1) Prestressed concrete sleepers can deteriorate over time due to delayed ettringite formation caused by changes in cement production methods. Maintaining a low alkali content in cement can help prevent this.
2) In prestressed concrete, tensioning force is transmitted through adhesion between steel reinforcement and concrete. This adhesion can be weakened by microcracks, causing issues with force transmission.
3) Improper design of the near-front zone of prestressed concrete sleepers with clustered steel reinforcement can lead to cracking and spalling due to bursting, spalling, and splitting effects from stress concentrations. Additional confinement reinforcement is needed.
Some Results from the Investigation of Effects of Heat Treatment on Propertie...IJERDJOURNAL
Abstract:- The results of an investigation which was undertaken to reveal the differences in the mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics of two types of Ni-hard cast irons are presented in this study. The cast irons were obtained in a laboratory conditions and their compositions are in accordance with European standard EN 12513. One type of cast iron is EN GJN-HV520 (Ni-hard 2) containing 2.10% Cr and the second type EN GJN-HV600 (Ni-hard 4) with 9.04% Cr. The cast irons were evaluated in both as-cast and heat treated conditions. To improve mechanical properties specifically wear resistance, the samples of both types Ni-hard cast irons were subjected to different heat treatment processes. Annealing of Ni-hard 2 samples at 480°C during 4 hours caused increasing of hardness for about 13.5% due to additional precipitation of secondary carbides. On the other hand the heat treatment process consisting of annealing at 790°C during 4-8 hours of Ni-hard 4 samples, compared to the as-cast condition, improve the hardness for about 22.5%. In this case besides precipitation of secondary carbides, transformation of retained austenite to martensite occurs.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Fundamentals, synthesis and applications of Al2O3-ZrO2 compositesTANDRA MOHANTA
When the word “Ceramic” comes to our mind, we usually associate them with plates, saucers, cups and mugs. But, the word “Ceramic” encompasses more than just the word “plates” or “saucers”. Indeed, ceramic materials are hard and inherently brittle, but this is just the tip of the iceberg. They have multifarious properties and have acquired a status of high technical importance in the field of scientific research. Ceramics are the soul of the modern day’s structural applications owing to their high mechanical and thermal stability under different challenging conditions. They exhibit remarkable properties such as high hardness, high wear resistance, high corrosion resistance, high elastic modulus, high melting point and the ability to retain high strength at elevated temperatures. Alumina (Al2O3) is one such remarkable ceramic material known for its unique optical, mechanical and electrical properties. But the brittle nature of Al2O3 limits its use in certain engineering applications. Therefore, the strength of Al2O3 and Al2O3- based ceramics can be enhanced by tailoring the microstructural design through the application of strategic techniques that may involve secondary phase particle inclusion (such as Zirconia, ZrO2)
Investigation on the Rate of Solidification and Mould Heating in the Casting ...IOSR Journals
Abstract: The quality of casting in the foundry can be measured by the rate at which solidification of the
molten metal takes place, which is consequent upon the rate the mould, is able to dissipate the heat of
solidification to the surroundings. The faster or slower the heat removal process during solidification the
structure of the grains formed by the casting is either finer of coarser. An experimental investigation was
carried out to compare the rate of solidification of commercially pure aluminium in metallic moulds. The rate at
which solidification occurred was compared with the rate at which the mould absorbed and dissipates heat. The
experiments conducted recorded the temperature fields at different casting location and that of the moulds
respectively. The results showed that there is a direct relation of the rate of heat absorption by the mould and
the rate of solidification in metallic moulds.
Keywords – Aluminium, casting, heat, mould, solidification, temperature.
