The document discusses biodiversity at various levels from genes to ecosystems. It notes that India contains 8.1% of the world's biodiversity despite having only 2.4% of the land area. Biodiversity is declining rapidly due to threats like habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, population growth, overexploitation, and climate change. Conservation efforts include both in situ conservation of species within protected areas as well as ex situ conservation in zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, and wildlife sanctuaries. Maintaining biodiversity preserves ecosystem services and benefits human welfare.

2.  more than 20,000 species of ants,
 3,00,000 species of beetles,
 28,000 species of fishes and
 nearly 20,000 species of orchids.

3.  “combined diversity at all the levels of
biological organization” - Edward Wilson.
 It is the heterogeneity of various levels of
Biological organization
 macromolecules cellular organism
population species   Biomes

4.  Biodiversity, or biological diversity = the
sum of all the organism in an area,
considering the diversity of species, their
gene, their population, and their
communities is called as biodiversity.
 There is no one exact definition of
biodiversity; people have conceived of it in
many ways.

5.  Genetic diversity
 Rauwolfia vomitoria- (reserpine)
 50,000 genetically different strains of rice in India
 and 1,000 varieties of mango are also there
 Species diversity
 Western Ghats have a greater
amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.
 Ecological diversity
 deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs,
wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows are
there in India not in Scandinavian country like
Norway.

6. The total variety of a
species in a particular region
Species richness = number of species
Evenness, or relative abundance = extent to
which numbers of different species are equal or
skewed
Species = a particular type of organism or a
population or group of populations whose members
share certain characteristics and can freely breed
with one another and produce fertile offspring.

7. Includes the differences
in DNA composition
among individuals
within a given species
Adaptation to particular environmental
conditions may weed out genetic variants that are
not successful.
But populations benefit from some genetic
diversity, so as to avoid inbreeding or disease
epidemics.

8. Includes diversity above the species level.
Biologists have viewed diversity above the
species level in various ways. Some
alternative ways to categorize it include:
1. Community diversity
2. Habitat diversity
3. Landscape diversity

9. According to the IUCN (2004):
 slightly more than 1.5 million plant and animal
species are there on earth.
 Large proportion of the species waiting to be
discovered.
 Estimated to be 7 million.
 70% species are that of animals.
 Not more than 22 % plants.
 The number of
 fungi species in the world is more than the
combined total of the species of fishes,
amphibians, reptiles and mammals.

10.  India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land
area.
 global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per
cent
 one of the 12 mega diversity
 Nearly 45,000 species of plants
 twice as many of animals
 more than 1,00,000 plant species and more than
3,00, 000 animal species yet to be discovered

11.  Taxonomic methods are not suitable for
identifying microbial species.
 many species are simply not culturable under
laboratory conditions
 Species are inaccessible

12.  Latitudinal gradients:
species diversity
decreases as we move
away from the equator
towards the poles.
 Species-Area
relationships
species richness increased
with increasing explored
area, but only up to a
limit.

13.  Tropics (23.5° N to 23.5°) Share more species than
temperate or polar areas.
 Colombia (near the equator)- 1,400 species of birds
 New York (41° N)-105 species and
 Greenland (71° N)-only 56 species.
 India- more than 1,200 species of birds.
 largely tropical Amazonian rain forest
 greatest biodiversity on earth
 40,000 species of plants
 3,000 of fishes
 1,300 of birds
 427 of mammals,
 427 of amphibians,
 378 of reptiles and
 of more than 1,25,000 invertebrates.

14. 30–100 bird species in
large area of the Arctic
500–700 bird species in
small area of the tropics
•Pattern in the
uneven distribution
of biodiversity is the
latitudinal gradient,
species richness
increases toward the
equator.

15.  Temperate regions are subjected to frequent
glaciations where as tropical latitudes have
remained relatively undisturbed for millions of
years. Thus Speciation occurs as it is a function of
time
 Tropical environments are less seasonal, relatively
more constant and predictable. Thus results in
niche specialization and lead to a greater species
diversity as compared to temperate.
 More of solar energy available in the tropics due to
direct sun-rays -higher productivity, Thus more
biomass and greater Diversity.

17. •Alexander von Humboldt
observed : “within a region
species richness increased with
increasing explored area, but
only up to a limit.”
•rectangular hyperbola: the
relation between species richness
and area for a wide variety of
taxa.
log S = log C + Z log A
•Where:
S= Species richness A= Area
Z = slope of the line (regression
coefficient)
C = Y-intercept

18.  plots with more species showed less year-to-
year variation in total biomass.
 increased diversity contributed to higher
productivity
 rich biodiversity is not only essential for
ecosystem health but imperative for the very
survival of the human race on this planet

19.  Paul Ehrlich- Stanford ecologist
 Example of and airplane and its rivets
 Air plane as an ecosystem and rivets as its
member species.
 Taking out rivets one by one and seeing its
effects
 more and more rivets are removed, the plane
becomes dangerously weak over a period of
time
 Loss of rivets on the wings-key species that
drive major ecosystem functions.

