This study documents wild edible plants in central Himalaya that have potential for enhancing livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. Several wild fruits were selected and their distribution, phenology, traditional uses, and economic potential were analyzed. Value-added products like juice, squash, jam were prepared from the fruits and cost-benefit analyses revealed they provided high monetary returns. The study provides a framework for participatory conservation of wild edibles through involving local communities, and suggests these resources could link livelihoods with conservation if sustainably utilized.

1. ORIGINAL PAPER
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs): a viable option
for biodiversity conservation and livelihood enhancement
in central Himalaya
Vikram S. Negi • R. K. Maikhuri • L. S. Rawat
Received: 12 June 2009 / Accepted: 10 December 2010 / Published online: 31 December 2010
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
Abstract The present study aims to document detail information of some of the selected
wild edible having enormous potential for livelihood enhancement and socio-economic
development by making a variety of value added products. To this end, some of the wild
edibles of central Himalaya were selected and prioritized for harnessing their economic
potential along with their detail information in terms of distribution, ethnobiology, phe-
nophases and appropriate time of harvesting so as to make communities well aware about
the resource availability and their harvesting period round the year. The cost-benefit
analysis of each value added product prepared from selected wild edibles was worked out
in detail and these analyses revealed that total monetary output, as well as the net return, is
very high for all value added products prepared. Since wild edible fruits or other edible
parts can be collected from wild free of cost except labour is involved in collection of these
wild edibles bio-resources. In addition, information on a participatory action research
framework & approaches for promoting participatory conservation of these wild edible
species were also highlighted for appropriate management of these resources. The present
attempt provides a practical example of sustainable utilization of wild edibles, their
potential in livelihood improvement of local people, distribution and phenophases and
availability in natural conditions, participatory conservation of these wild edibles may help
policy planners at the regional and national levels to link livelihood/socio-economic
development with conservation.
Keywords Wild edible Bioprospecting Cost-benefit analysis Livelihood
Conservation Central Himalaya
V. S. Negi () R. K. Maikhuri L. S. Rawat
G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Garhwal Unit, Srinagar Garhwal,
P.O. Box 92, Uttarakhand, India
e-mail: vikramsnegii@gmail.com
123
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
DOI 10.1007/s10531-010-9966-y

2. Introduction
Forest based resources have played a key role in the sustenance of human civilization since
time immemorial and till now deeply associated and serving a large number of human
population throughout the world. Forest products constitute an important source of live-
lihood for millions of people from forest fringe communities across the world (Murphy
et al. 2005; Mamo et al. 2007; Blay et al. 2007). The relationship between forest and
community is very close in Uttarakhand as forests play a central role in the economy and
ecology of this fragile mountain state. Wild edible fruits are one of the precious groups of
non-timber forest products that played a prominent role in uplifting the socio-economy of
human beings, particularly in tribal and rural areas for thousands of years (Maikhuri and
Ramakrishnan 1992; Maikhuri et al. 2004; Dhayani et al. 2007). The Himalayan region
supports a large variety of wild-growing plants used for food and other subsistence needs
by the local communities (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2003). Garhwal Himalayan region,
which is western most part of the central Himalaya, is an important source of various wild
fruit species and grow abundantly across an altitudinal gradient. More than 8000 species of
flowering plants grow in the Himalayas, with nearly 4000 species identified from the
Garhwal Himalayan region along with great diversity (Kandari and Gusain 2001).
The term bioprospecting has been widely used to assess the economic potential of
different plant species and their value-addition (Gairola and Biswas 2008).Value addition
at local level in potential wild edibles has begun to attract attention as being one of the
income generating components of the non-farm part of the rural economy. Interest in wild
edibles has grown significantly with the increasing awareness in linking participatory
biodiversity conservation with rural development. More recently edible wild bioresources
are being viewed as untapped or underutilized resources that could play a significant role in
rural development, poverty alleviation, livelihood and nutritional security of local com-
munities through bioprospecting with the applications of suitable science and technological
interventions (Dhayani et al. 2007; Maikhuri et al. 2007a, b). Although these wild plants
for food and other valuable means are not consumed and utilized in large quantity but their
role in local communities cannot be ignored (Maikhuri and Ramakrishnan 1992; Maikhuri
et al. 1994) Majority of these wild plants that could be utilized for various value added
edible products have a high energy content and nutritional value with enormous medicinal
properties (Singh and Arora 1975).
Simpson et al. 1996 considered biodiversity in the context of the Western concept of
bioprospecting and found that the incentive for biodiversity conservation on the basis of
benefits of bioprospecting is not tenable because the value of the benefits is small. The
ability of a given wild bioresources to continue meeting both subsistence and market needs
however, largely depends upon sustainable harvesting and appropriate management
practices. Thus it is important to treat bioprospecting in the context of a strong benefit-
sharing system among industries/firms, the ecosystem and the projected communities in
such manner so that the sharing of knowledge for bioprospecting will multiply the faunal
and floral diversity of that region and enrich the cultural and moral ethics with sustained
life-support systems (Gairola and Biswas 2008). Therefore, it is a high time to bring out
better resource management through participatory sustainable conservation and the posi-
tive attributes of these important wild edibles to understand the increased contribution they
can make to the health while using as a medicine, nutrition and also as additional source of
income through value addition of the marginal population inhabited in the high Himalayan
mountains.
546 Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
123

