Abstract— Numerous “indigenous” and “traditional” land-use systems that exist in different parts of the world have not yet been properly documented. Considering that many agroforestry systems of today have evolved from such systems, it is important to understand the wisdom of the indigenous communities that have continually been experimenting in their own ways to improve and adapt them for their livelihood. The Apatani eco-cultural landscape in Ziro Valley of Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India signifies an excellent example of such a uniquely distinct natural resource management practice. This agroforestry system developed over the years by innovative efforts involves growing bamboo (Phyllostachys bambusoides Siebold & Zucc.) or pine (Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks.) or a mixture of both on their fields. The Apatani is the only tribes in the states that manages such a unique land-use system and are highly conscious of maintaining their heritage and commitment to safeguarding nature and natural resources. By enhancing livelihood security and quality of life, conserving ecosystems, and fostering economic growth, this farmer-developed indigenous agroforestry system stands out as an example of ecosystem protection and natural-resource conservation in Arunachal Pradesh where resource-depleting shifting cultivation is still the mainstay of livelihood. Scientific analyses of the experience gained from this system – could offer lessons of valuable traditional ecological knowledge, which when properly assimilated could be useful in the design of sustainable agroforestry land-use systems.
Floristic Composition, Structural Analysis and Socio-economic Importance of L...IJEAB
Floristic assessment plays a crucial role in managing and conserving phytodiversity. Thisstudy tried to determine the floristic composition, woody structure and socio-economic importance of the legume flora in the commune of Mayahi. We used plot method based on systematic sampling approach to inventory legume species within the parklands in September 2012. We recorded 55 legume species belonging to 24 genera in 56 relevés. Fabaceae is the dominant family among the legume botanical families in the parklands of the commune of Mayahi. The average woody legume density is 62 individuals per hectare in the commune of Mayahi. The woody legume species of highest average density are Faidherbia albida and Piliostigma reticulatum. While the total basal area of legumes of the commune is 1.12m2 / ha in the Mayahi commune. The crown cover varies according to the vegetation types but it is higher in the Goulbi N’kaba forest reserve. Legume flora provides a myriad of benefits to the people of Mayahi. The present study recommends furtherresearch that examines the impact of human activities on the legume flora of the parklands in the commune of Mayahi.
2 ijfaf jan-2018-2-participatory mapping as a toolAI Publications
This study was carried out with the aim to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources through the production of participative maps within forest communities in the Nguti subdivision. Specifically this was to illustrate the existing occupation and traditional tenure of forest lands and identify where conflicts of use or rights already exist or could arise both for national government planning and private investors. Data was collected through focus group discussions, household interview and field data collection with the local population through the use of GPS tablets. Results show that 90.7% of the population have no idea on this participative mapping process; however, 35.19% of the population are very interested in this mapping process as it could serve as a tool to enhance land security while 28% of respondents think it could serve as a tool for boundary clarification. Also 18% consider participative mapping an interesting tool to get good knowledge of an area and plan land use. However, forest is principally used here for farming, hunting and gathering with an average household farm size of 0.35ha per year with just 30% of the non-Timber forest products in this area being exploited. The study also revealed that, conflicts of use and right exist due to government affectations, unclear boundaries and the creation of chiefdoms. Participative mapping has proven to be the better tool for decision making as other tools such as satellite images have caused overlaps in state affectations.
The Role of Indigenous People Knowledge in the Biodiversity Conservation in ...Sryahwa Publications
The term biodiversity refers the number and variability of living organisms. It also incorporates human and cultural diversity. The Gursum indigenous people and their knowledge on the biodiversity conservation represent one of the oldest traditionally valuable systems in Ethiopia. Indigenous peoples and their socio cultural relationship with biological systems have largely been contributing to sustainable conservation of biodiversity.
Towards sustainable coexistence: People and wild mammals in Baluran National ...UniversitasGadjahMada
The paper offers a critical discussion of resource use in a national park, Baluran, in Indonesia. In general, an increasing accept of the need for livelihood security, also for people living in or near natural conservation areas, are challenging traditional systems of national park governance. Finding ways to balance the needs of local populations against the necessity to secure biodiversity and environmental sustainability becomes important, and the main question in our research is how to accommodate an existing society in Baluran without a further negative impact on endangered mammals. Based on common pool resource management and co-management theories and thorough empirical investigations among the population living in Baluran, we conclude that alternative solutions exist for combining the interests of livelihood and conservation, but that resolute restrictions must be set by central government authorities, and that local institutions and livelihood practices must be developed based on experiences gained in the region through the last decades. Our findings may have relevance for solving similar problems of coexistence in other conservation areas
Floristic Composition, Structural Analysis and Socio-economic Importance of L...IJEAB
Floristic assessment plays a crucial role in managing and conserving phytodiversity. Thisstudy tried to determine the floristic composition, woody structure and socio-economic importance of the legume flora in the commune of Mayahi. We used plot method based on systematic sampling approach to inventory legume species within the parklands in September 2012. We recorded 55 legume species belonging to 24 genera in 56 relevés. Fabaceae is the dominant family among the legume botanical families in the parklands of the commune of Mayahi. The average woody legume density is 62 individuals per hectare in the commune of Mayahi. The woody legume species of highest average density are Faidherbia albida and Piliostigma reticulatum. While the total basal area of legumes of the commune is 1.12m2 / ha in the Mayahi commune. The crown cover varies according to the vegetation types but it is higher in the Goulbi N’kaba forest reserve. Legume flora provides a myriad of benefits to the people of Mayahi. The present study recommends furtherresearch that examines the impact of human activities on the legume flora of the parklands in the commune of Mayahi.
2 ijfaf jan-2018-2-participatory mapping as a toolAI Publications
This study was carried out with the aim to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources through the production of participative maps within forest communities in the Nguti subdivision. Specifically this was to illustrate the existing occupation and traditional tenure of forest lands and identify where conflicts of use or rights already exist or could arise both for national government planning and private investors. Data was collected through focus group discussions, household interview and field data collection with the local population through the use of GPS tablets. Results show that 90.7% of the population have no idea on this participative mapping process; however, 35.19% of the population are very interested in this mapping process as it could serve as a tool to enhance land security while 28% of respondents think it could serve as a tool for boundary clarification. Also 18% consider participative mapping an interesting tool to get good knowledge of an area and plan land use. However, forest is principally used here for farming, hunting and gathering with an average household farm size of 0.35ha per year with just 30% of the non-Timber forest products in this area being exploited. The study also revealed that, conflicts of use and right exist due to government affectations, unclear boundaries and the creation of chiefdoms. Participative mapping has proven to be the better tool for decision making as other tools such as satellite images have caused overlaps in state affectations.