TALAT Lecture 1201: Introduction to Aluminium as an Engineering MaterialCORE-Materials
This lecture provides an introduction to metallurgical concepts necessary to understand how structural features of aluminium alloys are influenced by alloy composition, processing and heat treatment, and the basic affects of these parameters on the mechanical properties, and hence engineering applications, of the alloys. It is assumed that the reader has some elementary knowledge of physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Some Results from the Investigation of Effects of Heat Treatment on Propertie...IJERDJOURNAL
Abstract:- The results of an investigation which was undertaken to reveal the differences in the mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics of two types of Ni-hard cast irons are presented in this study. The cast irons were obtained in a laboratory conditions and their compositions are in accordance with European standard EN 12513. One type of cast iron is EN GJN-HV520 (Ni-hard 2) containing 2.10% Cr and the second type EN GJN-HV600 (Ni-hard 4) with 9.04% Cr. The cast irons were evaluated in both as-cast and heat treated conditions. To improve mechanical properties specifically wear resistance, the samples of both types Ni-hard cast irons were subjected to different heat treatment processes. Annealing of Ni-hard 2 samples at 480°C during 4 hours caused increasing of hardness for about 13.5% due to additional precipitation of secondary carbides. On the other hand the heat treatment process consisting of annealing at 790°C during 4-8 hours of Ni-hard 4 samples, compared to the as-cast condition, improve the hardness for about 22.5%. In this case besides precipitation of secondary carbides, transformation of retained austenite to martensite occurs.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Fundamentals, synthesis and applications of Al2O3-ZrO2 compositesTANDRA MOHANTA
When the word “Ceramic” comes to our mind, we usually associate them with plates, saucers, cups and mugs. But, the word “Ceramic” encompasses more than just the word “plates” or “saucers”. Indeed, ceramic materials are hard and inherently brittle, but this is just the tip of the iceberg. They have multifarious properties and have acquired a status of high technical importance in the field of scientific research. Ceramics are the soul of the modern day’s structural applications owing to their high mechanical and thermal stability under different challenging conditions. They exhibit remarkable properties such as high hardness, high wear resistance, high corrosion resistance, high elastic modulus, high melting point and the ability to retain high strength at elevated temperatures. Alumina (Al2O3) is one such remarkable ceramic material known for its unique optical, mechanical and electrical properties. But the brittle nature of Al2O3 limits its use in certain engineering applications. Therefore, the strength of Al2O3 and Al2O3- based ceramics can be enhanced by tailoring the microstructural design through the application of strategic techniques that may involve secondary phase particle inclusion (such as Zirconia, ZrO2)
Investigation on the Rate of Solidification and Mould Heating in the Casting ...IOSR Journals
Abstract: The quality of casting in the foundry can be measured by the rate at which solidification of the
molten metal takes place, which is consequent upon the rate the mould, is able to dissipate the heat of
solidification to the surroundings. The faster or slower the heat removal process during solidification the
structure of the grains formed by the casting is either finer of coarser. An experimental investigation was
carried out to compare the rate of solidification of commercially pure aluminium in metallic moulds. The rate at
which solidification occurred was compared with the rate at which the mould absorbed and dissipates heat. The
experiments conducted recorded the temperature fields at different casting location and that of the moulds
respectively. The results showed that there is a direct relation of the rate of heat absorption by the mould and
the rate of solidification in metallic moulds.
Keywords – Aluminium, casting, heat, mould, solidification, temperature.
TALAT Lecture 1201: Introduction to Aluminium as an Engineering MaterialCORE-Materials
This lecture provides an introduction to metallurgical concepts necessary to understand how structural features of aluminium alloys are influenced by alloy composition, processing and heat treatment, and the basic affects of these parameters on the mechanical properties, and hence engineering applications, of the alloys. It is assumed that the reader has some elementary knowledge of physics, chemistry and mathematics.
This lecture provides an introduction to the metallurgy of precipitation hardening, with a presentation of the fundamental mechanisms involved and illustrations from alloys which form the basis for engineering alloys. The Al-Mg<sub>2</sub>Si system is discussed in some detail because of its commercial importance. The microstructural aspects of precipitation hardening are illustrated by examples, many of which were obtained by electron microscopy; an outline of the background to electron microscopy is given in an appendix. Familiarity with the subject matter covered in earlier lectures 1201, 1202 and 1203 is assumed.
