularlyimportant
when studying rare or endemic species, for developing manage-
ment strategies to protect them and/or reducing fragmentation of
their habitats (Ewald, 2003; Aægisdo´ttir et al., 2009).
Phytosociological field techniques allow ecologists to calcu-
late diversity, richness and abundance of plant species in an eco-
system which not only helps them to decide on conservation
priorities, but also their role as indicators of particular habitat
types (Whittaker et al., 2001; Greig-Smith, 2010; Tu¨xen and
Whittaker, 2010). Moreover, IVIs can be calculated from such
data by adding the relative values of species cover, density and
frequency. In addition, frequency, constancy and fidelity ana-
lyses help to identify the most threatened species and those habi-
tats needing protection (Baillie, 2004; Hesterand Brooker, 2007;
Zou et al., 2007).
Phytosociology originated with the Swiss ecologist Josias
BraunBlanquet (1884–1980)inEurope.Anumberofplantsoci-
ology schools developed subsequently at the beginning of the
20th century, two of which rapidly gained importance – the
Zurich-Montpellier and the Uppsala schools. In 1915, Braun
Blanquet defined the plant community as a plant group having
characteristic (indicator) species and a stability with the sur-
rounding environment (Rodwell, 1991–2000; Podani, 2006).
The plant community of a region is a function not only of time
but also of other factors such as altitude, slope, latitude, aspect,
rainfall and humidity, all of which play a role in its formation
and composition (Kharkwal et al., 2005). The ecological diver-
sity of vegetation communities is a measure of the strength of
the whole ecosystem (Thompson and Brown, 1992;
McGrady-Steed and Morin, 2000). The choice of sampling
method used in any phytosociological study depends on the
types of data desired, the objective of the study, the morphology
of the vegetation, the geomorphologyof the region, the available
resources and time (Moore and Chapman, 1986; Biondi, 2011).
The number of samples to be taken from a study area has to be
enough to provide a good representation of the plant communi-
ties of that area.
The most common quantitative sampling methods are the
quadrat and line transects. The quadrat method originated with
Frederick Edward Clements (1874–1945) (Weaver and
Clements, 1938, 1966). In its simplest form the quadrat is used
to count the individuals and estimate cover of each species to de-
termine their abundance, but it is also used to determine differ-
ences in the composition and structure of vegetation. It allows
the user to define a fixed area, called a plot or releve´, within
which plant characteristics are measured. This may be adapted
in a variety of ways for analysing almost any type of vegetation.
The line transect is typically used when there are apparent vege-
tation differences, such as along a gradient, from one point of
interest to another within a sampling site. The two methods are
often used together, especially when both quantification of vege-
tation and assessment of ecological gradients are desirable.
Speciescomposition,plantspeciesdensity,coverandabundance
are the most important characteristics for sampling with quadrats
(Cox, 1996; Khan et al., 2013a). Several scales for ranking vege-
tation cover have been suggested; two commonly used are the
Braun Blanquet (1884–1980) and Daubenmire (1968) cover
class scales (Braun-Blanquet et al., 1932; Daubenmire, 1968).
This is done by assigning cover class estimates for herbaceous
and shrubby vegetation while diameter at breast height (dbh) is
used for trees (Goldsmith et al., 1986).
Once phytosociological data are collected, they need to be
analysed in a statistical framework. Multivariate statistical
techniques, which have emerged in the last few decades,
help ecologists to discover structure in the data set and to
analyse the effects of environmental factors on whole groups
of species (Clymo, 1980; Bergmeier, 2002; Anderson et al.,
2006). Computer technology has revolutionized the field of
community ecology, with a range of statistical programs avail-
able to help ecologists to understand and interpret ecological
data in a more precise way. Software packages such as
TWINSPAN, DECORANA (Hill, 1979; Hill and Gauch,
1980), CANOCO (ter Braak, 1989; ter Braak and Smilauer,
2002) and PC-ORD (McCune, 1986; McCune and Mefford,
1999; Grandin, 2006) are examples of packages used for vege-
tation classification and ordination in quantitative ecology
(Gilliam and Elizabeth, 2003). Community data are summar-
ized by constructing a low dimensional space, in which
similar samples and species are placed close together and dis-
similar ones far apart from each other by convenient and ob-
jective means (Gauch, 2010). Agglomerative cluster analysis
(ACA), indicator species analysis (ISA), detrended corres-
pondence analysis (DCA), principal components analysis
(PCA) and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) are the
most widely used classification and ordination techniques to
determine plant communities, their ecological gradients, indi-
cator species, and the significance of the relationships between
floristic and environmental data (Hill and Gauch, 1980; ter
Braak, 1987; Dufreˆne and Legendre, 1997). More recently
the combination of field survey with remote sensing
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4. techniques for mapping vegetation and habitat types has
increased (Sherrouse et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2011; ten
Brink et al., 2013).
Humans have used the services of ecosystems, particularly the
vegetation, for millennia, but in lessthan 100 years it has become
increasinglyobviousthatouruseisnolongersustainableandthat
many ecosystems are no longer functioning adequately.
Phytosociological knowledge now needs to be combined with
equally rigorous ethnobotanical analysis if humankind is to
have any hope of restoring ecosystem services to their optima
again.
The ethnobotanical approach for assessing plant-based
ecosystem services
Natural vegetationprovidesbasicneeds forindigenous human
communities and is often their prime source of livelihood, espe-
cially in the developing world. Plant–human relationships are as
old as human history. In AD 77, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides
published ‘De Materia Medica’, a catalogue of about 600 plants
intheMediterranean region,withinformation onhowtheGreeks
used the plants, especially for medicinal purposes. The records
from earlier cultures of Africa and China, the Nile and the
Indus valleys have also revealed the use of herbal medicines by
the inhabitants of those regions over several millennia (Baqar,
2001). The American botanist John William Hershberger used
the term ethnobotany for the first time in 1895 in a lecture in
Philadelphia to describe the scientific study of the relationships
that exist between people and plants (Hershberger, 1895).