The Role of Indigenous People Knowledge in the Biodiversity Conservation in ...Sryahwa Publications
The term biodiversity refers the number and variability of living organisms. It also incorporates human and cultural diversity. The Gursum indigenous people and their knowledge on the biodiversity conservation represent one of the oldest traditionally valuable systems in Ethiopia. Indigenous peoples and their socio cultural relationship with biological systems have largely been contributing to sustainable conservation of biodiversity.
Towards sustainable coexistence: People and wild mammals in Baluran National ...UniversitasGadjahMada
The paper offers a critical discussion of resource use in a national park, Baluran, in Indonesia. In general, an increasing accept of the need for livelihood security, also for people living in or near natural conservation areas, are challenging traditional systems of national park governance. Finding ways to balance the needs of local populations against the necessity to secure biodiversity and environmental sustainability becomes important, and the main question in our research is how to accommodate an existing society in Baluran without a further negative impact on endangered mammals. Based on common pool resource management and co-management theories and thorough empirical investigations among the population living in Baluran, we conclude that alternative solutions exist for combining the interests of livelihood and conservation, but that resolute restrictions must be set by central government authorities, and that local institutions and livelihood practices must be developed based on experiences gained in the region through the last decades. Our findings may have relevance for solving similar problems of coexistence in other conservation areas
ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES ON THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEM OF THE NARAN VALLEY IN THE ...Shujaul Mulk Khan
People derive many essential goods from plant resources, including food, medicines and fodder. However, the link between biodiversity and ecosystem services and their role in the support of human well-being is often poorly understood. Mountain ecosystems support a high biological diversity including rare and endangered plant species. They also provide a home to some 12% of the world's human population, who use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilise local natural resources. The Himalayas are the world's youngest and largest mountain range that supports a high plant biodiversity and hence provides many ecosystem services. Due to remote location, harsh climate, rough terrain and topography, many areas in the Himalayas have been still poorly known for their vegetation ecosystem services. The people in the Naran Valley, in the western Himalayas, depend upon local plant resources for a range of services and goods, from grazing for livestock to use of medicinal plants. During this study abundance and uses of each species were computed using computational ecology; principal components analysis (PCA) and response curves (RC) using CANOCO. The analyses showed an increasing trend of grazing, but with a decrease in fodder availability, with altitude increase in the valley. The assessment of such ecosystem services may assist in developing conservation strategies, especially for endangered mountain ecosystems.
Ecological-edaphic and Socio-economic drivers of on-farm tree farming enterpr...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The biophysical-edaphic and socioeconomic factors do equally influence the on-farm tree farming in the smallholder farming systems. Naturally, neither of the factors do act in isolation, but they are interrelated. The study was carried out in Nsangi sub-county, Wakiso District, 2018. Using the stratified random sampling method based on landholding sizes, a sample of size of sixty households were selected and interviewed. The objectives of the study were to examine the influence of the bio-physical, edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors onto the performance of the on-farm tree farming enterprise, and to evaluate the farmer's participation in on-farm tree farming activities. The results showed that both ecological-edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors influence the performance of the tree volume, tree species diversity and tree stand density/ha. There is a negative correlation between size of landholding and farmer's interaction with the on-farm tree farming enterprises. Judging from the results of this study, there is a need for a policy review aimed at devising appropriate socio-cultural-economic and ecological-edaphic practices that promote on-farm tree farming programmes.
Overview of the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) Uganda
Presentation given to IIED staff in April 2015
Medard Twinamatsiko -Social Research Leader Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC)-Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST)
Free Range Livestock Influence Species Richness, Occupancy, and Daily Behavio...UniversitasGadjahMada
In some developing countries, human activities in protected areas threaten wildlife populations and their habitats. This study was conducted to understand the influences of freerange livestock on the wild mammalian population in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. There were 3,852 and 1,156 cows and goats, respectively, and livestock occupied an area of approximately 55.96 km2. The species richness and probability of occupancy in areas with and without livestock were assessed, and the spatial co-occurrence and overlap of daily activity patterns among mammalian species and livestock were measured. A total of 39 camera traps were installed from August 2015 to January 2016, collecting 23,021 independent photographs. In areas with livestock, the number of mammal species (eight) was lower than in areas without livestock (11 species). The most affected species were the large herbivores Bubalus bubalis and Bos javanicus, and a large carnivore Panthera pardus, all of which were absent in areas with livestock. Regardless of the feeding guild, the probability of
occupancy of almost all species declined in areas with livestock, except the medium herbivores Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Hystrix javanica that showed a higher probability of occupancy. The species whose probability of occupancy declined were the carnivores Cuon alpinus and Prionailurus bengalensis; the herbivores Rusa timorensis, Tracypithecus auratus and Muntiacus muntjak; and the omnivore Sus scrofa. In the presence of livestock, R. timorensis and S. scrofa changed their activities from diurnal to nocturnal. Livestock affected most wild mammals in several ways, including by reducing the species richness, lessening the probability of occupancy and changing the daily activity patterns of many animals. This research recommends a significant reduction in the size of the range area for domestic livestock.
Climatic variability and spatial distribution of herbaceous fodders in the Su...IJERA Editor
This study focused on future spatial distributions of Andropogon gayanus, Loxodera ledermanii and Alysicarpus
ovalifolius regarding bioclimatic variables in the Sudanian zone of Benin, particularly in the W Biosphere
Reserve (WBR). These species were selected according to their importance for animals feed and the
intensification of exploitation pressure induced change in their natural spatial distribution. Twenty (20)
bioclimatic variables were tested and variables with high auto-correlation values were eliminated. Then, we
retained seven climatic variables for the model. A MaxEnt (Maximum Entropy) method was used to identify all
climatic factors which determined the spatial distribution of the three species. Spatial distribution showed for
Andropogon gayanus, a regression of high area distribution in detriment of low and moderate areas. The same
trend was observed for Loxodera ledermannii spatial distribution. For Alysicarpus ovalifolius, currently area
with moderate and low distribution were the most represented but map showed in 2050 that area with high
distribution increased. We can deduce that without bioclimatic variables, others factors such as: biotic
interactions, dispersion constraints, anthropic pressure, human activities and another historic factor determined
spatial distribution of species. Modeling techniques that require only presence data are therefore extremely
valuable.
Indigenous Peoples & Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs)Ashish Kothari
Natural habitats and landscapes or seascapes that are governed and managed by indigenous peoples and local communities cover a considerable part of the earth, and contribute significantly to conservation, livelihoods, and human security. They could contribute much more if appropriately recognised and supported. Somewhat updated version of an earlier presentation.
Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane eco...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Background Conservation of the unique biodiversity of mountain ecosystems needs trans-disciplinary approaches to succeed in a crowded colloquial world. Geographers, conservationists, ecologists and social scientists have, in the past, had the same conservation goals but have tended to work independently. In this review, the need to integrate different conservation criteria and methodologies is discussed. New criteria are offered for prioritizing species and habitats for conservation in montane ecosystems that combine both ecological and social data.
