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The document discusses spatial analysis and modeling in GIS systems. It describes how spatial analysis involves gaining an understanding of patterns and processes underlying geographic features in order to make better decisions and understand phenomena. There are four main types of spatial analysis: spatial data manipulation, spatial data analysis, spatial statistical analysis, and spatial modeling. Vector and raster spatial analyses are also discussed, along with various functions like clipping, overlaying, buffering, slope calculation, and neighborhood statistics. Spatial modeling is described as using models to predict spatial outcomes and analyze "what if" scenarios.
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The document summarizes key Indian environmental protection acts and legislation. It discusses acts related to water pollution prevention (Water Act 1974), air pollution prevention (Air Act 1981), forests (Forest Act 1927, Forest Conservation Act 1980), wildlife protection (Wildlife Protection Act 1972), biodiversity (Biodiversity Act 2002), and the overarching Environmental Protection Act 1986. The acts established pollution control boards, placed restrictions on industries and activities affecting the environment, and enshrined principles of sustainable development and the polluter pays into Indian law, helping transition India from a period of unchecked environmental degradation to one with stronger legal frameworks for environmental protection.
EXOGENOUS HAZARDS docx
Floods are a major exogenous hazard in India that cause significant damage and loss of life annually. India has over 40 million hectares of land that is prone to flooding each year, and floods have increased in frequency and severity in recent decades due to factors like population growth, urbanization, and climate change. Flash floods can occur rapidly within six hours of heavy rainfall. Major rivers that experience recurrent flooding include the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and other peninsular rivers. Flood forecasting and warning has improved but flash floods remain difficult to predict. Urban flooding has increased risks due to faster floodwater flow times and dense populations. Mapping of flood prone areas and reducing encroachment in floodplains are key
ENDOGENOUS HAZARDS EARTHQUAKES .docx
1) Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of built-up strain energy along fault lines within the earth's crust due to the movement of tectonic plates.
2) India is vulnerable to earthquakes as it lies on the Alpine-Himalayan seismic belt, where the Indian plate is thrusting under the Eurasian plate.
3) Major earthquakes that have struck India include the 1950 Assam earthquake (magnitude 8.5), the 2001 Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat (magnitude 6.9), and the 2005 Kashmir earthquake (magnitude 7.6 impacting India).
Environmental Hazards and Environmental Disaster and Its Types.docx
India is prone to many natural and man-made disasters due to its varied geo-climatic conditions. Some key points:
- Drought and famine have been the deadliest natural disasters globally over the past few decades, killing over 45% of victims. Floods and earthquakes also cause significant damage.
- India experiences various disasters annually, including cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, and droughts, resulting in enormous loss of life and property.
- Major contributing factors to India's disaster risks include increasing population, urbanization, development in high-risk zones, and climate change effects like rising sea levels. Proper disaster management aims to reduce risks by lessening hazards and vulnerabilities.
HOW GIS USED IN TENDERING
GIS is used in tendering to help construction companies evaluate project sites and costs more accurately. Spatial data and maps generated through GIS allow companies to assess terrain, existing infrastructure and environmental factors of a location to prepare more informed bids. With GIS, construction firms can minimize risks and maximize profits by leveraging location intelligence in their tendering process.
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- 2. Spatial Analysis Most GIS systems are for the purpose of representing and describing features of the real world. Spatial databases perform this function Points, lines, polygons concepts for representation Coordinate systems as fundamental properties of spatial data geographic file formats for storage Spatial Analysis involves gaining an understanding of the patterns, and associated cause and effect processes, underlying the features which have been described in order to Make better decisions Understand the phenomena as a goal in itself
- 3. Spatial Analysis Types of Spatial Analysis: 1. Spatial data manipulation: Classic GIS capabilities - Spatial queries & measurement, buffering, map layer overlay 2. Spatial data analysis: Descriptive and exploratory, Visualization through data manipulation and mapping 3. Spatial statistical analysis: Hypothesis testing; Are data “to be expected” or are they “unexpected” relative to some statistical model, usually of a random process 4. Spatial modeling: Prediction, Constructing models (of processes) to predict spatial outcomes (patterns) What if analyses
- 4. Spatial Analysis Types of Spatial Analysis: 1. Vector Spatial Analysis - Extracting portions of data is an effective means of isolating specific areas for further processing or data analysis a) Extraction i. Clip ii. Split iii. Select iv. Erase b) Overlay i. Point-in-Polygon ii. Line-in-Polygon iii. Polygon-in-Polygon c) Proximity i. Buffer ii. Near iii. Point Distance
- 5. Spatial Analysis 2. Raster Spatial Analysis a) Surface Analysis a) Slope b) Aspect c) Contour d) Hill Shade e) Viewshed b) Local Functions and Statistics c) Neighborhood Functions and Statistics d) Zonal Functions a) Distance b) Straight-line c) Shortest path
- 6. Spatial Data Criteria: Spatial Analysis Functions Spatial Analysis
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