Ethnobotany involves botany, anthropology, ecology, econom-
ics and linguistics. It can inform us about the present-day uses
of plant species, including the development of new products
such as drugs from plants, and their conservation status.
Traditional botanical knowledge can be used in the assessment
of economic benefits derived from plants, both at basic and at
commercial levels. Such knowledge can be used as an analytical
tool for the quantification of provisioning services provided by
vegetation and can also maximize the value of traditional eco-
logical knowledge. It can be applied in long-term management
and conservation strategies (Pieroni and Giusti, 2009; Anthwal
et al., 2010; Tang and Gavin, 2010). The World Health
Organization (WHO) has recognized the role that plants play
in traditional healing systems and thereby their contribution to
the provision of health services, particularly in the developing
world. Moreover, plants have provided the models for 50 % of
the present-day allopathic drugs in the developed world
(Robbers et al., 1996). Due to this immense value, some of the
plants utilized for ethnomedicines are in decline due to over-
collecting.
Ethnobotanical studies investigate the structural relationships
between human society and the environment using socio-
anthropological methods; these relationships can be social,
economic, symbolic, religious, commercial and/or artistic
(Aumeeruddy, 2003). Such studies can thus be a useful tool to
quantify ecosystem services (Ford, 1994; Phillips et al., 1994).
Recently, in rapidly developing parts of theworld, ethnobotanic-
al studies have progressed from the production of inventories of
plant species towards more practical quantitative approaches
which place emphasis on sustainable use and the conservation
of plant resources (Rossato et al., 1999; Da Cunha and De
Albuquerque, 2006; Uniyal et al., 2006; De Albuquerque,
2009; Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2010).
Information on how indigenous people interact with the
natural environment can be collected and analysed in a number
of ways depending on the study objectives and research ques-
tions. Such analyses may range from laboratory analyses (e.g.
to identify therapeutic compounds), to ethnobotanical surveys
and assessment of priorities for conservation management.
Whatever the analyses may be used for, one common require-
ment is that the information is obtained in a systematic manner
(Martin, 2004; Thomas et al., 2007, 2009) but, in contrast to
scientific fieldwork, ethnobotanical surveys require that the
researcher deploys additional skills such as calmness, patience,
courtesy, empathy and keeping secrets (Ragupathy et al., 2008;
Miehe et al., 2009) in their interactions with indigenous
communities.
Ethnobotanical data have been analysed qualitatively to
record plant uses and the plant parts that are collected, but
more recently, quantitative ethnobotany has led to more rigorous
hypothesis-based analyses of data sets (Phillips et al., 1994;
Rossato et al., 1999; Da Cunha and De Albuquerque, 2006; De
Albuquerque, 2009). Ethnobotanical data sets based on indigen-
ous traditional knowledge can be tallied and analysed together
with datafrom vegetation surveysto provide a better understand-
ing and management of ecosystems (Moerman, 1991; Negi,
2010). One such approach, which will be described in more
detail below, is the integration of plant UVs derived from ethno-
botanical surveys with phytosociological data on the distribution
and relative importance of individual plant species within acom-
munity, by dividing the number of uses of particular species in a
region by the number of informants from that region (Phillips
et al., 1994; Mucina, 1997; Da Cunha and De Albuquerque,
2006).
BOTANICAL CONSERVATION IN ASIAN
MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS
The unique topographic attributes of mountain areas, such as
slope, aspect and altitude, provide characteristic spatial patterns
for mountain ecosystems and processes (Radcliffe, 1982).
Prominent vegetation zones are based mainly on altitudinal
and climatic variations, while the variation in aspect enhances
habitat heterogeneity and brings micro-environmental variation
in to the vegetation pattern (Clapham, 1973). High mountains all
over the globe are important locations for species-rich assem-
blages (Dirnbo¨ck et al., 2001; Vetaas and Grytnes, 2002;
Casazza et al., 2005, 2008; Fu et al., 2006; Nowak et al., 2011)
and endemic floras (Myers et al., 2000; Halloy and Mark,
2003; Kazakis et al., 2007; Khan, 2012). The Himalayas, the
mountains of Central Asia, south-west China, the Caucasus,
East Africa and the Andes are recognized as globally important
biodiversity hotspots (Fig. 2).
Mountain biodiversity is, however, under threat and a number
of endangered plant species are on the verge of disappearance
because montane plant species respond in a very sensitive way
to environmental change (Gordon et al., 2002; Holtmeier and
Broll, 2005; Miller et al., 2006; Thuiller, 2007). This is, in
part, a consequence of the narrow ecological amplitudes dis-
played by many montane and alpine species, but it also reflects
Khan et al. — Plant biodiversity conservation in montane ecosystemsPage 4 of 23
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5. increasing grazing pressure or collection for food or other uses
(Hobbs and Huenneke, 1992). As a result, mountain regions
are predicted to be locations for rapid species extinction, particu-
larly under the threat of global warming (Kullman, 2010).
Studies have already shown an upward elevation shift of
habitattypesandofalpine species overtherecent pastandtheap-
pearance of species from lower altitudes at higher elevations
(Valley, 2003; Dobbertin et al., 2005; Beckage et al., 2008;
Lenoir et al., 2008; Walther et al., 2009; Takahashi et al.,
2012), combined with the dominance of more resistant and vig-
orous species. Consequently, vegetation homogeneity has
increasedinsomelocations,enhancedbytheselectiveutilization
of plants by humans (Collins et al., 2002; Kikvidze et al., 2005;
Srivastava and Vellend, 2005; Del Moral et al., 2010; Grabherr
et al., 2011).