Scope Ecological attributes of plant species, analysed through robust community statistical packages, provide unbiased classifications of species assemblages and environmental biodiversity gradients and yield importance value indices (IVIs). Surveys of local communities’ utilization of the vegetation provides use values (UVs). This review suggests a new means of assessing anthropogenic pressure on plant biodiversity at both species and community levels by integrating IVI and UV data sets in a combined analysis.
Conclusions Mountain ecosystems are hot spots for plant conservation efforts because they hold a high overall plant diversity as communities replace each other along altitudinal and climatic gradients, including a high proportion of endemic species. This review contributes an enhanced understanding of (1) plant diversity in mountain ecosystems with special reference to the western Himalayas; (2) ethnobotanical and ecosystem service values of mountain vegetation within the context of anthropogenic impacts; and (3) local and regional plant conservation strategies and priorities.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES ON THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEM OF THE NARAN VALLEY IN THE ...Shujaul Mulk Khan
People derive many essential goods from plant resources, including food, medicines and fodder. However, the link between biodiversity and ecosystem services and their role in the support of human well-being is often poorly understood. Mountain ecosystems support a high biological diversity including rare and endangered plant species. They also provide a home to some 12% of the world's human population, who use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilise local natural resources. The Himalayas are the world's youngest and largest mountain range that supports a high plant biodiversity and hence provides many ecosystem services. Due to remote location, harsh climate, rough terrain and topography, many areas in the Himalayas have been still poorly known for their vegetation ecosystem services. The people in the Naran Valley, in the western Himalayas, depend upon local plant resources for a range of services and goods, from grazing for livestock to use of medicinal plants. During this study abundance and uses of each species were computed using computational ecology; principal components analysis (PCA) and response curves (RC) using CANOCO. The analyses showed an increasing trend of grazing, but with a decrease in fodder availability, with altitude increase in the valley. The assessment of such ecosystem services may assist in developing conservation strategies, especially for endangered mountain ecosystems.
Ecological-edaphic and Socio-economic drivers of on-farm tree farming enterpr...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The biophysical-edaphic and socioeconomic factors do equally influence the on-farm tree farming in the smallholder farming systems. Naturally, neither of the factors do act in isolation, but they are interrelated. The study was carried out in Nsangi sub-county, Wakiso District, 2018. Using the stratified random sampling method based on landholding sizes, a sample of size of sixty households were selected and interviewed. The objectives of the study were to examine the influence of the bio-physical, edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors onto the performance of the on-farm tree farming enterprise, and to evaluate the farmer's participation in on-farm tree farming activities. The results showed that both ecological-edaphic and socio-cultural-economic factors influence the performance of the tree volume, tree species diversity and tree stand density/ha. There is a negative correlation between size of landholding and farmer's interaction with the on-farm tree farming enterprises. Judging from the results of this study, there is a need for a policy review aimed at devising appropriate socio-cultural-economic and ecological-edaphic practices that promote on-farm tree farming programmes.
Overview of the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) Uganda
Presentation given to IIED staff in April 2015
Medard Twinamatsiko -Social Research Leader Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC)-Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST)
Free Range Livestock Influence Species Richness, Occupancy, and Daily Behavio...UniversitasGadjahMada
In some developing countries, human activities in protected areas threaten wildlife populations and their habitats. This study was conducted to understand the influences of freerange livestock on the wild mammalian population in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. There were 3,852 and 1,156 cows and goats, respectively, and livestock occupied an area of approximately 55.96 km2. The species richness and probability of occupancy in areas with and without livestock were assessed, and the spatial co-occurrence and overlap of daily activity patterns among mammalian species and livestock were measured. A total of 39 camera traps were installed from August 2015 to January 2016, collecting 23,021 independent photographs. In areas with livestock, the number of mammal species (eight) was lower than in areas without livestock (11 species). The most affected species were the large herbivores Bubalus bubalis and Bos javanicus, and a large carnivore Panthera pardus, all of which were absent in areas with livestock. Regardless of the feeding guild, the probability of
occupancy of almost all species declined in areas with livestock, except the medium herbivores Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Hystrix javanica that showed a higher probability of occupancy. The species whose probability of occupancy declined were the carnivores Cuon alpinus and Prionailurus bengalensis; the herbivores Rusa timorensis, Tracypithecus auratus and Muntiacus muntjak; and the omnivore Sus scrofa. In the presence of livestock, R. timorensis and S. scrofa changed their activities from diurnal to nocturnal. Livestock affected most wild mammals in several ways, including by reducing the species richness, lessening the probability of occupancy and changing the daily activity patterns of many animals. This research recommends a significant reduction in the size of the range area for domestic livestock.
Climatic variability and spatial distribution of herbaceous fodders in the Su...IJERA Editor
This study focused on future spatial distributions of Andropogon gayanus, Loxodera ledermanii and Alysicarpus
ovalifolius regarding bioclimatic variables in the Sudanian zone of Benin, particularly in the W Biosphere
Reserve (WBR). These species were selected according to their importance for animals feed and the
intensification of exploitation pressure induced change in their natural spatial distribution. Twenty (20)
bioclimatic variables were tested and variables with high auto-correlation values were eliminated. Then, we
retained seven climatic variables for the model. A MaxEnt (Maximum Entropy) method was used to identify all
climatic factors which determined the spatial distribution of the three species. Spatial distribution showed for
Andropogon gayanus, a regression of high area distribution in detriment of low and moderate areas. The same
trend was observed for Loxodera ledermannii spatial distribution. For Alysicarpus ovalifolius, currently area
with moderate and low distribution were the most represented but map showed in 2050 that area with high
distribution increased. We can deduce that without bioclimatic variables, others factors such as: biotic
interactions, dispersion constraints, anthropic pressure, human activities and another historic factor determined
spatial distribution of species. Modeling techniques that require only presence data are therefore extremely
valuable.
Indigenous Peoples & Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs)Ashish Kothari
Natural habitats and landscapes or seascapes that are governed and managed by indigenous peoples and local communities cover a considerable part of the earth, and contribute significantly to conservation, livelihoods, and human security. They could contribute much more if appropriately recognised and supported. Somewhat updated version of an earlier presentation.
Sustainable utilization and conservation of plant biodiversity in montane eco...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Background Conservation of the unique biodiversity of mountain ecosystems needs trans-disciplinary approaches to succeed in a crowded colloquial world. Geographers, conservationists, ecologists and social scientists have, in the past, had the same conservation goals but have tended to work independently. In this review, the need to integrate different conservation criteria and methodologies is discussed. New criteria are offered for prioritizing species and habitats for conservation in montane ecosystems that combine both ecological and social data.