3. Study area
Uttarakhand (28°430
and 31°280
N latitude and 77°490
and 81°030
E longitude) is a newly
formed hill state located in the central part of the India, shares an international boundary
with China in the north and with Nepal in the east. The state encompasses an area of
53,483 sq. km, which accounts for nearly 15.5% of the total geographical area of western
Himalaya and 1.63% of the total land area of India. The total population of the state is 8.48
million of which rural and urban population is 74.33 and 25.67% respectably. The recorded
forest area of the state is 34662 km,2
which constitute 64.79% of its geographic area (GoI
2004). Reserved Forest constitutes 71.08%, Protected Forest 28.51% and Unclassed Forest
0.41% of the total forest area. Vegetation varies according to altitude and climatic con-
ditions, from tropical deciduous forest in the foothills to Himalayan temperate forest at
middle altitudes, coniferous, sub-alpine and alpine forest at higher altitudes, giving way to
alpine grasslands and high altitude meadows.
Materials and method
Indigenous knowledge and ethnobotany
A rapid rural appraisal survey of the region was carried out to collect the baseline infor-
mation of the listed plant species such as uses and ethnobotany, phenology of fruits and
flowers and distribution. The information was collected through formal and informal
discussion with knowledgeable people of the region as well as members of the families so
as to collect authentic data regarding phenological events, appropriate fruiting time and
traditional medicinal uses of the fruits and other edible parts. In addition, published lit-
erature related to these parameters was also consulted to cross check the information
gathered from local people and rectified accordingly (Gaur 1999). The known conservation
status of these species was also worked out following the published literature (Nayar and
Sastry 1987).
Participatory action research framework and approaches
Participatory action research framework and approaches followed here was the ‘Farmer
First’ (Chambers et al. 1989) concept which was introduced in the late 1980s. In contrast to
conventional top-down approaches, it is an innovative method to promote farmers’ par-
ticipation in value addition of wild edibles and participatory sustainable conservation of
these species in their habitat through bottom-up approach while ensuring (i) building
technologies on indigenous knowledge, management practices and informal institutions,
(ii) supplementing/complementing the people’s worldview with the scientific knowledge,
(iii) linking indigenous informal and formal environment-development and (iv) involving
people in all stages of technology development, implementation and sustainability eval-
uation. It is based on the realization that farmers and scientists have different knowledge
and skills which may be complementary and that by working together the two groups may
achieve better results than by working alone (Hoffmann et al. 2007). Participatory tech-
nology development in the context of the NTFPs utilization and management refers to the
selection of and development of management practices for locally adapted species by local
farmers. Local people combine their indigenous knowledge with the scientific knowledge
of extension workers and research specialists with the goal of establishing balanced,
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559 547
123

4. multifunctional mountain landscapes that can provide local people with satisfactory live-
lihoods and deliver environmental services downstream (Fig. 1).
Fruit yield assessment of NTFPs
Observations were made throughout the year on the phenological events of wild fruit-
yielding plants across an altitudinal gradient (550–2500 m) in the Garhwal part of
Himalaya. Thirty quadrates, each of 5 9 5 m (for shrubs) and 10 9 10 m2
(for trees) were
laid down to evaluate wild fruit plant (shrub and tree) density on per hectare basis. The
categorization of bushes into small, medium and large was based on the average number of
branches per plant. For each species, mean fruit yield per plant was determined from 12
randomly selected bushes and trees of different size (Maikhuri et al. 1994).
Preference for wild edible species selection
The selected wild plants are found abundant in natural habitat with immense potential for
economic development. They are rich in nutritional composition as compared to cultivated
fruit species (Maikhuri et al. 1994; Negi 1986). From available literature and information
gathered from other reliable sources (age old heads from household and other persons
having sound knowledge of ethnobotany), it is apparent that wild fruits and their edible
products have high energy content and enormous medicinal potential, which are being
used by mountain traditional communities since decades (Gopalan et al. 1978; Wealth of
Fig. 1 Participatory Approaches and Action Research Framework developed by GBPIHED (Garhwal unit)
for harnessing the wild edible bioresources (NTFPs)
548 Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
123