Wear Properties of Thixoformed Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg Aluminium AlloyDr. Manal Abdullatif
Earlier work has shown that Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg aluminium alloy is suitable for
thixoforming process. Here, the dry sliding wear behaviour of the alloy, in the as-cast and
thixoformed conditions were investigated. The cooling slope technique was used to produce the alloy
with globular microstructure for the thixoforming process. Both the thixoformed and cast samples
were subjected to T6 heat treatments prior to the wear tests. The tests were carried out using a
pin-on-disc tribometer, against a hardened M2 tool steel disc of 62 HRC at different loads, under dry
sliding conditions at fixed sliding speed and sliding distance of 1 m.s–1 and 5 km respectively. The
microstructural response, worn surfaces was thoroughly and carefully examined using various
methods such as scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and differential
scanning calorimetry. The density of the heat treated thixoformed alloys showed significant increase
in the hardness property, among others, due to its reduced porosity. Their wear test results also
observed that the weight loss of materials increase with an increase in the input load and the sliding
distance for all samples. However, the as-cast alloy displayed higher wear rate compared with the
thixoformed alloys. In general, the wear mechanisms showed a mixture of abrasive, oxidative and
delamination wear (mild wear) at low applied loads and mainly an adhesive (severe wear) at high
applied loads.
Effects of Continuous Cooling On Impact and Micro Structural Properties of Lo...IJMER
Some mechanical properties and microstructural analysis were conducted on shielded
metal arc weldments of low carbon steels in some simulated environments. Specimens were prepared
and subjected to welding and continuous cooling at the same time at various positions. Results obtained
for impact strength using Charpy impact testing machine showed that impact strength of water cooled
samples were higher compared to salty water cooled samples. This is due to the increased formation of
martensitic structure and finer pearlite grains. The microstructure of the samples was studied using
photographic visual metallurgical microscope. For low cooling rate as in the air cooled sample, the
austenite was observed to transform into ferrite and pearlite. Ferrite is a body-centred cubic crystal
structure of iron alloys. For higher cooling rates of water and salt water cooled samples, low
temperature transformation products like bainite (an acicular microstructure which is not a phase) or
martensite (a very hard form of steel crystalline structure) were formed. The salt water cooled samples
had more martensite regions because of the increased cooling rate
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
. One of the methods used to surface hardening of ductile iron is chilled cast iron. Chill as the fast cooling rate in the mold during solidification and chill thickness greatly affects the thickness of the hardness layer. The main material used is ductile iron, and the chill material is SS 304. Casting uses the sand casting method. Before pouring, the chill plate has been inserted onto the surface of the pattern that has been formed in the mold, then the chill plate is preheated at 700OC. Pouring was carried out at a melting temperature of 1400OC, and then cooled with argon and O2 sprays into the mold in solidification conditions at exactly 700OC. The results analyzed were the microstructure, hardness value, and the hardness of the thickness layer. This chill coolant will absorb heat very quickly and the Cr and Ni alloy will diffuse to the specimen surface to stabilize the ferrite and austenite phases in the final solidification. The particles on the hard surface have Ferro carbide M7C3, which is in the form of cementite and martensitic phases so that to categorized as white cast iron structure formed on the surface with an area around 1.5-3mm has a hardness of 61-65HRC. But in the center area is 31-49HRC
Characteristics of Hypoeutectic Cu-Zr Alloy Rods Manufactured by Vertical Upw...Rautomead Limited
The focus in this study is therefore on applying a vertical upwards continuous casting (VUCC) mass-production
method to the pilot-scale manufacturing of Cu-Zr alloy rods. The microstructure and physical characteristics of these
VUCC rods were subsequently investigated and compared with rods produced by CMC. In addition, the wire-drawing
capability of the VUCC rods was examined, and the adaptability of the VUCC method to the mass production of
hypoeutectic Cu-Zr alloys was fully investigated.
2.