Scope Ecological attributes of plant species, analysed through robust community statistical packages, provide unbiased classifications of species assemblages and environmental biodiversity gradients and yield importance value indices (IVIs). Surveys of local communities’ utilization of the vegetation provides use values (UVs). This review suggests a new means of assessing anthropogenic pressure on plant biodiversity at both species and community levels by integrating IVI and UV data sets in a combined analysis.
Conclusions Mountain ecosystems are hot spots for plant conservation efforts because they hold a high overall plant diversity as communities replace each other along altitudinal and climatic gradients, including a high proportion of endemic species. This review contributes an enhanced understanding of (1) plant diversity in mountain ecosystems with special reference to the western Himalayas; (2) ethnobotanical and ecosystem service values of mountain vegetation within the context of anthropogenic impacts; and (3) local and regional plant conservation strategies and priorities.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
Agroforestry systems restoration of semiaridCharlieSC4
Se revisó información ecológica y etnobotánica sobre bosques y sistemas agroforestales del Valle de Tehuacán, en el
centro de México, con el fin de analizar la utilidad de las técnicas de manejo tradicional para la restauración de zonas
semiáridas de México. Los sistemas agroforestales de la región involucran el uso de múltiples recursos vegetales por la
gente del área, promoviendo la conservación de la diversidad biológica en los sistemas agrícolas. Estimamos que estos
sistemas mantienen en promedio 57% de las especies presentes en las comunidades de cactáceas columnares, y cerca
del 94% de la diversidad genética de las especies de cactáceas columnares dominantes. Entre las especies mantenidas en
estos sistemas se incluyen algunas especies de árboles y arbustos de valor cultural y económico, los cuales son además
reconocidos por ecólogos como plantas nodrizas cruciales para el reclutamiento de plántulas de numerosas especies de
plantas nativas. El mantenimiento de elementos nativos de la vegetación en general y de plantas nodrizas en particular
favorece la conservación de la biodiversidad y de interacciones bióticas importantes para la restauración de la vegetación
y de la fertilidad del suelo tanto en ecosistemas naturales como transformados a nivel de paisaje.
The Management of Protected Areas in Serengeti Ecosystem: A Case Study of Iko...inventy
The study assessed the management of protected areas in Serengeti ecosystem using the case of IGGRs. Specifically, the study aimed at identifying the strategies used for natural resources management; examining the impacts of those strategies; examining the hindrances of the identified strategies; and lastly, examining the methods for scaling up the performance of strategies used for natural resources in the study area. The study involved two villages among 31 villages bordering IGGRs where in each village; at least 5% of the households were sampled. Both Primary data and secondary data were collected and analyzed both manually and computer by using SPSS software. The study revealed that, study population ranked IGGRs performance on protection of natural resources, especially on conserving wildlife for future generation and in reducing poaching to be good(53.3%). In addition, the relationship with IGGRs was said to be considerable good (46.7%). In the aspect of reducing poaching, the findings show that poaching has been reduced by 96.2% from 2009 to 2012. Furthermore, 81.4% of respondents said they use different strategies to control loss of natural resources which in turn has considerably improved the relationship between protected areas and the surrounding communities in some of the aspects. Despite of above successes, the study findings has revealed a number of challenges that hinders the full attainment of conservation objectives. Among the challenges are loss of life and properties (86.4%), shortage of water for livestock (68.9%) since water sources such as Grumeti and Rubana rivers are within protected area while the adjacent local communities do not have a free access to those water sources. Other challenges especially on the IGGRs management include insufficient fund base, working facilities and inadequate staffs. Based on the above findings, the study concluded that the strategies used for natural resources management of protected areas in Serengeti ecosystem is fairly sustainable and need functional participatory approaches of local people and other stakeholders in order to bring about a collaborative natural resources management network in the ecosystem. Furthermore, based on the findings above, equity in benefit sharing accrued from natural resource management in protected areas, more financial support to IGGRs and local community, the use of non-lethal deterrents for crop protection, integration of croplivestock production systems, adoption of land use plans as a solution to land conflicts, strengthens of community based conservation (CBC), adoption of modern information technology such as geographical information system (GIS) and remote sensing are recommended.
Discussions on the forests and forest resources in the archipelago (Nusantara) cannot be separated from the existence of diverse communities that have social cohesion, cultural, spiritual, ecological, economic, and political attachment with the lands, territories, and forest ecosystems.
Residual value analyses of the medicinal flora of the western himalayasShujaul Mulk Khan
Statistical analyses of the medicinal flora of the Naran Valley in the Western Himalayas were performed using Moerman’s methods and Principal Components Analysis (PCA). The results demonstrate that the valley’s indigenous people utilize medicinal plants in a systematic way. Sixty-eight families of plants were identified during the study, of which 52 contained one or more species of medicinal value. The standard deviation for residual values of all the 68 families was 0.993 and the results of the residual analysis revealed that seven of these plant families were overused by the local people, indicated by residual values greater than the standard deviation. Residual values obtained from a regression analysis of plant species with their medicinal uses showed that the families with the highest rank were Polygonaceae, Gentianaceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae and Plantaginaceae, indicating their medicinal importance. By comparison, Poaceae, Boraginaceae, Primulaceae, Salicaceae, and Ranunculaceae were the lowest ranking families, containing few species of medicinal value. Although a few of the most species-rich families in the valley contained a high number of medicinal plants and hence displayed high residual values, some other species-rich families contained few or no species of medicinal value. For example, the third largest family, Poaceae, is the lowest in terms of its residual value, while the largest family, Asteraceae, contains only seven species noted as having medicinal uses. Sixteen plant families in the valley contained no species with reported medicinal use, while seven families contained only one species with medicinal value. In contrast, all of the species in several of the least species-rich families were recorded as having a medicinal use. The results of a Principal Components Analysis showed a gradient of medicinal plant use along the valley. Using robust statistical approaches, our study provides a clear indication that the indigenous people of this Western Himalayan valley utilize wild plants according to their traditional knowledge and not on the basis of plant abundance.
This is a theoretical and practical review of Landscape Conservation approach now in practice for over a decade and hailed as a great successful approach to integrate the needs of biodiversity and wildlife as well the needs of sustainable development and conservation for people interacting with wildlife and biodiversity in landscapes
Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, Western H...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Background
Mountain ecosystems all over the world support a high biological diversity and provide home and services to some 12% of the global human population, who use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilise local natural resources. The Himalayas are the world's youngest, highest and largest mountain range and support a high plant biodiversity. In this remote mountainous region of the Himalaya, people depend upon local plant resources to supply a range of goods and services, including grazing for livestock and medicinal supplies for themselves. Due to their remote location, harsh climate, rough terrain and topography, many areas within this region still remain poorly known for its floristic diversity, plant species distribution and vegetation ecosystem service.
Methods
The Naran valley in the north-western Pakistan is among such valleys and occupies a distinctive geographical location on the edge of the Western Himalaya range, close to the Hindu Kush range to the west and the Karakorum Mountains to the north. It is also located on climatic and geological divides, which further add to its botanical interest. In the present project 120 informants were interviewed at 12 main localities along the 60 km long valley. This paper focuses on assessment of medicinal plant species valued by local communities using their traditional knowledge.