5. India 1979). The total monetary benefit derived from value added products made from
these wild edibles was markedly higher on diurnal basis than the inputs required for
collection, preparation of value added products (Maikhuri et al. 2004). The central
Himalayan region is bestowed with rich in availability of these underutilized plant species
with potential food value, but unfortunately there is little knowledge regarding their
potential and importance among the local people. Therefore, in view the immense
potential of these wild bio-resources in economy generation and availability in the region,
few of the wild edibles plant species (listed in Table 1) were selected for value addition.
Cost-benefit analysis of value added edible products
The cost-benefit analysis of different value added products prepared from the selected wild
edible plants was calculated in Rs/day which includes labour charges for male and female
workers in different areas of fruit collection and materials/items required for preparation of
different value added products such as sugar, preservatives, plastics containers, packaging
materials for different products and that was calculated based on prevailing daily wage
labour and market rates (Table 2). The monetary output includes the yield (quantity) of the
products and monetary equivalent based on current market rate.
All wild fruit-bearing trees and shrubs mentioned here occur in the wild, either in forests
or near roads or in village surroundings, sometimes on degraded or semi-degraded land. In
view of this, it is not judicious to calculate the economics of edible items prepared from
these wild fruits on the basis of the fruit yield from the entire tree or shrub, although this
method is otherwise often more appropriate.
Preparation methods of value added products made from wild edible plant species
Preparation of juice
Well-ripened fruits are thoroughly rinsed with tap water and their exocarp is removed
carefully. The fruits are then chopped into small pieces, and boiled with water for 1 h. The
slurry thus obtained left to cool at room temperature and filtered through cheesecloth. This
filtrate solution is the pure juice of the fruit.
Preparation of squash
For the preparation of squash from the pure juice, about 2 kg of sugar is boiled in 1 l of
water. Now 1 l of pure juice and a small quantity of citric acid (10 g/2 kg sugar used) is
added into the solution. The mixture is boiled again for 30 half an hour and then left to cool
at room temperature. The solution obtained, is known as squash, which again filtered
through cheesecloth and yield into product and stored into containers for marketing.
Preparation of jam
All fruits are thoroughly washed with tap water and their exocarp is peeled off gently. The
fruits are ground into small pieces. Now approximately 250 ml water (per kg fruits) and a
small amount (*3 g/kg fruit) of citric acid added to the ground fruit mass, the whole is
then boiled repeatedly (with addition of sugar solution as required) to create slurry, which
is subsequently allowed to cool.
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559 549
123

6. Table
1
List
of
potential
wild
edible
plants
for
bioprospecting
with
their
phenology
and
ethnobiological
uses
in
Uttarakhand
Plant
species
Local
name
Conservation
status
according
to
Red
data
Book
Appropriate
time
for
harvesting
Fruit
yield/
plant
(kg/tree)
Part
used/mode
of
application
Medicinal
and
other
uses
Aegle
marmelos
Bel
Vulnerable
June–July
151
±
2
Fruits
used
for
juice
and
squash
The
fruit
is
aromatic
and
used
to
cure
peptic
ulcer,
constipation,
scurvy
and
dysentery
and
is
said
to
act
as
a
tonic
for
the
heart
and
brain
Bauhinia
purpurea
Guiral
Least
concern
April–May
5.3
±
0.26
Flowers
used
for
pickle
and
as
vegetable
The
flower
buds
are
eaten
as
a
vegetable
and
also
pickled.
Bark
used
in
medicine
as
detergent
of
wounds
Benthamidia
capitata
Bhamor
Near
threatened
November–December
11.9
±
3.7
Fruits
used
for
jam
and
sauce
Wood
is
used
for
making
agricultural
implements
and
as
fuelwood.
The
bark
is
used
medicinally
as
astringent
Berberis
asiatica
Kingor
Vulnerable
July
3.4
±
0.2
Fruits
used
for
juice
and
squash
It
is
good
remedy
for
stomachache,
diaphoretic,
diabetes,
fever
and
skin
disease
Bombax
ceiba
Semal
Near
threatened
March
15.2
±
0.4
Flowers
used
for
Pickle
The
immature
calyx
known
as
semargulla
is
consumed
as
vegetable.
The
flower
used
as
astringent.
Bark
gum
is
stimulant,
tonic
and
useful
in
diarrhoea
Diplazium
esculentum
Lingra
Least
concern
February–March
–*
Circinately
coiled
juvenile
leaves
used
for
pickle
and
vegetable
It
is
used
to
cure
jaundice
and
constipation
Elaeagnus
latifolia
Gewain
Vulnerable
September
2.6
±
0.2
Fruits
used
for
juice,
squash
and
sauce
Nitrogen
fixing
plant,
believed
to
be
good
in
cough
and
bronchitis.
It
is
capable
of
reducing
the
incidence
of
cancer
Embilica
officinalis
Awanla
Vulnerable
February
13.3
±
0.3
Fruits
used
for
pickle
and
juice
The
fruit
juice
is
used
to
cure
dyspepsia,
cough,
anemia,
peptic
ulcer,
piles
and
diabetic
Ficus
auriculata
Timla
Least
concern
June–July
18.1
±
0.5
Fruits
used
for
pickle
Traditionally
leaves
are
used
as
a
plate
in
the
village
and
also
used
as
a
good
fodder
Ficus
glomerata
Gular
Least
concern
July
51.6
±
2
Fruits
used
for
pickle
Fruits
cooked
as
vegetable.
Fruits
are
also
useful
in
treatment
of
leucorrhoea,
blood
disorders,
burning
sensation
and
urinary
discharges
550 Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
123