20. Extinction = last member of a species dies and the
species vanishes forever from earth.
Extirpation = disappearance of a particular population,
but not the entire species globally.
These are natural processes.
On average one species goes extinct naturally
every 500–1,000 years—this is the background
rate of extinction.
99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct.

21. Earth has experienced five mass extinction events in
which over half its species were wiped out suddenly.

22. Currently Earth is undergoing its sixth mass
extinction—because of us.
Humans have increased the extinction rate by a
factor of 1,000.
1,100 species are known to have gone extinct in
the past 400 years.
The Red List from the IUCN, lists species that
today are facing high risks of extinction.

23. Species of large
mammals and
birds plummeted
with the arrival of
humans,
independently, on
each of three
continents—
suggesting that
human hunting
was the cause.

24. Extinction of:(last 500 yrs)
 338 vertebrates
 359 invertebrates
 87 plants
Some examples of recent
extinctions
 The dodo (Mauritius)
 quagga (Africa)
 Thylacine (Australia)
 Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia)
 Three subspecies (Bali,
Javan, Caspian) of tiger
 last 20 years alone have
witnessed the
disappearance of 27
species
 Species that face the
threat of extinction
 12% of all bird species
 23 % of all mammal
species
 32% of all amphibian
species
 31% of all gymnosperm

25. Habitat alteration
Invasive species
Pollution
Population growth
Overexploitation
Co-Extinction

26. The greatest cause of extinction today.
Accounts for 85% of population declines of birds and
mammals.
Habitat change hurts most organisms because they
are adapted to an existing habitat.
Alteration due to:
1. Forest clearing
2. Urban development
3. Agriculture
4. Global climate change etc….

27.  Tropical rain forests Covered 14% of the earth’s land surface
now only 6% of it remains.
 The Amazon rain forest (called the ‘lungs of the planet’)
harbouring probably millions of species is being cut and
cleared for
a) cultivating soya beans or
b) for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle
 animals with migratory habits are affected most adversely
due to habitat loss and thus there population decreases
drastically.

28.  Accidental or intentional introduction of exotic
species to new areas most of them do not
establish or expand, but some do—likely because
they are “released” from limitations imposed by
their native predators, parasites, and
competitors.
 Invasive species have become perhaps the second
worst threat to native biota.

29.  The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east
Africa led to the extinction of an ecologically unique
assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in
the lake
 Threat posed to our native species by invasive weed
species like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and
water hyacinth (Eicchornia).
 Illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias
gariepinus for aquaculture purposes is posing a threat
to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

30. Mosquito fish
Zebra mussel
Kudzu
Asian long-horned beetle
Rosy wolfsnail
Cane toad
Bullfrog

31.  Air and water pollution; agricultural runoff,
industrial chemicals, etc.
 Ozone Depletion, Eutrophication, Deforestation,
Global Warming, Waste generation,
Biomagnifications are few of the results
 Pollution does serious and widespread harm, but
is not as threatening as the other elements of
HIPPOC.

32.  Human population growth exacerbates
every other environmental problem.
 Magnifies effects of the other elements of
HIPPOC:
 More people means more habitat change, more
invasive species, more pollution, more
overexploitation.
 Along with increased resource consumption,
it is the ultimate reason behind proximate
threats to biodiversity.

33.  Two meanings:
Overharvesting of species from the wild
(too much hunting, fishing…)
Overconsumption of resources
(too much timber cutting, fossil fuel use…)
 Usually overexploitation is not the sole cause of
extinction, but it often contributes in tandem
with other causes.

34.  When a species becomes extinct, the plant and
animal species associated with it in an obligatory
way also become extinct.
 Host fish species becomes extinct, its unique
assemblage of parasites also meets the same
fate
 Coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where
extinction of one leads to the extinction of the
other.

35. Narrowly utilitarian:
Arguments for conserving biodiversity are obvious;
humans derive countless direct economic benefits from
nature- the natural products that we get(Discussed further)
Broadly utilitarian
Argument says that biodiversity plays a major role in
many ecosystem services that nature provides. We can’t put
an economic value on this service by nature.Ex-Oxygen,
Pollination etc.
Ethical
Argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what we
owe to millions of plant, animal and microbe species with
whom we share this planet. Philosophically or spiritually, we
need to realise that every species has an intrinsic value, even
if it may not be of current or any economic value to us.