Investigation of the distribution of lead in three different combinations of ...Rautomead Limited
The main objective of this paper was to assess three leaded
brass samples (pending application with Copper Development
Association) using optical microscopy and mass
spectrometry to compare the distribution of lead. Based on
the mass spectrometry data, a great deal of variation was
not found within each of the samples based on five different
sample locations. Optical microscopy, scanning electron
microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
confirmed that the lead was homogenously distributed in
brass.
EU: Railway or Tramway Sleepers (Cross-Ties) of Wood – Market Report. Analysi...IndexBox Marketing
IndexBox Marketing has just published its report: “EU: Railway or Tramway Sleepers (Cross-Ties) of Wood - Market Report. Analysis And Forecast To 2020”. This report focuses on the EU wooden railway sleeper market, providing a comprehensive analysis and the most recent data on its market size and volume, EU trade, price dynamics, domestic production, and turnover in the industry. The market trends section reveals the main issues and uncertainties concerning the industry, while the medium-term outlook uncovers market prospects. The attractivity index (IB Index) summarizes the source of existing opportunities as they appear in this market, as well as an interpretation of the trade figures.
A comparative study of physical attacks on wireless sensor networkseSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Exposure to elevated temperatures and cooled under different regimes – a stud...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
This lecture provides an introduction to the metallurgy of precipitation hardening, with a presentation of the fundamental mechanisms involved and illustrations from alloys which form the basis for engineering alloys. The Al-Mg<sub>2</sub>Si system is discussed in some detail because of its commercial importance. The microstructural aspects of precipitation hardening are illustrated by examples, many of which were obtained by electron microscopy; an outline of the background to electron microscopy is given in an appendix. Familiarity with the subject matter covered in earlier lectures 1201, 1202 and 1203 is assumed.
Wear Properties of Thixoformed Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg Aluminium AlloyDr. Manal Abdullatif
Earlier work has shown that Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg aluminium alloy is suitable for
thixoforming process. Here, the dry sliding wear behaviour of the alloy, in the as-cast and
thixoformed conditions were investigated. The cooling slope technique was used to produce the alloy
with globular microstructure for the thixoforming process. Both the thixoformed and cast samples
were subjected to T6 heat treatments prior to the wear tests. The tests were carried out using a
pin-on-disc tribometer, against a hardened M2 tool steel disc of 62 HRC at different loads, under dry
sliding conditions at fixed sliding speed and sliding distance of 1 m.s–1 and 5 km respectively. The
microstructural response, worn surfaces was thoroughly and carefully examined using various
methods such as scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and differential
scanning calorimetry. The density of the heat treated thixoformed alloys showed significant increase
in the hardness property, among others, due to its reduced porosity. Their wear test results also
observed that the weight loss of materials increase with an increase in the input load and the sliding
distance for all samples. However, the as-cast alloy displayed higher wear rate compared with the
thixoformed alloys. In general, the wear mechanisms showed a mixture of abrasive, oxidative and
delamination wear (mild wear) at low applied loads and mainly an adhesive (severe wear) at high
applied loads.