Montane ecosystems need proper management against these
negative climatic and anthropogenic influences for their future
sustainability (Kessler, 2000; Halloy and Mark, 2003;
Holzinger et al., 2008; Erschbamer et al., 2011). Sustainable
approaches to resource use are particularly urgent in less eco-
nomically developed countries where there is a strong reliance
by the indigenous people on plant resources. In the Himalayas,
for example, there is widespread traditional use of species,
often resulting in overuse, combined with a lack of botanical
recording which makes the planning of conservation strategies
a challenging task. The Himalayas differ from other mountain
systems, for example the European Alps, in that in the former
the people still possess an intact traditional healthcare system
and ethnobotanical knowledge. Ethnobotanical knowledge has
been largely lost in the Alps by contrast, and there is also a
lower population density at high altitudes. The main land-use
problem in the Alps at the current time is land abandonment,
rather than degradation through over-exploitation (Gehrig-
Fasel et al., 2009; Niedrist et al., 2009).
Bringing sustainability into the use and management of plant
resources in mountain areas is a challenging task, especially in
remote mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, Hindu Kush
and Karakoram where there are both geographical and geopol-
itical constraints. These mountain ranges are also located in
geopolitically immature and democratically young countries
such as India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan where, in the
majority of cases, policy-makers and politicians pay little
regard to the scientific evidence on plant biodiversity and
threats to its survival when taking decisions related to natural
resource management. In addition, parts of these geopolitical
territories have faced various political or tribal conflicts
and unrest, e.g. the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan.
Such unrest reduces the opportunity for documentation of
existing biodiversity and the implementation of conservation
management.
California
Floristic
Province
Madrean
Pine-Oak
Woodlands
Tumbes-
Chocó-
Magdalena
Caribbean
Islands
Mediterranean
Basin
Caucasus Mountains of
Central Asia
Mountains of
Southwest
China
Irano-
Anatolian
Indo-
Burma
Himalaya
Japan
Philippines
Polynesia-
Micronesia
Sundaland
Wallacea
East
Melanesian
Islands
New
Caledonia
Southwest
Australia
Forests
of East
Australia
Western
Ghats
and
Sri LankaHorn of
Africa
Mesoamerica
Cerrado
Atlantic Forest
Guinean Forests
of West Africa
Cape
Floristic
Region
Biodiversity hot spots
Maputaland-
Pondoland-Albany
Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
Madagsscar
and the
Indian Ocean
Islands
Tropical
Polynesia -
Micronesia
New
Zealand
Andes
Chilean
Winter
Rainfall-
Valdivian
Forests
Succulent
Karoo
New Zealand
EasternAfromontane
FIG. 2. Biodiversityhotspotsaroundtheglobe(Myersetal.,2000).Source:http://www.conservation.org/where/priority_areas/hotspots/Pages/hotspots_main.aspx)
Khan et al. — Plant biodiversity conservation in montane ecosystems Page 5 of 23
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6. The plant resources and botanical importance of the Central Asian
mountains – the three largest mountain ranges of the world
The Irano-Turanian region of the Tethyan sub-kingdom has a
rich and significant floristic diversity due to the presence of
several mountain ranges. This region, which encompasses
Afghanistan, most parts of Iran and north-western Pakistan, a
few central Asian states, southern China and northern India, sup-
ports diverse vegetation communities, owing to the diversity of
geo-climatic zones and the presence of five significant mountain
systems – the Kirthar and Suleiman with the world’s largest
three – Hindu Kush, Karakorum and Himalayas (Fig. 3).
These mountain ranges meet together in north-western
Pakistan where they hold a plant biodiversity of about 19 000
species (Champion and Harry, 1965; Dasti et al., 2010).
The Kirthar mountain range commences at the Arabian Sea
coast and extends about 300 km northwards to the Mula River
in the east-central Baluchistan of Pakistan. Due to low rainfall,
poor soil conditions, deforestation and grazing pressures these
mountains are less rich in floristic diversityand are predominant-
lyoccupiedbyxerophyticplantspeciessuchasZiziphusnummu-
laria, Salvadora oleoides, Dodonea viscosa, Grewia tenax and
Capparis deciduas (Enright et al., 2005; Perveen and Hussain,
2007).
The Sulaiman Mountains are a major geological feature of
the northern Baluchistan province; they extend westward to
the Zabul province in Afghanistan and northward to the
Hindu Kush. Their vegetation is sparse and scattered in the
form of tufts of grasses and thorny plants; Pinus gerardiana
(Chilghoza) forests are unique to this range.
The Hindu Kush mountain range stretches 800 km between
the Suleiman range (in the south-west), the Himalayas (in the
east) and the Karakorum (in the north-east) and forms the
geopolitical boundary between Pakistan and Afghanistan. The
forest areas of the Hindu Kush are characterized by Cedrus
deodara, Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus roxburgii
and Abies pindrow especially in wetter areas that come under
the influence of the monsoon. The eastern part of the Hindu
Kush becomes increasingly similar to the adjacent Himalayas
in terms of climate and flora, and thus most bio-geographers
use the collective term Hindu Kush-Himalaya (HKH) for these
ranges (Miehe et al., 2009; Dong et al., 2010).
The Karakorum mountain range, which is about 500 km long,
connects the plateaux of Tibet and the Pamir and forms a part of
the political border between Pakistan, India and China (Xiang
et al., 2002; Phartiyal et al., 2005; Eberhardt et al., 2007;
Marston, 2008; Khan et al., 2009). The vegetation is mainly
xeric in nature due to the cold, arid climate. Vegetation zones
can be categorized on the basis of humidity and elevation gradi-
ent from semi-desert, through montane shrub to alpine meadow.
A few studies indicate the shrubby nature of the vegetation
at lower altitudes (around 2700 m), with alpine pastures at
higher altitudes (above 3500 m). Characteristic plant species
of the Karakorum Range are Salix karelinii and Juniperus
semiglobosa.