7. Table
1
continued
Plant
species
Local
name
Conservation
status
according
to
Red
data
Book
Appropriate
time
for
harvesting
Fruit
yield/
plant
(kg/tree)
Part
used/mode
of
application
Medicinal
and
other
uses
Ficus
palmata
Bedu
Least
concern
June
5
±
0.1
Fruits
used
for
pickle
Fruits
are
used
to
cure
digestive
disorders
Ficus
semicordata
Khaina
Least
concern
July
14.8
±
0.87
Fruits
used
for
pickle
Leaves
used
for
fodder
and
bark
are
used
for
ropes
Hippophae
salicifolia
Ames
Near
threatened
November–December
12.4
±
0.2
Fruits
used
for
juice,
squash
and
sauce
Syrup
prepared
from
fruits
is
used
in
lung
complaints.
The
fruit
is
rich
source
of
vitamin
‘C’
Morus
serrata
Kimu
Vulnerable
March
6.3
±
0.06
Fruits
used
for
jam
and
sauce
Mulberry
leaves
used
for
rearing
silkworms
and
is
good
source
of
narrative
fodder
for
cattle
Myrica
nagi
Kafal
Vulnerable
May–June
10.7
±
0.1
Fruits
used
for
jam
and
juice
A
decoction
of
the
bark
is
considered
useful
in
asthma,
diarrhea,
and
fevers.
The
juice
of
fruit
is
useful
in
cough,
fever,
piles
and
respiratory
disorders
Pyracantha
crenulata
Ghingaru
Near
threatened
October
3.5
±
0.2
Fruits
used
for
juice,
squash
and
sauce
Wood
is
used
for
walking
sticks
and
axe-
handles.
Infusion
of
bark
is
given
to
cure
suppressed
urinary
disorder
and
the
powdered
of
dried
fruit
is
used
to
cure
bloody
dysentery
Rhododendron
arboreum
Burans
Vulnerable
March
6
±
0.1
Flowers
used
for
juice
and
sauce
Flower
juice
is
given
to
the
patient
suffering
from
sugar/diabetics.
Bark
juice
is
used
to
cure
coughs
and
dysentery
Rosa
macrophylla
Jangali
gulab
Least
concern
May–June
0.6
±
0.08
Flowers
used
for
juice
The
plant
is
useful
in
bilious
affections.
A
paste
of
the
fruit
is
ingested
in
the
belief
it
is
beneficial
for
the
eyesight
Rosa
webbiana
Shedum
Near
threatened
September–October
8.5
±
0.26
Fruits
used
for
juice
Juice
is
given
to
cure
bowel.
Petal
is
used
in
flavoring
tea
Rubus
ellipticus
Hinsul
Near
threatened
June–July
3.5
±
1.7
Fruits
used
for
jam
The
syrup
is
given
to
the
sick
person
for
restoring
taste
of
food.
The
juice
of
the
root
is
used
in
the
treatment
of
fevers,
gastric
troubles
and
dysentery
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559 551
123

8. Table
1
continued
Plant
species
Local
name
Conservation
status
according
to
Red
data
Book
Appropriate
time
for
harvesting
Fruit
yield/
plant
(kg/tree)
Part
used/mode
of
application
Medicinal
and
other
uses
Rubus
niveus
Kali
hinsul
Least
concern
September
3.8
±
0.06
Fruits
used
for
jam
Leaves
are
used
as
astringent
and
also
blood
purifier
Spondias
pinnata
Amara
Near
threatened
January–February
27.8
±
1.3
Fruits
used
for
juice,
squash
and
sauce
The
fruit
is
good
source
of
vitamin
‘C’
and
used
to
cure
diabetes,
heart
ailment,
urinary
troubles
etc.
Flower
buds
and
leaves
made
into
delicious
curry
Viburrnum
mullaha
Bhatmolya
Vulnerable
October–November
5.2
±
0.29
Fruits
used
for
juice,
squash
and
sauce
The
wood
is
hard
and
walking
sticks
are
made
from
the
branches
Zizyphus
jujuba
Ber
Near
threatened
December–January
5.9
±
3.7
Fruits
used
for
juice,
squash
and
pickle
The
leaves
are
good
fodder
for
cattle
and
goats.
The
juice
of
fruit
is
used
to
cure
sore
throats
*
Not
calculated
552 Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
123