Effects of Continuous Cooling On Impact and Micro Structural Properties of Lo...IJMER
Some mechanical properties and microstructural analysis were conducted on shielded
metal arc weldments of low carbon steels in some simulated environments. Specimens were prepared
and subjected to welding and continuous cooling at the same time at various positions. Results obtained
for impact strength using Charpy impact testing machine showed that impact strength of water cooled
samples were higher compared to salty water cooled samples. This is due to the increased formation of
martensitic structure and finer pearlite grains. The microstructure of the samples was studied using
photographic visual metallurgical microscope. For low cooling rate as in the air cooled sample, the
austenite was observed to transform into ferrite and pearlite. Ferrite is a body-centred cubic crystal
structure of iron alloys. For higher cooling rates of water and salt water cooled samples, low
temperature transformation products like bainite (an acicular microstructure which is not a phase) or
martensite (a very hard form of steel crystalline structure) were formed. The salt water cooled samples
had more martensite regions because of the increased cooling rate
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
. One of the methods used to surface hardening of ductile iron is chilled cast iron. Chill as the fast cooling rate in the mold during solidification and chill thickness greatly affects the thickness of the hardness layer. The main material used is ductile iron, and the chill material is SS 304. Casting uses the sand casting method. Before pouring, the chill plate has been inserted onto the surface of the pattern that has been formed in the mold, then the chill plate is preheated at 700OC. Pouring was carried out at a melting temperature of 1400OC, and then cooled with argon and O2 sprays into the mold in solidification conditions at exactly 700OC. The results analyzed were the microstructure, hardness value, and the hardness of the thickness layer. This chill coolant will absorb heat very quickly and the Cr and Ni alloy will diffuse to the specimen surface to stabilize the ferrite and austenite phases in the final solidification. The particles on the hard surface have Ferro carbide M7C3, which is in the form of cementite and martensitic phases so that to categorized as white cast iron structure formed on the surface with an area around 1.5-3mm has a hardness of 61-65HRC. But in the center area is 31-49HRC
Characteristics of Hypoeutectic Cu-Zr Alloy Rods Manufactured by Vertical Upw...Rautomead Limited
The focus in this study is therefore on applying a vertical upwards continuous casting (VUCC) mass-production
method to the pilot-scale manufacturing of Cu-Zr alloy rods. The microstructure and physical characteristics of these
VUCC rods were subsequently investigated and compared with rods produced by CMC. In addition, the wire-drawing
capability of the VUCC rods was examined, and the adaptability of the VUCC method to the mass production of
hypoeutectic Cu-Zr alloys was fully investigated.
2.
Investigation of the distribution of lead in three different combinations of ...Rautomead Limited
The main objective of this paper was to assess three leaded
brass samples (pending application with Copper Development
Association) using optical microscopy and mass
spectrometry to compare the distribution of lead. Based on
the mass spectrometry data, a great deal of variation was
not found within each of the samples based on five different
sample locations. Optical microscopy, scanning electron
microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
confirmed that the lead was homogenously distributed in
brass.
EU: Railway or Tramway Sleepers (Cross-Ties) of Wood – Market Report. Analysi...IndexBox Marketing
IndexBox Marketing has just published its report: “EU: Railway or Tramway Sleepers (Cross-Ties) of Wood - Market Report. Analysis And Forecast To 2020”. This report focuses on the EU wooden railway sleeper market, providing a comprehensive analysis and the most recent data on its market size and volume, EU trade, price dynamics, domestic production, and turnover in the industry. The market trends section reveals the main issues and uncertainties concerning the industry, while the medium-term outlook uncovers market prospects. The attractivity index (IB Index) summarizes the source of existing opportunities as they appear in this market, as well as an interpretation of the trade figures.
A comparative study of physical attacks on wireless sensor networkseSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Exposure to elevated temperatures and cooled under different regimes – a stud...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
New optimization scheme for cooperative spectrum sensing taking different snr...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Investigation and computational analysis of divergent orifice in fuel injecto...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Removal of chromium (vi) by activated carbon derived from mangifera indicaeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
A software framework for dynamic modeling of dc motors at robot jointseSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Corrosion resistance performance of fly ash blended cement concreteseSAT Journals
Abstract Durability of reinforced concrete with respect to corrosion of reinforcement is one of the major aspects to be considered in the management of civil infrastructure systems. An accelerated laboratory test method developed at SERC where the concrete specimen containing rebar is subjected to polarization under a constant voltage in a sodium chloride solution. It is found that the current response with time follows that of a typical service life model indicating depassivation and corrosion propagation. Index terms- Materials, cement, super plasticizer, workability, compressive strength etc.