Results
Results revealed that 101 species belonging to 52 families (51.5% of the total plants) were used for 97 prominent therapeutic purposes. The largest number of ailments cured with medicinal plants were associated with the digestive system (32.76% responses) followed by those associated with the respiratory and urinary systems (13.72% and 9.13% respectively). The ailments associated with the blood circulatory and reproductive systems and the skin were 7.37%, 7.04% and 7.03%, respectively. The results also indicate that whole plants were used in 54% of recipes followed by rhizomes (21%), fruits (9.5%) and roots (5.5%).
Conclusion
Our findings demonstrate the range of ecosystem services that are provided by the vegetation and assess how utilisation of plants will impact on future resource sustainability. The study not only contributes to an improved understanding of traditional ethno-ecological knowledge amongst the peoples of the Western Himalaya but also identifies priorities at species and habitat level for local and regional plant conservation strategies.
Keywords: Biodiversity conservation; Ecosystem services; Medicinal plants; Vegetation
Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Mountain ecosystems support a high biological diversity and a large number of endangered plant species
many of which are ecological indicators of those specific habitats. The Himalayas are the world’s youngest,
highest and largest mountain range and support a high plant biodiversity. People living in this region
use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilize local natural resources and hence have valuable
understanding about their surroundings. Many areas within this region still remain poorly known for
their floristic diversity, plant species distribution and vegetation ecosystem services, yet the indigenous
people depend heavily upon local plant resources and, through unsustainable use, can cause an
irreversible loss of plant species. The valley used in this study is typical of such areas and occupies
a distinctive geographical location on the edge of the western Himalayan range, close to the Hindu
Kush range to the west and the Karakorum Mountains to the north. It is also located on geological
and climatic divides, which further add to its ecological interest. This paper focuses on (i) identification
of ecological indicators at various elevation zones across an altitudinal range of 2450–4100 m and
(ii) recognition of social perceptions of plant species populations based on the ecosystem services that
they provide. We used robust approaches to identify the plant indicator species of various elevation
zones. Using phytosociological techniques, Importance Values (IVs) for each plant species were calculated.
The statistical package PCORDS was used to evaluate the species area curves and indicator species
for each elevation zone. Data attribute plots derived from Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) using
CANOCO were deployed to illustrate the location of indicator species in each habitat type. Furthermore,
the social perceptions of the local inhabitants as to whether the populations of the recorded species
were increasing or decreasing over the recent past were recorded. We argue that the assessment of
ecological indicators combined with the ecological knowledge of the indigenous population can assist
in developing priorities for local and regional conservation strategies, especially for fragile mountain
ecosystems.
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Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Ventures
Integrated bamboo + pine homegardens: A unique agroforestry system in Ziro Valley of Arunachal Pradesh, India
1. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN: [2454-1850] [Vol-2, Issue-2, February- 2016]
Page | 25
Integrated bamboo + pine homegardens: A unique agroforestry
system in Ziro Valley of Arunachal Pradesh, India
Sumpam Tangjang1*
, P. K. Ramachandran Nair2
1,2
School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
1
Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh- 791112, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Abstract— Numerous “indigenous” and “traditional” land-use systems that exist in different parts of the world have not yet
been properly documented. Considering that many agroforestry systems of today have evolved from such systems, it is
important to understand the wisdom of the indigenous communities that have continually been experimenting in their own
ways to improve and adapt them for their livelihood. The Apatani eco-cultural landscape in Ziro Valley of Arunachal
Pradesh, northeast India signifies an excellent example of such a uniquely distinct natural resource management practice.
This agroforestry system developed over the years by innovative efforts involves growing bamboo (Phyllostachys
bambusoides Siebold & Zucc.) or pine (Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks.) or a mixture of both on their fields. The Apatani is the
only tribes in the states that manages such a unique land-use system and are highly conscious of maintaining their heritage
and commitment to safeguarding nature and natural resources. By enhancing livelihood security and quality of life,
conserving ecosystems, and fostering economic growth, this farmer-developed indigenous agroforestry system stands out as
an example of ecosystem protection and natural-resource conservation in Arunachal Pradesh where resource-depleting
shifting cultivation is still the mainstay of livelihood. Scientific analyses of the experience gained from this system – could
offer lessons of valuable traditional ecological knowledge, which when properly assimilated could be useful in the design of
sustainable agroforestry land-use systems.
Keywords— Apatani tribe, Eco-cultural landscape, Eastern Himalaya, Indigenous systems, Resource conservation,
Traditional ecological knowledge.
I. INTRODUCTION
Throughout the history of agriculture, the power of human ingenuity in experimenting with new ideas of crops and cropping
(and farming) systems has been evident as illustrated by an enormous diversity of the so-called “indigenous” and
“traditional” systems around the world. While tracing the history of development of agroforestry, several authors have
described how many of the agroforestry systems of today have evolved from such indigenous systems (Nair 2001; Kumar &
Nair 2006; Kumar & Nair 2011; Miller & Nair 2006). For example, homegardening, a major agroforestry practice today and
one of the oldest forms of agriculture in Southeast Asia, is reported to have been associated with fishing communities living
in the moist tropical region about 13 000 to 9 000 B.C. (Wiersum 2006). The dehesa (animal grazing under trees) system of
Spain and other parts of southern Europe is reportedly 4500 years old (Rigueiro-Rodríguez et al. 2008). Most of such
systems are forms of subsistence agriculture, of which a classical example is shifting cultivation. In spite of it being
disparaged as unsustainable and resource-depleting, several forms of shifting cultivation are still being practiced by millions
of poor farmers in the tropics (Cairns 2007 2015). While many such systems have given way to mechanized and modern
forms, especially in the industrialized world, numerous indigenous systems are still prevalent in many parts of the developing
world (Nair 1989). Even in industrialized regions, some forms of traditional systems that involve the principles of
agroforestry are still being practiced (e.g., Herzog 1998). The satoyama system of Japan (www.satoyama-initiative.org),
though strictly not a subsistence system, also embodies some of the ecological characteristics of several indigenous systems
of the tropics.