9. Preparation of sauce
This procedure is similar as followed for jam preparation. Approximately 300–400 ml
water, 3 g citric acid, and a small quantity of spice mixture (Piper nigrum, Syzygium
cromaticum, Myrstica fragranee, Cuminum cyinum etc.) is added to 1 kg fruit mass, and
the mixture is boiled before addition of 1 kg sugar. The slurry thus obtained after boiling is
comparatively less viscous than that of the jam.
Preparation of pickle
Fresh flower buds/fruits are thoroughly washed with tap water and cut into small appro-
priate size. The pieces are half boiled depending upon the fruit and nature of raw materials
(Embilica officinalis, Spondias pinnata, Ficus spp., fern etc.). Add required amount of
spices, oil, and salt 4–5 days before packaging to market.
Results
Phenophases, fruit yield and cost benefit analysis
Generally most of the wild edible plant species are grown in the natural pocket of the
forests and on the fringe of the village surroundings across an altitudinal gradient of
300–2500 m asl in central Himalaya. All these plant species selected for the present study
have been recognized locally for medicinal and ethnobiological uses and their different
parts are utilized as needs and purpose (Table 1). The phenophases cycle of these wild
edibles exhibits that, the majority of the species (70%) bear fruits during summer season
whereas, remaining (30%) species bear fruits/flowers in different seasons of the year. All
these species display much variation in the timing, duration and frequency of flowering and
fruiting across an altitudinal gradient. Therefore, an appropriate information/knowledge of
phenophases of these wild edibles is utmost needed so that round the year resources could
be made available on sustainable basis for small household/village level cottage industries.
Based on the available information gathered from available literature, it is important to
notice here that these wild fruits/flowers and their edible value added products have
numerous medicinal properties and are used to treat various diseases in traditional health
Table 2 Market costs in rupees
(Rs), of various items and essen-
tial commodities used in the
preparation of wild fruit products
Items Cost (Rs)
Jam (per kg) 70
Sauce (per kg) 60
Juice (750 ml) 70
Squash (750 ml) 50
Sugar (per kg) 30
Citric acid (per kg) 260
Potassium metabisulphide (per kg) 280
Plastic container (1-kg size, each) 20
Glass bottle (750 ml) 15
Labour charge for fruit
collection (rate per day)
100
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559 553
123

10. care system. Cost-benefit analysis of a variety of value added edible products prepared
from different wild edibles (i.e., fruits, flowers, soft twigs, petiole, stem) is presented in
Tables 3 and 4. Among the selected wild edible species, the maximum monetary net return
was recorded for juice extracted from Hippophae salicifolia (360 ± 13.3) followed by
Rhododendron arboreum (305 ± 4.4), Spondias pinnata (290 ± 5.8) and minimum
(Table 3) for Myrica esculenta (160 ± 1.7). Similarly for squash preparation the net
monetary return was also obtained higher from juice of Hippophae salicifolia (830 ± 11.5)
followed by Spondias pinnata (380 ± 8.3). The rest of the value added edible products
prepared include pickle, jam, sauce and murabba from selected wild edible plant species
and their different parts (Table 4). For pickle preparation, Ficus auriculata provide
maximum monetary net return (620 ± 8.8) followed by Ficus semicordata (390 ± 2.67),
Diplazium esculenta (320 ± 1.6) and minimum return was obtained from Zizyphus jujube
(120 ± 2.9).
The average fruit yield for wild shrubs/trees species varied, depending upon the size of
the same species or of different species (Table 1). In general, the largest fruit yield per
branch/hectare was obtained for large bushes/tree followed, by medium and small bushes/
tree respectively.
Marketing of value added products
Unemployment in Uttarakhand is currently an acute problem, and it is not possible for the
government and public sector to provide jobs for the all educated youths. There are
presently lakhs of unemployed and severely under-employed persons in the Uttarakhand.
In this context, if educated, uneducated and unemployed youths of this region engage
themselves fully in the preparation of quality value added products made from wild edibles
as a source of income, could certainly minimize the threat of unemployment. The present
Table 3 Cost-benefit analysis (Rs ± SE/day) of edible products prepared from a variety wild fruits/
flowers/soft stem/petiole in the central Himalaya
Plant species Juice Squash
Input Output Input Output
Spondias pinnata 190 ± 5.8 480 ± 8.8 (290 ± 5.8) 620 ± 7.3 1000 ± 8.8 (380 ± 8.3)
Pyracantha crenulata 140 ± 8.8 280 ± 8.8 (140 ± 5.8) 384 ± 2.9 600 ± 14.5 (216 ± 11.6)
Viburrnum mullaha 165 ± 7.6 350 ± 5.8 (185 ± 2.9) 495 ± 7.3 750 ± 5.8 (255 ± 1.7)
Berberis asiatica 150 ± 7.3 280 ± 7.3 (130 ± 1.7) 415 ± 5.8 600 ± 7.6 (185 ± 6.0)
Elaeagnus latifolia 175 ± 4.4 350 ± 5.8 (175 ± 1.7) 495 ± 7.3 750 ± 11.5 (255 ± 3.3)
Hippophae salicifolia 290 ± 8.8 700 ± 5.8 (360 ± 13.3) 1170 ± 11.6 2000 ± 20.3 (830 ± 11.5)
Zizyphus species 140 ± 8.8 280 ± 3.3 (140 ± 8.8) 390 ± 8.8 600 ± 11.5 (210 ± 3.3)
Aegle marmelos 180 ± 5.8 350 ± 3.3 (170 ± 2.9) 450 ± 7.3 750 ± 5.8 (300 ± 1.7)
Rosa webbiana 170 ± 5.8 350 ± 2.9 (180 ± 2.9) 550 ± 4.4 750 ± 7.6 (200 ± 4.4)
Rosa macrophylla 140 ± 5.8 280 ± 5.8 (140 ± 6.7) 400 ± 4.7 600 ± 7.3 (200 ± 21.7)
Rhododendron arboreum 185 ± 4.4 490 ± 5.8 (305 ± 4.4) 490 ± 8.8 900 ± 10.1 (370 ± 14.2)
Emblica officinalis 160 ± 8.8 420 ± 3.3 (260 ± 3.3) 560 ± 11.5 900 ± 8.8 (320 ± 6.7)
Myrica esculenta 165 ± 8.8 280 ± 5.8 (115 ± 3.3) 430 ± 8.8 720 ± 7.3 (290 ± 2.9)
Morus serrata 190 ± 8.8 350 ± 7.3 (160 ± 1.7) 430 ± 8.8 750 ± 14.5 (320 ± 5.6)
Values in parentheses for net return
554 Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
123