Corrosion resistance performance of fly ash blended cement concreteseSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Accelerted testing of deteriorated concrete structures due to carbonationeSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Characterization of materials by partially replacing cement by copper ore tai...eSAT Journals
Abstract The construction industry has been improvising through the advances in innovation and procedure. Concrete, which is the essential part in development industry, is being utilized more than manmade materials and it expands more crude materials. Cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are vital ingredients of concrete .An earnest attempt is made through this project to fulfill all the pre and post factor of M20 concrete by partial replacement of cement by copper ore tailing of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and sand by iron ore tailing of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%. The effect of copper ore tailing and iron ore tailing for the partial replacement of cement and sand on strength and durability characteristics were analyzed and compared with normal concrete. The test results shows that 15% copper ore tailing and 30% iron ore tailing shows the good and optimized results. Its use will lead to a reduction in cement and sand quantity required for construction purposes and hence sustainability in the construction industry. Keywords: Copper ore tailing, Iron ore tailing
Behavior of carbon steel in simulated concrete pore solutions of air-entraine...Adriana de Araujo
In Brazil, the air-entrained concrete has been extensively used as structural walls of housing units. Some of these units built recently in urban areas were inspected. Upon inspection, a significant variation of the potential corrosion measurement was obtained and reddish stains on the surface of the reinforcement were also observed, indicating active state of corrosion. Not always the concrete was fully carbonated and a chloride contamination was not detected. The occurrence of crevice corrosion was pointed as a possible cause of the premature corrosion as a non-uniform contact of the concrete with the reinforcement surface was detected.
In order to better understand the occurrence of premature corrosion of the inspected reinforcement, a complementary study was conducted at the laboratory to characterize air-entrained concretes and evaluate the behavior of steel bars immersed in solutions that simulate the water in the pores of these concrete and compare them to the pore solution of an ordinary Portland concrete.
The steel bars were evaluated under three conditions: blasted, corroded and galvanized. An intentional crevice was introduced on one of the bars. The behavior of the bars was monitored by visual examination and by electrochemical measurements. Finally, the corrosion rate was calculated. Tests on concrete specimens were also conducted to validate the results.
The characterization tests showed an inferior quality of the air-entrained concretes, having both high concentrations of pores, many of them fully interconnected. This justified the high deep carbonation observed in a short period of time and a variable electrical resistivity detected in the field.
The pore-solution immersion tests showed the higher corrosion susceptibility of metallic reinforcement in air-entrained concretes especially at the crevice areas. In the studied air-entrained concretes, the corrosion occurred preferentially under the sealant applied on the bar extremities. In one of them, corrosion was also observed on the free surface of the blasted bars. The corrosion was also observed in the air-entrained concrete specimens, confirming the tests solution results.
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy on thermal ageing evaluation of epoxy ...eSAT Journals
Abstract This research concentrates on the thermal ageing of a full 3-coat system with sacrificial pigment (zinc rich) primer on mild steel where the temperature dependence test is conducted to explore the correlation between the coating resistances with the corrosion rate underneath the coating. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is introduced over a range of temperature to extract activation energies for the rate of controlling processes in the corrosion reactions. It is expected that the zinc rich primer does not form a barrier coating for the metal substrate rather it will be the most active component of the substrate in the electrochemistry. Full 3-coat system with zinc rich primer show the extracted activation energy from coating resistance is significantly lower than the activation energy extracted from the charge transfer resistance. This suggested that the coating resistance from EIS cannot be controlling the corrosion reaction. The activation energies generated for the corrosion process here (78–97 kJmol-1) are very much higher than those of ion transport through the coating (19–37 kJmol-1) during early immersion. Further interesting findings come from the activation energy trends over time particularly for the corrosion process which shown that the value is decreasing where at the end of exposure, the activation energy values for coating and charge transfer resistance become quite similar. It is suggested that at this stage ion transport in the coating might be controlling the corrosion process unlike at the beginning; the activation energy is getting smaller due to coating degradation. Index Terms: epoxy coating, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, thermal effect, zinc rich primer
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Some problems with prestressed concrete sleepers durability
1. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
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Volume: 03 Special Issue: 13 | ICNTCC-2014 | Sep-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 153
SOME PROBLEMS WITH PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS
DURABILITY
J. Pawluk1
, A. Cholewa2
, W. Kurdowski3
, W. Derkowski4
1
TrackTec, Warsaw, Poland
2
TrackTec, Warsaw, Poland
3
The Glass and Building Materials Division of the Institute of Ceramics and Building Materials, Cracow, Poland
4
Cracow University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow, Poland
Abstract
In the paper, the authors presented the hazards of concrete sleepers linked with delayed ettringite formation (DEF) as well as the
need to maintained of low alkalis content in cement. The authors also discussed the advantages of mechanical anchorage in
sleepers, applied in the BBRV technology. This method is based on the system of smooth bars anchorage, on the ends of the
strings with higher dimensions and is realized with the anchorage plates. It prevents of microcracks formation after tension
release.