These age-old practices of growing crops and trees together were ignored or bypassed in the development of modern
agriculture and forestry, which focused on growing trees and crops in single-species (monocultural) production systems for
maximizing their production. Moreover, agriculture and forestry were often treated separately although these two sectors are
usually interwoven on the landscape and share many common goals. The realization of the adverse ecological and social
consequences of input-intensive monocultural production systems led to the recognition and appreciation by the development
community of the values of traditional, age-old practices of growing trees and crops together on the same unit of land (Nair
2007). Today, the significance of such traditional systems to rural livelihoods and the diverse and stable supply of economic
products and benefits derived from them are more appreciated than ever before (Shackleton & Paumgarten 2008). It is also
2. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN: [2454-1850] [Vol-2, Issue-2, February- 2016]
Page | 26
getting recognized that understanding the historical development of indigenous systems will provide valuable information for
the design of ecologically desirable agroforestry land-use systems (Miller and Nair 2006), and that researchers have much to
learn from the insights of local people who are acknowledged within their own communities as experts on local plants
(Cunningham 2001). Thus, documenting the traditional wisdom of the indigenous communities has gained significant
attention lately (Jeeva 2006; Sarkar & Maitra 2001). Along with that, efforts have also been made to understand the modus
operandi of some of the highly successful systems that have been developed by new settlers in some parts of the world, a
typical example being the “celebrated” homegarden system practiced by Japanese settles in Tomé-Açu, Pará state,
northeastern Brazil (Yamada & Osaqui 2006).
Numerous indigenous systems have been documented in varying levels of details; but many more remain to be even
identified let alone studied and documented. Based on what we know about the systems that have been identified, each one is
quite unique in its structure and composition, and the way in which its management practices have been developed in
harmony with the local ecological and socio-cultural characteristics. Thus, each system is a location-specific entity that has
been developed through repeated trial-and-error type of “experimentation” and improvised over the years by local farmers
with practically no external help or support. The rural indigenous Apatani farmers in Ziro Valley of Arunachal Pradesh,
India, have developed an integrated “bamboo + pine homestead agroforestry system” over the years, the knowledge on the
details of which has so far been limited to the relatively small number of practitioners of the system. With the recent
recognition of Ziro Valley as a tentative UNESCO World Heritage Site for its "extremely high productivity" and the
"unique" way of preserving the ecology (Dollo et al. 2009), this hitherto-unknown land-use system is now receiving wider
attention. This paper presents an analytical description of this unique bamboo + pine indigenous system.
II. MATERIAL AND METHOD
Arunachal Pradesh, whose name meaning the “Land of Dawn-lit Mountains,” is the largest (area ~ 84,000 km2
) among the
northeast Indian states, commonly known as the “Eight Sister States”. Located at 26°28′ – 29°30′ N and 91°30′ – 97°30′ E,
the predominantly hilly and mountainous state is one of the remotest and poorest among Indian states and is sparsely
populated (total population: about 1.38 million; population density: 17 persons per km2
– compared with 382 for India as a
whole) (Census Report of Arunachal Pradesh 2011). It is bordered by Bhutan to the west, Myanmar (Burma) to the east, the
Tibetan region of the Peoples Republic of China in the north and the Indian states of Assam and Nagaland to the South. The
state has a rich diversity of flora and fauna, and is recognized as one among the 200 globally important ecoregions (Olson &
Dinerstein 1998).
The state‟s inhabitants are predominantly rural and represent many of India's so-called Scheduled Tribes. Twenty-six major
tribes and about 110 sub-tribes have been recognized in the state that depend largely on agricultural and forest-based natural
resources for their livelihood, and these resources have been sustainably maintained with traditional ecological knowledge,
TEK (Dollo et al. 2009). The traditional farming system in the region is an integrated mixture of crop, forestry, and animal
husbandry, with some recent introduction of horticulture-based homestead agroforestry. Each type of land use has a distinct
nature of resource management according to TEK that has evolved through informal experimentations over centuries
(Ramakrishnan 1994).
2.1 Study area
The bowl-shaped Ziro Valley (Figure 1) is home to the Apatani community, one of the major tribes of Arunachal Pradesh
and is famous for its pine-clad gentle hills on the fringes of a wide mosaic of integrated rice (paddy) – fish farming systems,
surrounded by thickly forested mountains on all sides forming a picturesque landscape. The valley bifurcated by the river
Kele lies between the river valleys of Kamla and Khru on the north and Palin on the south. All these rivers eventually drain
into the Subansiri River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra River. The Ziro valley is about 1700 m as l, with a mean annual
rainfall of about 1,500 mm, concentrated in the rainy season during May – August with relatively little or no rains from
November to February. The climate is temperate with mean temperature ranging from 12°C to 25°C during summer and from
-5°C to 12°C during winter; frost is common during winter. Geologically, the rocks of Ziro valley belong to Hapoli
formation and are considered to represent the lacustrine deposits in the inland basins (Tangjang & Arunachalam 2009).
3. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN: [2454-1850] [Vol-2, Issue-2, February- 2016]
Page | 27
FIGURE 1. MAP SHOWING THE STUDY AREA, ZIRO VALLEY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA
2.2 Data Collection
The study was based on nearly ten field visits of approximately 3-5 days per survey. Household residents were approached
with verbal consent and the objectives of the study were clearly explained. Three complementary approaches were adopted,
namely; (a) formal interviews targeting primarily local experienced persons (aged between 30 to 65 years), (b) direct filed
observations and (c) interactions usually involving 2–3 members of the selected households through questionnaires. The
interview schedule comprised of a general introduction concerning traditional management of bamboo + pine agroforestry,
4. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN: [2454-1850] [Vol-2, Issue-2, February- 2016]
Page | 28
their importance and finally discussions related to contribution of plant species to the households. Group interviews and
discussions were important step and conducted in the mornings and evenings when most of the residents were available.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Traditional Ecological Knowledge
The members of rural Apatani community have a vast store of TEK about their particular landscape and how best to maintain
it for survival, and this knowledge could be useful for the outside world about the efficient use of landscape for combined
agriculture and forestry. The bamboo + pine homestead agroforestry traditions represent a fine-tuning of knowledge
concerning the interaction of plants and their environment, and involve as well interactions between agricultural and social
systems. Afforestation technique involving plantation of the single-culm (monopodial) local bamboo (P. bambusoides) and
P. wallichiana is a common practice since generations. The exact reason why, how, and when plantation of these two species
together started is, however, still obscure. Traditional knowledge concerning the practice has been transferred orally from
generation to generation and the pine trees were naturally regenerated from seed. No trees other than pine could survive
successfully in the bamboo grove. Similarly, no other shrubs and smaller trees than P. bambusoides could grow and survive
with the pine trees. These longstanding observations and belief have led the indigenous farmers to conclude that bamboo and
pine trees can be grown together as a sustainable land-use system. They also believe that afforestation technique starts with
their migration which their forefathers gave to younger generations a pine tree (Sasisapa) and bamboo grove (Bidu Bikan).
Thus, this land-use system, based on traditional wisdom, knowledge, practices and technologies of societies, was developed
and enriched through experimentation and adaptation to changing environmental conditions and societal needs over
generations (Altieri 2002; Parrotta & Ronald 2012). Now this is extensively practiced in Ziro Valley, and both species
(bamboo and pine) are identified as economically and ecologically viable that can be combined into production systems.