11. study reveals that most of the value added products prepared from fruits/other plant parts of
selected wild edible plant species and have a promising economic potential in economy
generation because of the total output, as well as the net return, is very high for all the
value added products. Although as per the literature/achieves we have consulted, some of
the wild edible species come under vulnerable and threatened category but as far as
Garhwal part of Himalayan region of central Himalaya is concerned, these wild species are
grown in abundant in wild (Maikhuri et al. 1994, 2004, 2007a, b). The fruits are collected
from mother plants in sustainable manner i.e. 60% of total fruit yield of individual plant is
harvested and remaining 40% is left for natural regeneration, thus this approach is quite
valuable in maintaining the survival of the species in their natural habitat. The approach for
conservation and monitoring strategy was followed (Fig. 1). If once the people begin to
derive economic benefits from these wild edible plants, the natural environment will
Table 4 Cost-benefit analysis (Rs ± SE/day) of edible products prepared from wild fruits/flowers/soft
stem/petiole in the central Himalaya
Plant species Pickle
Input Output
Diplazium esculenta 520 ± 7.3 840 ± 4.4 (320 ± 1.6)
Ficus auriculata 880 ± 4.4 1500 ± 10.1 (620 ± 8.8)
Bauhinia purpurea 390 ± 7.3 600 ± 8.8 (210 ± 6.0)
Bombax ceiba 570 ± 7.3 900 ± 13.0 (330 ± 13.0)
Ficus glomerata 400 ± 8.8 600 ± 10.4 (200 ± 1.7)
Ficus palmata 400 ± 8.8 600 ± 10.4 (200 ± 7.6)
Ficus semicordata 690 ± 8.8 1080 ± 5.2 (390 ± 2.67)
Zizyphus species 430 ± 8.8 550 ± 4.7 (120 ± 2.9)
Emblica officinalis 1500 ± 14 1800 ± 13.5 (300 ± 3.2)
Jam
Input Output
Pyracantha crenulata 600 ± 8.8 840 ± 7.3 (240 ± 10.1)
Benthamidia capitata 496 ± 8.5 700 ± 7.6 (204 ± 1.5)
Rubus ellipticus 203 ± 5 420 ± 5.2 (217 ± 5)
Sauce
Input Output
Spondias pinnata 611 ± 6.6 780 ± 5.8 (169 ± 10.8)
Pyracantha crenulata 540 ± 10.1 720 ± 2.9 (180 ± 9.3)
Murabba
Input Output
Zizyphus jujuba 456 ± 5.8 600 ± 9.3 (144 ± 10.4)
Emblica officinalis 1200 ± 17.6 1500 ± 14.5 (300 ± 3.3)
Values in parentheses for net return
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559 555
123