The Himalayan range of mountains is about 2500 km long and
400 km wide and occupies a comparatively small part of
Pakistani territory but a larger part of India, Nepal and China.
Important indicator species of the Himalayan range are Pinus
wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Rhododendron species, Fragaria
nubicola, Viola species and Clematis species. Floristically, the
vegetation of the western and northern Himalayas becomes
increasingly analogous, respectively, to that of the Hindu
Kush and the monsoon belt of the Karakorum mountains in
terms of species composition and richness, owing to geological,
USSR
IRAN
PAKISTAN
CHINA
INDIA
KIR
SUR
KAR
HKR
HIR
WESTERN
IRANO-TURANIAN
SUBREGION
EASTERN
IRANO-TURANIAN
SUBREGION
SAHARO-SINDIAN
REGION
INDIAN REGION
SINO JAP
ANESE
REG
IO
N
FIG. 3. Irano-Turanian region showing five of the world’s significant mountain systems: the Himalayas Range (HIR), Karakorum Range (KAR), Hindu Kush Range
(HKR), Suleiman Range (SUR) and the Kirthar Range (KIR). Source: http://botany.org/plantsciencebulletin/psb-2008-54-4.php
Khan et al. — Plant biodiversity conservation in montane ecosystemsPage 6 of 23
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7. physiographic and climatic similarities. Alpine and subalpine
habitats, where altitude becomes the most powerful limiting
factor, further strengthen thefloristicaffinities with highereleva-
tion vegetation of the Hindu Kush and the western Himalayas
(Miehe et al., 1996; Pei, 1998; Hamayun et al., 2006;
Eberhardt et al., 2007; Qureshi et al., 2007a; Wazir et al.,
2008; Ahmad et al., 2009; Ali and Qaiser, 2009).
Plant diversity decreases with a reduction in the monsoon
effect as one moves from south-east to north-west in the
Himalayas. Other factors responsible for this decline are the in-
crease in altitudinal and latitudinal gradients. In general the
Himalayan vegetation ranges from tropical evergreen species
in the south-east to thorn steppe and alpine species in the north-
western parts (Behera and Kushwaha, 2007; Fig. 4). The domin-
ance of an endemic flora in the western Himalayas, especially at
high elevations, indicates the high conservation importance of
these ecosystems (Dhar 2002); Dhar advocates that the timber-
line zones should be protected as priority regions. Throughout
the Himalayan range, plants are threatened by the high anthropo-
genic pressures exerted by farming, herding, fuel, timber, and
medicinal plant collection. In response, the mountain vegetation
of this region has become a significant focus inrecent ecological,
conservation and ethnobotanical studies (Hamayun et al., 2003;
Parolly, 2004; Lovett et al., 2006; Khan et al., 2007, 2012a, b;
Shaheen et al., 2011, 2012).
Plant conservation efforts in the Himalayas
Despite possessing very diverse vegetation (Shrestha and
Joshi, 1996), the plant resources of the Irano-Turanian region
in general and the Himalayas in particular have not been exam-
ined thoroughly due to climatic, socioeconomic and geopolitical
constraints. These mountains support approximately 19 000
plant species of which approximately 7500 are valued for their
medicinal uses (Pei, 1998). Unlike the eastern Himalayas,
where monsoon-driven vegetation predominates under higher
rainfall and humidity (Behera et al., 2005; Dutta and Agrawal,
2005; Roy and Behera, 2005; Chawla et al., 2008; Anthwal
et al., 2010), the vegetation in the western Himalayas in
general (Dickore´ and Nu¨sser, 2000; Chawla et al., 2008;
Ahmad et al., 2009; Kukshal et al., 2009; Shaheen et al.,
2011), and in the Naran Valley in particular (Khan et al.,
2011a), has closer affinities with that of the Hindu Kush moun-
tains, which have a drier and cooler climate (Noroozi et al.,
2008; Wazir et al., 2008; Ali and Qaiser, 2009). Nevertheless,
the vegetation in both these mountain systems as well as in the
Karakorum (Miehe et al., 1996; Eberhardt et al., 2007) exhibits
greatsimilarityabovethetreeline(Mieheetal.,2009),wherecli-
matic conditions are more comparable.
Only very few studies have used modern numerical/statistical
techniquestoquantifyandmodelplantspecies,communitiesand
environmental as well as cultural drivers of vegetation variation
CHINA
1
2
3 6
4
5
Dhangarti
INDIA
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Kathmandu 8
7
9
Mount Everest
Sikkim
(INDIA)
FIG. 4. Vegetation zonations in the Himalayas, using Nepal as an example. (1) Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. (2) Western Himalayan subalpine
conifer forests. (3) Himalayan subtropical pine forests. (4) Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests. (5) Savanna and grasslands. (6) Western Himalayan broadleaf
forests. (7) Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. (8) Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests. (9) Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. Source:
World Wildlife Fund http://www.eoearth.org/article/Nepal?topic=49460
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8. in thisregion, particularly in themore distant and leastaccessible
parts of the mountains. In addition, plant community identifica-
tion and classification using modern techniques has so far been
restricted to the plains and low-altitude areas (Qureshi et al.,
2006; Dasti et al., 2007; Perveen and Hussain, 2007; Saima
et al., 2009; Siddiqui et al., 2009). The remote mountainous
areasmustnowbethefocusforvegetationstudiesduetotheirim-
portant phytogeographical location (Adhikari et al., 1995). In
addition to the scientific exploration ofbiotic and abiotic compo-
nents of mountain ecosystems, there is also an immediate need
for facilitation, social mobilization and education of the indigen-
ous people of these remote regions. Education and awareness
about habitat destruction, and decreasing biodiversity with in-
creasing population and climate change are high priorities (Dı´az
et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2007; Hermy et al., 2008; Giam et al.,
2010). The indigenous mountain people have a great deal of trad-
itionalecologicalknowledgeaboutvegetationecosystemservices,
particularly provisioning services, which, in return, needs to be
documented and incorporated into conservation and climate
change adaptation strategies. Thus, there needs to be a three-way
participatory flow of knowledge and information between vegeta-
tion scientists, local people and conservation managers.