3.2 Components and management of the system
In the bamboo + pine system, the farmers incorporate two principal species of trees, bamboo (Phyllostachys bambusoides)
and pine (Pinus wallichiana), in production systems of areas where they have been living since generations. Generally, the
plantation of pine with or without bamboo is maintained with utmost care. Pine saplings with soil attached to roots, collected
from nearby plantations, are planted in February _
March, at a spacing of about 4m X 4m. During the early years after
establishment, the lower branches are trimmed regularly to promote upward growth and formation of straight poles required
for construction purposes. The bamboo, locally called Tanii bije, is inter-planted about four years after establishment of pine
trees when the trees would be two meters tall. The bamboo culms, about two years old, with rhizomes exposed, are selected
and dug out with traditional dao (a traditional cutting implement) from an established bamboo garden in January _
February
and planted at a spacing of about 1.5m X 1.5m to ensure quick coverage of the plantation area. In about one month after
planting, the bamboo puts out two internodes. Moist soil is preferred for planting.
P. bambusoides matures in three years, as indicated by shedding of leaves and the color around the nodes suddenly turning
from green to yellow (Figure 2), which is due to the presence of a fungus locally called “Taipona” (Puccinia sp.). The fungus
is eaten as such by the local people. Traditionally, it is recommended to harvest 3-year-old bamboo every year to ensure
proper growth of new culms. Harvesting is done during October _
February. An established plantation will regenerate on its
own and can be continuously harvested for a number of years. The mature bamboo culm survives for approximately ten
years, after which it dies. The straight form, smooth and even-toned skin, and an internodal length of about 25 cm make P.
bambusoides a preferred species. In some cases, even the vegetable- and fruit gardens are being converted into bamboo
gardens. Interestingly, according to the local sources, there is no record of P. bambusoides having flowered, and it is often
referred to as a male bamboo (Sundriyal et al. 2002). The harvested bamboo poles are used for construction scaffolding and
furniture making, as fuelwood, and in religious and social festivities.
The pine forest in the Ziro Valley is one of the human-managed systems organized as privately owned forest, clan forest, or
community forest. Pine forests are found mostly at the foothills of the valley adjacent to the settled farmland of the
community locally called as „Sartii‟. This plantation meets various requirements of the local inhabitants such as timber,
planks, poles, fuelwood and medicine. In Ziro Valley, planting of pine trees with or without P. bambusoides in the
agroforestry system is increasingly appreciated as an important source of timber production. Pine timber is used for various
activities like building construction and making furniture and a variety of handicrafts. Pine timber split into fine thin sheets
called “Santha” is used as roofing of some traditional houses. Pine trees in homegardens have many links with improving the
health of the rural poor. For instances, locally tapped pine oil or resin is effectively used as a mosquito repellent. The dried
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resin is burned in the evenings to ward off mosquitoes. Ansari et al. (2005) suggested that pine oil showed strong repellent
action against Anopheles culicifacies (malaria vector) and Culex quinquefasciatus (pest mosquito). The Apatani tribe also
uses the resin for curing cracked heel and also as varnishes. As in many developing regions where medicinal plants are the
source of treatment for many diseases and ailments of the poor throughout the developing world (Rao et al. 2004), 50% of
the rural villagers in Arunachal Pradesh still depend on medicinal plants – mostly planted in their homegardens – for their
medical needs, and pine ranks prominently among such plants.
FIGURE 2. MATURE CULM OF P. bambusoides INDICATED BY THE APPEARANCE OF YELLOWISH FUNGUS
(Puccinia sp.) LOCALLY CALLED “Taipona”
This case study revealed how these homestead agroforestry systems are used to advance livelihood objectives. It considered
the potential benefits of home gardening as part of the farming system, with the capability of raising income and thus
improving livelihood of the rural poor. Similar results were reported by Marsh (1998), who stated that homegardens are a
production system that the poor can easily enter at some level since it may be done with minimal or no economic resources,
using locally available planting materials, natural manures, and indigenous methods of pest control. According to Nair
(2006), agroforestry systems provide an important contribution to sustainable agricultural production because of their
potential to meet economic, social, ecological, and institutional conditions for sustainable livelihoods. Incorporating trees
into a multifunctional, diverse landscape and agricultural systems has been shown to deliver multiple benefits including
enhanced global and local ecosystem services, biological diversity, food security and smallholder resilience (Ziegler et al.
2012). The multiple roles that trees can play, however, especially at a landscape scale, are less studied and often do not
influence the farmers‟ adoption of agroforestry (Lasco et al. 2014).
The potential role of bamboo + pine homestead agroforestry appears to be chiefly the domestic supply of basic traditional
housing materials (Ude) (Figure 3), fencing (Sullu/Narung), handicrafts (Budu-bugia), and sacrificial altar during festival like
Myoko/ Murung festivals, food, and medicine and cash income. The farmers believe that pine trees help in better soil nutrient
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cycling while bamboo groves protect soil from erosion, which corroborates the findings of Rao & Ramakrishnan (1989). The
local farmers use pine needles as mulch to reduce weeds. In addition to material uses, bamboos embellish the rural
environment and fill the minority people‟s life with vigor and vitality based on the spiritual value of bamboo in their culture.
In the past decade, the bamboos are, however, largely overexploited because of their enormous utility for different purposes
besides being used as popular ethnic food.
FIGURE 3. NEWLY CONSTRUCTED TRADITIONAL HOUSES OF THE APATANI TRIBE IN ZIRO VALLEY OF ARUNACHAL
PRADESH, INDIA. THE SUPPORTING STRUCTURES OF THE TRADITIONAL HOUSES ARE MADE UP OF PINE TIMBER WHILE
FLOOR, WALLS AND ROOF ARE CONSTRUCTED OF P. bambusoides
3.3 Environmental Sustainability
The bamboo + pine agroforestry can provide ecosystem services for optimizing carbon sequestration and production of
renewable biomass as carbon neutral energy. Although it may be also argued that more carbon could be sequestered if the
garden was simply left to mature, and hence benefits need to be assessed by considering alternative land-use options
(Indrawana et al. 2014). As a socio-ecological construct, the quality and maintenance of bamboo +pine agroforestry systems
will depend on the existence of adequate ecological knowledge to support the management decisions fitted to respond to
current social needs. Ultimately, there is hope that this type of practice can be replicated elsewhere, so that land management
can be tailored to the needs and capacities of the ecosystems and the communities that depend on them. It is important to
restore the productive relationships between the local communities and the respective resources of the ecosystems (Takeuchi
2011). The value of bamboo + pine is reconsidered to provide not necessarily fuel wood and charcoal, but fixation of carbon,
soil protection, and water retention (Figure 4). This traditional system, therefore, has a potential niche in climate change
mitigation and adaptation. The importance of the bamboo + pine _
like systems in harnessing the values of renewable natural
resources in human-influenced natural environments is comparable to satoyama systems in Japan (Indrawana et al. 2014), the
Kandy home gardens in Sri Lanka and similar homegardens in Borneo, which employ TEK (Kumar & Takeuchi, 2009). The
landscape harmony concept can provide residents and visitors with significant cultural and social benefits (Duraiappah et al.