Keywords: ASR reaction, DEF reaction, reinforcement rebars anchorage
--------------------------------------------------------------------***----------------------------------------------------------------------
1. INTRODUCTION
From the eightieth the problems with concrete sleepers
deterioration have arose, which was caused by the change of
cement technology, from wet to dry method. Numerous
research [1- 6] have shown that in the majority of cases the
main reason of this deterioration was the delayed ettringite
formation (DEF). It was also establish in these studies what
are the causes of delayed ettringite formation [3, 6, 7]. It
seems then that it should end the story of the troubles with
concrete sleepers, but it does not the matter. In 2007 in
Germany, in the railway line from Berlin to Munich and
Hannover million sleepers must be changed, to replace the
damaged ones [8]. These sever events, principally from the
safety point of view, if the economic problems are even not
taken into account, deserve to remind of the rules which
assure the durability of concrete sleepers.
2. THE RULES ASSURING THE CONCRETE
SLEEPERS DURABILITY
2.1 External Destruction Mechanisms
The causes of external concrete sleepers destruction are
rather limited, because the sleepers in the railway lines are
positioned on subgrade composed of aggregate ballast. In
this conditions the aggressive solutions attack is rather
excluded and can take place very seldom. Thus the external
attacks are in the majority of cases limited to the frost
action. However, this action can be enhanced by the micro-
cracks formed in concrete, which can be caused either by
DEF, or by some errors of reinforcing steel bars release in
the case of prestressed concrete, which are the sleepers, or
by the lack of these reinforced bars anchorage. This problem
will be discussed in point 3.
The sleepers are produced from HPC of the strength in the
range from 80 to 90 MPa, and the content of high strength
cement CEM I 52,5 in concrete is high, as a rule over 300
kg/m3
. There are the reasons that neither frost attack [9] nor
carbonation [10] should not represent the serious causes of
concrete sleepers destruction.
2.2 Internal Destruction Mechanisms
The studies of Heinz and Ludwig [1] have shown that the
sleepers destruction was caused by DEF, however, the
causes of the instability of ettringite during heat treatment of
concrete were establish by Wieker et al. [3]. Wieker [3]
found that when the pore solution contains 400 mmol/l the
ettringite is unstable at 75o
C and is replaced mainly by
C4AH13 [Table 1]. Thus the sulphate ions remain in solution
[Fig. 1] and can react with aluminate ions during concrete
curing, after different period even two years, that gives
expansion.
Table 1: Sulphate phases in equilibrium with NaOH
solution as a function of its concentration and at different
temperature [3]
NaOH
concentria
-
tion
mmoles/l
Detected phases
25°C 75°C 100°C
0
400
700
1000
ett.*
ett.
ett.
ett.
ettringite
Ca(OH)2,
C4AH13
Ca(OH)2,
C4AH13
Ca(OH)2,
amorph. phases
ettringite
AFm, CaSO4,
Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2, CaSO4
C3AH6, Ca(OH)2,
CaSO4
* ett. – ettringit
2. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
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Volume: 03 Special Issue: 13 | ICNTCC-2014 | Sep-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 154
Fig. 1: Composition of the liquid phase in Portland cement
paste subjected to thermal treatment at 90o
C and then cured
in water at 20o
C, plotted as a function of time [3]
The time and the intensity of this expansion occurring is
depending on the heat treatment temperature [Fig. 2] [3].
The higher the temperature the higher the expansion and
shorter the time of its appearing. The expansion is enhanced
in the case of the high strength and rapid hardening cements
application. Unfortunately in the case of prestressed
concrete these type of cements are used.