In a recent review, Vacˇka´rˇ et al. (2012) pointed out that each
aspect of biodiversity cannot be assessed using a single indicator
and suggested the use of multiple indices and indicators for a
better understanding of biodiversity in relation to human activ-
ities (Dolan et al., 2011; Feola et al., 2011; Vacˇka´rˇ et al.,
2012). In our study in the western Himalayas (Khan, 2012), we
employed two different approaches to identify indicator
species based on ecological as well as cultural analyses.
‘Ecological’indicatorspecieswereidentifiedasaresultofexten-
sive vegetation description and statistical analysis, while ‘trad-
itional’ indicator species were recognized on the basis of
ethnobotanical surveys amongst local people. The ecological
componentofthis studywas distinctiveas ourwork identified in-
dicator species based on their ecological fidelity and abundance.
Othervegetationstudiesalongenvironmentalgradientsinmoun-
tain ecosystems have merely compared the diversity indices
among communities and treated all species equally without con-
sidering theirecological position and their meaning in those par-
ticular ecosystems (Carpenter, 2005; Oommen and Shanker,
2005; Gould et al., 2006; Ren et al., 2006; Dasti et al., 2007;
Crimmins et al., 2008; Wazir et al., 2008; Siddiqui et al.,
2009). We used species abundance data in PCORD to calculate
the indicator values and thus at least one statistically significant
indicator species was selected from each of the tree, shrub and
herb layers in each of the plant communities using ISA. At the
same time the faithfulness of these indicators was tested by
their categorization in fidelity classes. Species with higher fidel-
ity values were considered to have the maximum conservation
priority, i.e. these were species having restricted distribution,
and probably special or fragmented habitats and were at
highest risk (Zou et al., 2007; Pinke and Pa´l, 2008; Haarmeyer
et al., 2010). One of the individual aspects of our study was com-
bining IVIs and UVs in theiranalysesto obtain residual values of
plant species signifying anthropogenic pressure on them. Thus,
thisapproachopensupanewwaytostudyandmanageecosystem
services and environmental sustainability (Layke et al., 2011;
Moldan et al., 2011) and to prioritize special habitats and
species of conservation importance.
Identification of traditional use patterns of plant resources in the
westernHimalayas;asteptowardsbetterconservationmanagement
In the remote valleys of the Himalayas people exploit natural
resources and vegetation according to their seasonal migration
with livestockto summer pasturesand theyhavevaluable knowl-
edge of the ecosystem servicesthat can be derived from the vege-
tation. The use of plants for medicinal uses, grazing and fodder
now imposes a high pressure on the plant biodiversity, with
implications for longer-term sustainability; with some species
under such continuous pressure they are likely to become
extinct in the near future. Anthropogenic activities and biodiver-
sity are in conflict with each other. People choose species only
because of their own needs and hence put pressure on rare
species (Ahmad et al., 2002). The major social problems respon-
siblefortheenormous anthropogenicpressuresonthevegetation
in the region are the increased population, prevailing poverty,
lackofawarenessandpooreducation,which combinetoincrease
the competition for and overexploitation of the natural plant
resources.
In a study of the Naran Valley (Khan, 2012), we evaluated the
knowledge of local people about recent trends in abundance of
various plant species. There was a close coincidence between
the findings from both ecological and ethnobotanical perspec-
tives indicating a high extinction risk for plant species most
valued (Khan et al., 2012b). Many of the species recorded in
this study (83 %) provide an array of provisioning services.
Preference analysis showed medicinal use to be highest
(56.9 % of responses) followed by grazing and food (13.1 and
10.8 %, respectively). The elevated priority given to medicinal
use illustrates the depth of traditional knowledge about plants
in the community and the lack of basic health facilities. It can
also be attributed to the high market value of medicinal species
(Khan et al., 2013b).
Each medicinal speciesfound intheregion is noteworthy but a
few have a pre-eminent importance in the local healthcare
system. Dioscorea deltoidea, for example, is used to treat
urinary tract problems, and as a tonic and anthelmintic. Local
hakeems (experts in traditional medicine) use Podophyllum hex-
andrum in digestive troubles and for treating cancer. Powdered
bark of Berberis pseudoumbellata is used for the treatment of
fever, backache, jaundice and urinary tract infections whilst its
fruit is valued as a tonic. Orchid species such as Cypripedium
cordigerum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea are considered to be
aphrodisiacs and used as nerve tonics. All of these species are
listed by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) (Fig. 5). We
found 97 prominent remedial uses of medicinal plants, divided
into 15 major categories based on ailments of specific parts of
the human system. The largest number of ailments cured with
medicinal plants were associated with the digestive system
(32.76 % responses) followed by those associated with the re-
spiratory and urinary systems (13.72 and 9.13 %, respectively)
(Khan et al., 2013b). There was considerable harmony
between peoples’ own perception of the ecological status of
each species when compared with the classification of the
plant species according to the IUCN Red List criteria.
Indigenous people reported a reducing trend in the availability
and population sizes of 112 plant species (56.56 % of the total
species), 32 of which fell in the IUCN category of Critically
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9. Endangered, 22 in Endangered, 18 in Vulnerable, 24 in Near
Threatened and only 16 in the category of Least Concern.
Alarmingly, most of the species of conservation concern were
classed as either endemic, indicator or faithful species with
high habitat specificity, indicating that these species required
specific conservation attention from all stake holders (Khan
et al., 2011a, b, 2012a, b, 2013c) (Fig. 6).