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ECOSYSTEM SERVICE
Improves soil nutrient
cycling; control soil
erosion and other
natural calamities like
flood
Enhances water use
and storage efficiency;
carbon sequestration
Provides shade; local
plant conservation
SOCIAL
Festivals; recreation
and cultural
preservations
Provision of social
security
LIVELIHOOD
Enhanced livelihoods
Improved farm productivity
Abundant supply of housing
and craft materials
Increased employment
opportunities
More cash income
generation and education
Bamboo+pine
homestead
agroforestry
2012). Mobilizing community involvement in evolving locally sustainable conservation farming systems through the
Landcare approach has shown great promise in Australia, the Philippines, the South Africa (Garrity 2004; Mercado 2001).
FIGURE 4. A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SHOWING THE POTENTIAL ROLES OF BAMBOO+ PINE TRADITIONAL HOMESTEAD
AGROFORESTRY IN ENHANCING LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE INHABITANTS OF ZIRO VALLEY OF ARUNACHAL
PRADESH, INDIA
In Arunachal Pradesh, there has been a growing awareness that agroforesty system as a sustainable land-use system can be a
vital component of development and an effective means to improve the livelihoods of rural poor people. Incorporating trees
in agroforestry systems help address food insecurity, increase CO2 sequestration (Kumar & Nair 2006; FAO 2010) and
reduce vulnerability of agricultural systems (Scherr et al. 2012; Thorlakson 2011). Existing studies on traditional homestead
agroforestry systems have made it easier to choose locally appropriate strategies for maximizing the farm-level benefits
based on the production objective of the traditional farmer. The challenge that needs to be addressed is how to
comprehensively assess and factor in the potential of trees in providing environmental services, to achieve more sustainable
results amidst existing climatic and environmental changes. The economic value and potential yield of each system will
depend on existing biophysical and socio-economic conditions as well as the farmers‟ familiarity with management practices
(Altieri 2009). Agroforestry adoption in the farm-scale could be improved in many ways. Another factor that sets the Apatani
tribe apart from their neighboring tribes who practice shifting cultivation is their effective utilization of every inch of
cultivable land. This practice has won them fame all over India.
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3.4 Recreational value
Today bamboo + pine agroforestry is recognized as an important component of the cultural heritage of Apatani tribe. Overall,
the recreational values of rice + fish farming and bamboo + pine homestead agroforestry systems in the Ziro Valley have
increased, particularly through their appreciation by urbanites and the tourists from different parts of the globe. The fact that
bamboo + pine agroforestry are managed landscapes provides an opportunity to engineer a marriage among different
ecosystem services, including recreation, cultural preservation, and biodiversity conservation (Figure 4). New business
models on this system can be sought after which may also be oriented towards increased tourism needs, banking on the
beauty of the mosaic landscape and that this rural landscapes continue to play an important role in Apatani tribes art and
culture. It may also provide an educational landscape, even to the extent of providing an open-air museum of historical
agricultural management and rural lifestyles. This traditional land-use system may provide a useful model for understanding
how it is possible to reconcile the goal of increased productivity without compromising sustainability from social, ecological
and political perspectives.
3.5 Outlook
The rural farmers of Ziro Valley are now in a transitional period, mainly due to outside influences. The Apatani are believed
to be a conservative community, and now some of the traditional agroecosystem management practices are on the verge of
extinction due to the integration of hired labor forces from outside. Nowadays, it is common for the youth to leave the village
in search of jobs creating shortages of local labors. Due to sociocultural, climatic and physiographic differences, the hired
labor have different management techniques, which often dilute the local practices. The Apatani tribe will still need labor
from outside, but they are trying to cope with the emerging situation by being aware that their system is very efficient yet
delicate, and realizing the need to preserve their time-tested knowledge, by documenting it for future generations. Outside
influences have affected various aspects of farming systems management. For example, traditional soil and water
conservation techniques have been replaced by modern methods using concrete constructions, and the bamboo and wooden
pipes used in irrigation water supply have been replaced by lead or plastic materials that are environmental-unfriendly.
Realizing the efficiency and importance of traditional management practices, the Apatani are now discussing how to preserve
traditional knowledge and practices. It was informed during the survey that penalties are imposed if traditional rituals and
practices are violated, according to existing local norms. Although the Apatanis understand the importance of traditional
practices, greater awareness is needed in general as most of the TEK and management practices are only passed on orally,
and are not documented. Field research of traditional knowledge in Arunachal Himalayas, has shown that the Apatani tribe is
one of the most efficient resource managers, yet sustainability is their major concern (Dollo et al. 2009). Unfortunately, too
little research attention has been given to how the successful agroforestry systems observed in this part of the globe can be
more widely expanded for the benefit of the smallholders living in remote hamlets with poor market infrastructure (Garrity
2004). Agroforestry research and development has traditionally focused on trees and their production issues and the
smallholder tree production contributes substantially to rural livelihood and national economies, yet these contributions are
not adequately quantified or appreciated. Agroforestry research and development must now seriously focus on land
management interventions that reach the poorest and most vulnerable land users (Nair & Garrity 2012). The tribal
communities in Arunachal Pradesh are highly dependent on natural resources and land-use systems to fulfill their basic
needs. Harvesting of natural resources has traditionally been sustainable; however, consequent to increase in population,
these resources have been over-exploited.
IV. CONCLUSION
Integrated bamboo + pine agroforestry in Ziro Valley has been an integral part of the local system, which is judiciously
guarded and meticulously tended by all community members as it fulfils various basic rural needs. The local ecological
setting and the high degree of dependence on natural resources make such practices exceptionally valuable. All the practices
adopted for managing such system are highly self-reliant with little external input or technologies and low dependency from
external resources, making it extremely sustainable. In this era of globalization, TEK on resource management provides a
useful rationale for designing new technologies for sustainable management of valuable natural resources and efficient ways
of resource conservation. Generally, the Apatani tribes have a natural inclination towards plantation and ecological
conservation, which if properly utilized can have tremendous impact on the development of the areas. This is a unique
example in which rich natural resources managed with traditionally conservationist attitude of the Apatani farmers provide
9. International Journal of Environmental & Agriculture Research (IJOEAR) ISSN: [2454-1850] [Vol-2, Issue-2, February- 2016]
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solution to economic needs and provide ecosystem services. The system deserves systematic investigations on understanding
the principles of successful management of such indigenous systems that could be extrapolated to other similar situations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the farmers of Ziro Valley for their invaluable contributions throughout
the survey. Financial assistance from the Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi, Government of India, to the first author
is highly appreciated.
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