12. automatically be conserved in situ, and links in the food chain of the ecosystem will be
maintained (Maikhuri et al. 2004).
As regards to marketing of these food items, very little bottle necks are envisaged for
the local people who involve themselves in this business. Fortunately, the Uttarakhand
Himalaya occupies one of the important religious and tourist centers of the country, visited
by millions of pilgrims and tourists every year. Therefore, if the quality of these products is
improved, their market demand will increase rapidly. If people begin to derive an eco-
nomic benefit from these wild plants, they will have more interest towards these species
and they will go for participatory conservation of these species and the area under these
species will be increased. Obviously, the people will be aware about the importance of
these species while getting the economic benefit and certainly these species will be con-
served by the people themselves.
As a result of on site training and awareness about value addition of wild edible
products among the rural communities, a total of 75 households in 11 valleys of the
Garhwal region have adopted bioprospecting of wild edibles as a off-farm activity and
average income earned was estimated about Rs. 5212/household/yearly. Owing market
demand and people interest towards nutritional food products of wild edibles, some NGOs,
stakeholders started to adopt this venture for entrepreneur by making various value added
products. Now the products are being advertised through various exhibition and fairs
organized at local, district, state and national level and also being sold under the brand
name of Kedar Products in the market. A pilot survey was also conducted in the region and
found that the demand of these products is more as compared to synthetic products.
Continuing prospects of wild edibles based value added products as a source of income are
quite good and their demand and taste is growing continue in the region. Consumption of
branded cold drinks (i.e. pepsi, limca, coca-cola) in urban, semi-urban and local com-
munities is being gradually replaced by the juice/squash prepared from various cultivated
fruits/flowers (mango, apple, litchi, pine apple, guava, grapes etc.) and wild edible fruits/
flowers i.e. Hippophae salicifolia, Spondias pinnata, Aegle marmelos, Myrica esculenta,
Embilica officinalis, Rhododendron arboreum.
Conservation and resource management
The wild edible bioresources are recognized and valued not only for their short term
economic benefits, but also for their cultural richness and the sustenance that they offer to
large number of rural households. The Garhwal Himalaya which is enriched with diverse
vegetational wealth and indigenous wisdom of resource, if subjected to bioprospecting may
prove to be a boon for the society (Gairola and Biswas 2008). Out of 23 species screened as
a potential source for income generation, 8 species are listed under the category of vul-
nerable, 8 species near to threatened category and remaining 7 species are under least
concern from conservation aspect. In the Himalayan region, shrubs have provided an
important natural resistance to the process of degradation (Maikhuri et al. 1994). In the
Himalayan region, most of the shrubs have an excellent potential, not only for reclaiming/
rehabilitating degraded land/areas but also to meet the local need (i.e., fuel, fodder and bio-
fencing, etc.). In view of conservation and check the degradation of land resources, these
wild fruit species could be used for restoration and afforestation purposes, mostly on the
degraded and denuded mountain slopes (Wealth of India 1979; Anon 1990; Rongsen
1992). Therefore, more emphasis to be given for conservation of these native species in
situ to utilize their potential under restoration programmes (Maikhuri et al. 1994).
556 Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
123

13. In prospective of biodiversity conservation, domestication of wild edible resources is a
viable option for resource management. This aspect needs to be studied thoroughly, so that
economically important species are promoted for domestication. Domestication of these
species will not only improve the economic condition of the local people but will also help
in the conservation of biodiversity. Therefore, adoption of these species in traditional
agroforestry system, as per desire of local people will be a welcome step for harvesting
these species for the benefit of the community.
Fore procuring quality planting material, these species need to be propagated under
nursery conditions using quality seeds that will also guarantee ready supply of seedlings to
the desired farmers. A few farmers are willing to maintain them in the private or com-
munity forests. Such attitudes of the farmers need to be harnessed for adoption of these
species in traditional agroforestry systems. Plant dwellers and fruit collectors need to be
educated about forest associations and adverse impact of felling of branches for fruit
collection (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2003). However, before beginning the work of fruit
collection, there should be awareness of and allowance for the fact that the wild fruits of
any plant species do not last longer than 20–25 days (Maikhuri et al. 1994). Therefore,
juice extraction from the plants should be planned for the time when the fruits are fully
ripened. Detail calendar about fruiting and harvesting period of each species was devel-
oped (Table 1) so that stakeholders could be aware about the appropriate time for
collecting the fruits.
R D issues: need priority interventions
The capacity building and outreach programme in the area of value addition of biore-
sources have made a significant impact in the region. It has stimulated financial insti-
tutions of the state and central government (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development) which provided support through their various departments for training and
extension of technical advice to the user groups/rural people and has improved sub-
stantially during recent past. The approach and framework has been included in the
government’s agricultural/horticultural/livelihood extension policy programme, they have
started implementing it. A few institutions and district level departments, local NGO’s
etc. have incorporated this enterprise based on value addition locally in their action plans
for wider dissemination and adoption. But due to the absence of adequate dialogue
between government line agencies, researchers and farmers including their participation
in determining research priorities, has been continuing lacuna in most R D institutions
in the region. On account of this, government have faced severe problems in imple-
mentation of value addition of bio-resources related enterprise in various sectors of rural
development in a right perspectives for making govt. support services relevant and
sustainable. While governments have an important role in promoting support services but
it cannot be sustained by the government alone and for that mountain farmers, as well as
the private sectors in coordination with village institutions need to play an important role.
Besides, the appropriateness of policies applied for mountain people has long been
questioned, as in most cases; these policies are forced upon them without their will-
ingness/consent (Maikhuri et al. 2009). Generally, these policies fail to take into con-
sideration the unique features of mountains. Therefore, specific policies need to be
formulated to support the implementation of the value addition of bio-resources, which
consider the needs of the people inhabited in different altitudinal zones and bioresources
potential areas. Part of the solution required to includes increased efficiency,
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559 557
123