Integration of species’ IV (abundance) with UV gave the
pattern of use with high significance (Khan et al., 2011b;
Khan, 2012) and residual value analyses using linear regression
statistics revealed that 93 species (50.8 % of the used and 46.9 %
of the total species) had residual values greater than the standard
deviation, signifying they are overused. The top 10 species with
highest residuals were Juglans regia, Polygonatum verticilla-
tum, Origanum vulgare, Cedrus deodara, Malva neglecta,
Rumex nepalensis, Rheum australe, Geranium wallichianum,
Polygonum aviculare and Paeonia emodi.
Reduction in vegetation-derived ecosystem services: a threat to
sustainable utilization of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems
Plant resources are the most accessible source of products and
incomes foreconomically marginalized societies, and are subse-
quently under extensive pressure to provide both provisioning
and environmental benefits. Sustainable utilization and conser-
vationofbiodiversityareessentialforthecontinuationofecosys-
tem functioning (Srivastava and Vellend, 2005; Kienast et al.,
2009); nevertheless, indigenous people give less attention to
long-term ecosystem goods and services as they focus, of
necessity, on marginal and short-term benefits. Local residents,
especially of the older generation, prefer to live in the mountains
because they can derive free benefits from accessing a range of
plant-derived provisioning ecosystem services. In contrast,
members of the younger generation tend to leave these rural
spaces in search of education, facilities and an ‘easy’ modern
life;thus,theyarelessawareofordependentuponecosystemser-
vices. Over time, the traditional ecological knowledge of the
older generation will diminish or, at worst, be entirely lost.
Extensive use of natural vegetation in the past has decreased
the provisioning services in montane ecosystems (Pereira
et al., 2005; Sharma et al., 2008; Duraiappah, 2011; Khan
et al., 2012b). The consequence of the imbalance in supply of
these services and the increasing human demands has been de-
terioration in the condition of the natural habitats and increasing
rarity of plant biodiversity (Dı´az et al., 2006; Giam et al., 2010;
Khan et al., 2012b). These effects are becoming exacerbated as
indigenous people can neither access alternative services
locally (e.g. healthcare services, which are either sparsely
located and/or expensive) nor can they compete in urban soci-
eties. Linked with the imminent threat of species extinctions as
a result of non-sustainable exploitation, the traditional indigen-
ous knowledge of the people is at considerable threat of being
eroded and ultimately lost.
Plant biodiversity can, however, be restored and the risks of
ecosystem degradation may be combated, if measures such as re-
forestation, establishment of protected areas, greater awareness
by the people and ex-situ conservation of rare species can be
initiated (Brown and Shogren, 1998; Parody et al., 2001;
A B C
D E F
FIG. 5. SixofthemoreimportantplantspeciesusedfortraditionalmedicineinthewesternHimalayas.(A)Podophyllumhexandrum(seeAppendix,speciesno.69for
details). (B) Rheum australe (species no. 79). (C) Primula denticulata (species no. 72). (D) Polygonatum verticillatum (species no. 70). (E) Fritillaria roylei (species
no. 39). (F) Paeonia emodi (species no. 60).
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10. Niemi and McDonald, 2004; Pereira et al., 2005; Muzaffaret al.,
2011). Long-term management and conservation strategies
might therefore have optimistic outcomes for both maintaining
and restoring mountain biodiversity and ecosystem services,
which would also have a positive impact on the lowland ecosys-
tems by ensuring the flow of rivers for irrigation of agricultural
land (Archer and Fowler, 2004).
Biodiversity conservation: the role of indigenous knowledge
In addition tothe three mostwidelyaccepted biodiversity con-
servation criteria – rarity, threat and endemism – there are other
important criteria that should be considered – historical, trad-
itionalandeducationalvalues.Traditionalecologicalknowledge
in Asia in general and in the remote valleys of the western
Himalayas and Hindu Kush in particular, can play a key role in
the formulation and implementation of conservation strategies.
Such knowledge reflects a life time’s experience of the relation-
ship between human cultures and the natural environment.
Increasing urbanization and industrialization cause losses of
traditional knowledge as the natural environment becomes
degraded or as people move away from their native villages.
Traditionalethnomedicinalknowledgeisaparticularandvaluable
formofindigenousknowledge;itisaculturalassetthatcanbeused
for the recognition and preservation of valuable species as well as
the habitats in which they occur (Pieroni et al., 2007; Jules et al.,
2008;Gaikwadetal.,2011).IntheHimalayas,populationgrowth,
prevailing povertyand expansion of agricultural land are the main
causes of habitat and biodiversity loss and achieving the goal of
sustainable resource use requires the management and collabor-
ation of various governmental and non-governmental agencies
involved in natural resources supervision and management
together with the local communities (Gorenflo and Brandon,
2005). Apart from a numberof other constraints, geopolitical bar-
riers have always been hurdles in effective conservation measures
and strategies and must be overcome for the betterment of sustain-
able future (Sandwith, 2003).
The need for an IUCN Red Data book for Himalayan biodiversity
Thereisnothoroughwork,suchasaRedDataBook,onendan-
gered plant species in the Himalayan region, despite its unique
Critically Endangered = 8
Endangered = 7
Endemic = 19
Critically Endangered = 8
Endangered = 7
Endemic = 19
Hindu Kush
Range
Naran Valley, Himalayas Range2450 m
S - Aspect
4000 m 2450 m 4100 m
N - Aspect
3450 m
Lake Saiful Malook
Malika Parbat
(5,291 m)
Lake Lulusar
Babusar Pass
Critically Endangered = 3
Endangered = 3
Endemic = 10
Critically Endangered = 9
Endangered = 8
Endemic = 24
Critically Endangered = 10
Endangered = 4
Endemic = 5
Com. 5
Com. 4
Com. 3
Com. 2
Com. 1
FIG. 6. SchematicmapoftheNaranValley,westernHimalayashowingitsvariousvegetationzones(communities,Com.)andconservationstatusofendemicspecies.