36. Preserving biodiversity preserves ecosystem services,
and directly provides things of pragmatic value to us.
 Food, fuel, and fiber
 Shelter and building materials
 Air and water purification
 Waste decomposition
 Climate stabilization and moderation
 Nutrient cycling
 Soil fertility
 Pollination
 Pest control
 Genetic resources

37. Many species not now commonly used for
food could be.
Genetic diversity within crop species and
their relatives enhances our agriculture and
provides insurance against losses of
prevalent strains of staple crops.

38.  Many species
can provide
novel medicines,
we don’t want
to drive these
extinct without
ever discovering
their uses.
 Ten of our top
25 drugs come
directly from
wild plants; the
rest we
developed
because of
studying the
chemistry of
wild species.

39.  For all nations, ecotourism can be a major
contributor to the economy—especially for
developing nations rich in biodiversity.
 Affluent tourists pay good money to see wildlife,
novel natural communities, and protected
ecosystems.

40. Economic
 New commodities.
 Eco-tourism.
 To enhance the survival of many species
and habitats which are threatened due
to human activities.

41. Ecological
 Native species are adapted to local
conditions, alien species that might
replace them are unlikely to be so well
adapted.
 Species are interdependent, so if one
species becomes extinct the rest are
threatened.

42. Ecological
 Widespread effects:
 soil erosion
 silting up of rivers
 flooding
 changes to weather patterns.

43.  Ethical
› Every species has a right to survive,
regardless of whether it is useful to
humans or not.
› Wildlife of each area has a cultural
importance to the local human
population.
› It would be wrong to deprive future
populations to enrich experiences that
earth’s biodiversity provides us.

44.  Aesthetic
› Natural ecosystems and species in
the wild are beautiful and give us
great enjoyment.
› Painters, writers and composers
have been inspired by nature around
them.

45. Simpson's Index (D) measures the probability that
two individuals randomly selected from a sample
will belong to the same species (or some category
other than species), formula for calculating D.
Σ D = (n / N)2
n = the total number of organisms of a particular
species.
N = the total number of organisms of all species.

46. in situ (on site) conservation and ex situ (off site)
conservation

47.  ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels
of species richness & high degree of
endemism(species confined to that region & not
found anywhere else).
 34 biodiversity hotspots on earth.
 Three of these hotspots –
 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka,
 Indo-Burma and
 Himalaya
 biodiversity hotspots cover less than 2% of the
earth’s land area.
 Can reduce mass extinctions by 30%.

48.  Best place to conserve a species is in its own
habitat.
 ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions like: biosphere
reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.
 Advantages
 Species remain adapted to their habitats.
 Greater genetic diversity can be conserved.
 Animals maintain natural behavior patterns.
 Species interact with each other, helping to
conserve the whole ecosystem.

49.  India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks
and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
 India has also a history of religious and cultural traditions
that emphasised protection of nature.
 Sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in
Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat
regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja,
Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh were
venerated and given total protection.

50.  Alien species must be eliminated
(especially predators and invasive plants)
 Areas that have been degraded by human
activity must be restored.

51.  Special measures may be needed to
help encourage threatened species,
supplementary feeding or clearing
vegetation for example.
 Exploitation by humans must be
controlled, for example, the hunting of
animals.

52.  Endangered animals and plant Speies
placed in special setting where they
can be protected and given special
care.
 Zoological parks, botanical gardens
and wildlife safari parks.

53. Gametes of threatened species can be
preserved in viable and fertile condition
for long periods using cryopreservation
techniques.
Eggs can be fertilized in vitro, and
plants can be propagated using tissue
culture methods.
Seeds of different genetic strains of
commercially important plants can be
kept for long periods in seed banks.

54.  Captive Breeding Programs
› Some or all members of a species
are caught and moved to the zoo,
where they are encouraged to
breed among themself.
 Botanical Gardens
› Sites where many different
species of plants are cultivated,
either in greenhouses or in the
open.

55.  Seed Banks
› seeds are kept in cold storage.
 Seeds of most species remain viable
for more than 100 years in these
conditions.
 Other species that do not last as
long are germinated, grown to
produce replacement seeds before
viability is lost.

56.  WWF (World Wildlife Fund)
 Largest privately supported conservation
organization in the world.
 Involved in political lobbying, monitoring of
endangered species and establishing nature
reserves.

57.  CITIES (Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species)
› Largest conservation convention.
› Regulates trade in the threatened wild plant and
animal species
› Every 2 years there is a review of these species
that are listed in 2 appendices of the convention.
 Appendix I: banned
 Appendix 2: allowed with a licensing system.