14. effectiveness, sustainability and political will and commitment of the various government
line agencies in pursuing the thrust in rural development and natural resource manage-
ment policies in the Himalayan mountain context.
Conclusion
The present study provides a practical example of economic use and research on wild
edibles which may help to policy planners at the regional and national levels on linking
livelihood/socio-economic development with biodiversity conservation. The lessons can be
drawn from this experience in Central Himalaya (Uttarakhand) to guide the development
of relevant research frameworks that helped understanding the appropriate linkages
between various aspects of wild edible species, their usage and values under different
environmental, socio-economic and cultural contexts. It was realized that in order to
influence policy planners and forest management practices one must understand the
broader context such as sustainability, extraction rates, growth, yield and biological pos-
sibilities for increasing production and the local variations in the value of wild edible
species. In developing participatory research framework for wise use of wild edibles it
would be useful to consider how different sets of issues are inter-connected and how they
influence the changes in the wider policy and socio-economic contexts for sustainable
livelihoods. The information and interventions of the above aspects can help rural com-
munities to improve their livelihoods in an environmentally sustainable manner while
harnessing the potential of the wild fruits and other edible parts in a ways that can meet
both short and long-term subsistence, economic, and conservation needs.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute for Himalayan Environ-
ment and Development. The authors are also very thankful to DST/SSD for providing financial support to
conduct the study.
References
Anon (1990) Plant for reclamation of wasteland. Publication and Information Directorate. CSIR, New Delhi
Blay D, Damnyag M, Appiah, Dwomoh L, Luukkanen FK, Pappinen A (2007). Involving local farmers in
rehabilitation of degraded tropical forests: some lessons from Ghana. Environ Dev Sustain. doi:
10.1007/s10668-006-9077-9
Chambers R, Pacey A, Thrupp LA (1989) Farmer first: farmer innovation and agricultural research.
Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK
Dhayani D, Maikhuri RK, Rao KS, Kumar L, Purohit VK, Sundriyal M, Sexena KG (2007) Basic nutritional
attributes of Hippophae salicifolia (Seabuckthorn) populations from Uttarakhand Himalaya, India.
Curr Sci 92(8):1148–1152
Gairola Y, Biswas S (2008) Bioprospecting in Garhwal Himalayas, Uttarakhand. Curr Sci 90(9):1139–1143
Gaur RD (1999) Flora of the district Garhwal North West Himalaya with ethno botanical note, Transmedia,
Srinagar Garhwal, p 109
GoI (Government of India) (2004) Forest and wildlife statistics: India 2004
Gopalan CB, Ramasastri V, Balasubramanian SC (1978) Nutritive value of some Indian foods. National
Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India
Hoffmann V, Probst K, Christinck A (2007) Farmers and researchers: how can collaborative advantages be
created in participatory research and technology development? Agric Hum Values 24:355–368
Kandari OP, Gusain OP (2001) Garhwal Himalaya–Nature, Culture and Society. Transmedia Publication,
Srinagar (Garhwal)
Maikhuri RK, Ramakrishnan PS (1992) Ethnobiology of some tribal societies of Arunachal Pardesh, north-
eastern India. J Econ Taxon Bot 10:61–78
558 Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559
123

15. Maikhuri RK, Semwal RL, Singh A, Nautiyal MC (1994) Wild fruit as a contribution to sustainable rural
development: A case study from the Garhwal Himalaya. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 1:56–68
Maikhuri RK, Rao KS, Saxena KG (2004) Bioprospecting of wild edibles for rural development in the
central Himalayan mountain of India. Mt Res Dev 24:110–113
Maikhuri RK, Rawat LS, Negi Vikram, Purohit VK (2007a) Eco-friendly appropriate technologies for
sustainable development of rural ecosystems in Central Himalaya. G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan
Environment and Development, p 45
Maikhuri RK, Negi Vikram, Rawat LS, Purohit VK (2007b) Promoting value addition in potential wild
edibles of central Himalaya for sustainable livelihood and small scale enterprise development. G. B.
Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, 38 pp
Maikhuri RK, Negi Vikram S, Rawat LS, Purohit VK, Phondani P, Chamoli KP, Farooquee NA (2009)
Participatory action research and framework approaches for promoting non- timber forest products
(NTFPs) in central Himalaya, Uttarakhand. Natl Acad Sci Lett 32:69–75
Mamo G, Sjaastad E, Vedeld P (2007) Economic dependence on forest resources: a case from Dendi
District, Ethiopia. For Policy Econ 9(8):916–927
Murphy IK, Bhat PR, Ravindranah NH, Sukumar R (2005) Financial valuation of non-timber forest product
flows in Uttara Kannada District, Western Ghats, Karnataka. Curr Sci 10(25):1573–1579
Nayar MP, Sastry ARK (1987) Red data book of Indian plants, vol I–III. Botanical Survey of India,
Calcutta, India
Negi KS (1986) Edible wild plants of Garhwal Himalaya. An Ethnobotanical Survey. D.Phil. thesis,
Srinagar Garhwal
Rongsen L (1992) Sea buckthorn: a multipurpose plant species for fragile mountains ICIMOD Occasional
paper No. 20
Simpson RD, Sedjo RA, Reid JW (1996) Valuing biodiversity for use in pharmaceutical research. J Polit
Econ 104:163–185
Singh HB, Arora RK (1975) Wild edible plants of India. Indian Council of Agriculture Research, New
Delhi, India
Sundriyal M, Sundriyal RC (2003) Underutilized edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: need for domes-
tication. Curr Sci 85(6):731–736
Wealth of India (1979) A dictionary of Indian raw material and industrial products. Raw material, vol 8.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
Biodivers Conserv (2011) 20:545–559 559
123