For area and communities details see Khan et al., 2011a, b, 2012a, b; Khan, 2012.
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11. endemic flora. There has been very limited and fragmented pub-
lished work on only a few IUCN Red List plant species (Ali,
2008; Alam and Ali, 2009, 2010; Ali and Qaiser, 2011), so one
can find very few comparators to evaluate endangered and critic-
al plant species at a national level (Ali, 2008). In part this is a
result of the political conflict in this area over the last century
(Hanson et al., 2009). New efforts are, however, emerging and
can be seen in a few publications over the last two or three
years (Alam and Ali, 2010; Ali and Qaiser, 2011), although
these provide descriptions of a very limited number of species.
The case study by Khan (2012) can be compared with studies
from other areas of the Himalaya, especially the eastern, in
terms of the potential for linking endemism and ecosystem ser-
vices (Samant and Dhar, 1997; Aumeeruddy, 2003; Kala,
2007;Qureshietal.,2007b)andcouldleadthewayindeveloping
a robust approach to critically evaluate the vegetation across the
wider Himalayan region. In our studyof the Naran Valleyseveral
plant species were recorded that are known to be endangered
either globally or regionally and are listed by CITES. On the
basis of IUCN criteria, several species were categorised as
Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable
(VU) and Near Threatened (NT). Only 39.4 % of the total
species come under the IUCN criterion of Least Concern (LC)
(IUCN Categories, 2001; IUCN Standards and Petitions
Subcommittee, 2011).
The western Himalayas host a flora that is rich in endemic
species, with 300 endemic species documented (Ali et al.,
1972–2009; Ali, 2008). Endemic species have an exceptional
individuality and significance as their distribution is limited to
a particular region, and hence ecologists and taxonomists
always emphasize their quantification, documentation and con-
servation as a key priority. In 2002, the Convention on
Biological Diversity agreed to protect 50 % of the significant
regions for plant diversity and conservation based on species en-
demism, richness and ecosystem endangerment (Ma et al.,
2007). In our study of the Naran Valley, 64 plant species
(32.32 %) of the total are endemic to the three mountain
systems of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakorum.
Twenty of these are endemic to the Himalayas alone, 29 are mu-
tually shared by the Himalayas and Hindu Kush, while 19 are
mutually shared by all three mountain ranges (reference: Flora
of Pakistan). Applying IUCN Red List criteria at a regional
level to these 64 endemic species, shows 20 as Critically
Endangered (CR), 14 as Endangered (EN), 12 as Vulnerable
(VU), 11 as Near Threatened (NT) and only seven as of Least
Concern (LC). These results indicate that the Naran Valley is
Valuation of regulatory
services for flood control,
erosion control, irrigation
water and hydropower
development
Molecular and biochemical
studies of the species under
various environmental
gradients
Consultation with
government for
sustainable management of
the resources and policy
issues
Valuation of cultural services
for preservation and its use
in conservation strategies
Valuation of supporting
services like soil analyses,
formation and nutrient
cycles, etc.
• Prioritization
• In situ conservation
• Domestication of rare species
Future
Future
Future
Future
Plants
Ecosystem functions,
interactions, goods
and services
Environment
People
FIG. 7. The major topics for biodiversity conservation in montane ecosystem.
Khan et al. — Plant biodiversity conservation in montane ecosystems Page 11 of 23
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12. a hot spot for endemic flora, with three species being endemic to
Pakistan (Appendix). The endemic species have a high fidelity
level (fidelity classes 3–5), signifying the selective nature of
the environmental conditions under which they grow (Khan,
2012). The highest numbers of endemic subalpine species
were recorded in a northern aspect plant community at altitudes
of between 2800 and 3400 m and in a timberline plant commu-
nity (3300–4000 m).
We thus suggest that the use of IUCN Red List criteria should
be given priorityand that newgovernment and corporate policies
be implemented to allow for ecosystem services to be included
systematically in economic decisions. Such concepts can also
be applied beyond land and resource management, in broader
government and corporate investment decisions that impact bio-
diversity.Bybuildingontheevidenceandtoolsfrompastefforts,
new solutions can be designed to maintain the critical plant
resources that sustain both the mountain and the lowland ecosys-
tems. A narrow range of habitats for specific indicator species
and the presence of endemic vegetation in the region indicate
that, once deteriorated, these mountain plant species would be
extremely difficult to restore due to a number of climatic,
edaphic and anthropogenic constraints. Our study emphasizes
the importance of this fragile ecosystem for long-term environ-
mental sustainability and ecosystem services management
(Fig. 7).
SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS
This review emphasizes the need for sustainable utilization of
plant biodiversity in order to maintain provisioning ecosystem
services on the one hand and indigenous traditional knowledge
which enables these uses on the other hand. The anthropogenic
impacts on the vegetation require an assessment of the conserva-
tion status of all plant species and of the indicator, rare and
endemicspeciesinparticular.Wehavedemonstratedhowaneth-
noecological approach towards biodiversity conservation can be
linked to quantitative ecology. This is a novel, integrative ap-
proach involving knowledge obtained from phytosociological
classification, ordination, distribution, richness, diversity, eco-
system services and ethnobotanical perceptions of conservation.
The findings from our case study from a remote Himalayan
valley, located amongst three of the world’s largest mountain
ranges, illustrates how this approach can be used to identify the
conservation status of plant species, from the perspective of
both ecological criteria (i.e. endemism, endangerment and
rarity) and the traditional knowledge of local people. Future
work should address the long-lasting consequences of the loss
of plant biodiversity for the sustainability of ecosystem services
other than just provisioning services, i.e. also regulatory, sup-
porting and cultural services.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Professor Pat Heslop-Harrison, Department of Biology,
University of Leicester, is gratefully acknowledged for con-
structive assessment of S.H.K.’s PhD which led to the present
invited review. Professor Heiko Balzter (Professor of Physical
Geography and Director of the Centre for Landscape and
Climate Research) is also acknowledged for providing facilities
in Leicester as Research Fellow to complete this paper.
LITERATURE CITED
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APPENDIX
Species of conservation priority from a case study in one
Himalayan valley (Khan, 2012) based on their residual values
(descending order), % constancy, perception of abundance
(trend mentioned by indigenous people), IUCN criteria at re-
gional level and data on endemism or other level of threat from
the published literature.
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17. APPENDIX
Species
no. Name IV
Residual
value
%
Constancy Trend
IUCN criteria applied
to our results
Endemic and Threatened status (IUCN)
at regional and global level (from
published literature)
1 Abies pindrow Royle 3027 14.038 16 D NT
2 Acantholimon
lycopodioides Boiss.
154 –14.114 2 NC VU A4cd; B2bc(i,ii,iv); C1 + 2ab
3 Acer caesium Wall ex
Brandis
49 7.538 1.6 D CR A3cd + 4cd; B2b(iii,v)c(i,ii,iv);
C1 + 2ab; D
Vulnerable in the Himalaya
4 Achillea millefolium L. 364 –5.419 16.6 NC LC
5 Aconitum heterophyllum
Wall.
58 –6.4 3.4 D EN A3cd + 4 cd; C1 + 2ab; D; E Endemic to the Himalaya and Hindu
Kush /Vulnerable species of Pakistan
6 Aconitum violaceum
Jacquen ex. Stapf
154 –5.977 8.4 D VU A4cd; B2bc(i,ii,iv); C1 + 2ab; D Endemic to the Himalaya also
Vulnerable (Kumar et al., 2011)
7 Actaea spicata L. 33 –8.362 1.4 D NT
8 Adiantum venustum
D. Don
108 –4.828 9.2 NC LC
9 Aesculus indica (Wall.
Ex Camb) Hook.
11 5.774 0.6 D CR A3cd +4cd; C1 + 2ab; D
10 Alliaria petiolata (M.
Bieb.) Cavara and
Grande
13 3.942 1.2 D CR A3cd +4cd; C1 + 2ab; D
11 Allium humile Kunth. 155 –12.238 6.8 D NT Endemic to the Himalaya (Samant and
Dhar, 1997; Pandey et al., 2008)
12 Alopecurus arundinaceus
Poir.
194 4.637 6 D LC
13 Anaphalis triplinervis
(Sims) C. B. Clarke
132 4.023 6.2 D NT
14 Androsace hazarica R.R.
Stewart ex Y. Nasir
62 –11.543 4.6 D CR A4cd; B2bc(i,ii,iv); C1 + 2ab; E Endemic to Pakistan (Ali et al., 1972–
2009)
15 Androsace primuloides
Duby
133 –11.984 5 D CR A3cd + 4; B2b(iii,v)c(i,ii,iv);
C1 + 2a; E
Endemic to the Himalaya and Hindu
Kush
16 Androsace rotundifolia
Watt
456 –10.121 26.8 D LC
17 Anemone falconeri
Thoms.
155 –10.12 9.6 D EN A3cd + 4cd; B2b(iii,v)c(i,ii,iv);
C1 + 2a; D; E
Endemic to the Himalaya and Hindu
Kush (Ali et al., 1972–2009)
18 Anemone obtusiloba
D.Don
143 –8.046 9.2 D NT Endemic to the Himalayas, Hindu Kush
and Karakorum (Shrestha et al., 2006;
Rana and Samant, 2009)
19 Anemone rupicola
Cambess
227 –12.307 8.2 D NT
20 Anemone tetrasepala
Royle
304 –11.046 10.6 D NT Endemic to the Himalayas and Hindu
Kush (Rana and Samant, 2009)
21 Angelica glauca Edgew. 167 –4.195 6 D EN A3cd + 4cd; B2b(iii,v)c(i,ii,iv);
C1 + 2; D; E
Endemic to the Himalaya and Hindu
Kush (Samant and Dhar, 1997; Rana
and Samant, 2009)
22 Apluda mutica (L.) Hack 188 –10.325 8.6 D LC
23 Aquiligea fragrans
Benth.
29 –9.337 1.2 D CR A3cd + 4cd; B2b(iii)c(i,iv);
C1 + 2; D
Endemic to the Himalaya and Hindu
Kush (Ali et al., 1972–2009)
24 Arnebia benthamii
Wallich ex. G. Done
107 –12.71 6 D CR A3cd + 4cd; B2b(iii,v)c(i,ii,iii,iv);
C1 + 2ab; D
Endemic to the Himalaya/Critically
Endangered in the Himalaya (Shrestha
et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2011)
25 Artemisia brevifolia L. 4385 –18.552 40.2 I LC
26 Artemisia vulgaris L. 381 –8.524 6.4 NC LC
27 Asparagus racemosus
Willd.
36 5.619 3.8 D CR A3cd + 4cd; B2b(iii,v)c(i,ii);
C1 + 2; D; E
28 Asperula oppositifolia
Reg. and Schmalh.
125 –12.934 4.8 D NT
29 Asplenium
adiantum-nigrum
18 –12.269 0.6 D NT
30 Aster falconeri
(C. B. Clarke) Hutch
243 –13.667 11.6 NC NT Endemic to the Himalaya and Hindu
Kush (Shrestha et al., 2006; Rana and
Samant, 2009)
31 Astragalus anisocanthus
Boiss.
271 –4.841 12.8 NC LC
32 Astragalus scorpiurus
Bunge
296 –13.996 13.4 D LC
Continued
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