Fig. 2: Expansion of mortars from Portland cement with
Na2Oe = 1.24, heat treated at different temperatures (time of
curing given on the plots), and subsequently matured at
humid atmosphere at temperature of 20o
C [3].
According to the studies of Wieker [3] and Glasser and
Damidot [11] the stability of ettringite during heat treatment
depends on the temperature and SO3 content in cement. At
the temperature of 70o
C and the concrete composition,
assumed in this paper, Pawluk [12] reported the stability of
ettringite at 500 mmol of NaOH in one litter of solution.
In further consideration we will assume that the concrete
composition was as follows: cement – 320 kg/m3
, SO3 in
cement 3%, w/c ratio 0.4, coarse aggregate – 1600 kg/m3
and sand 600 kg/m3
. According to these assumptions the
theoretical SO3 content in concrete will be about 0.4%. The
SO3 content in concrete can always be one of the method for
cement content verification.
The analyses of main type of aggregate used in sleepers
concrete, i.e. granite and basalt, have shown that the content
of soluble, thus reactive alkalis during heat treatment, is as a
rule very low, about 0.02% of Na2Oe. Thus it will give the
Na2Oe mass content in concrete of about 0.32 kg/m3
. In
ordinary cement, produced by dry method, the content of
total alkalis is about 1.0% of K2O and 0.25% of Na2O, and it
corresponds to about 0.91% of total Na2Oe and to about
0.8% of soluble Na2Oe. In concrete it will give 2.56 kg/m3
.
Taking into account the soluble Na2Oe in aggregate equal
0.02%, their income to concrete can be calculated as 1600 x
0.0002 = 0.32 kg/m3
. The total content of soluble Na2O in
concrete will be 2.98 + 0.32 = 3.30 kg/m3
. 3.30 kg is equal
to 2448.4 g of Na, which can form 4258 g of NaOH in
concrete. It will correspond to 33.27 g of NaOH/l of
solution, thus 0.832 mmol/l of solution. It is much higher
than the permissible content establish as 500 mmol/l [12].
For the heat treated concrete as in the sleepers production it
was necessary to apply low alkali cement and in Poland the
content of total Na2Oe in this cement is lower than 0.6% and
lower than 0,5% of soluble Na2Oe. The soluble alkalis
content in concrete will be: 0.005 x 320 = 1.60 kg/m3
+ 0.32
of Na2O from aggregate which gives the total content of
1.92 kg/m3
. It means 1.92 x 0.742[Na/Na2O] = 1.425 kg of
Na. It corresponds to 2.48 kg of NaOH and 19.38 g/l of
solution and 485 mmol/l. It is lower then found by Pawluk
[12] threshold value. If we take, as a limit for total alkali
content in cement 0.8% [soluble 0,7%], calculation shows
that it will correspond to 2.24 kg of Na2O kg/m3
and + 0.32
Na2O from aggregate = 2.56 kg/m3
. It gives 1.90 kg of Na
which corresponds to 3.3 kg of NaOH and 25.8 g/l of
solution and 645 mmol/l, which is much higher than the
threshold value [12]. It was the cause that in concrete with
cement containing 0.78% of soluble alkalis ettringite was
not stable at heat treatment at 70o
C.
It should be also underlined that the low alkalis content in
cement is also an efficient method for hindering of the alkali
silica reaction in the case of reactive aggregate usage in
concrete production [13].
3. PROBLEM OF SLEEPERS
REINFORCEMENT
In typical prestressed concrete elements the tensioning force
is transmitted on concrete through the adhesion of the
strings and cover of hardened concrete. The constrains of
adhesion are usually defined as the tangential stress,
uniformly distributed on the string surface. At this surface
the mechanism of adhesion are the following: chemical
adhesion, friction on the contact of steel bar with concrete
and mechanical meshing. The chemical adhesion is causing
the compressive strength on the bond of steel bar with
concrete, however, it can be broken, even at very low slip of
the string in concrete cover. In Fig. 3 the adhesion stress in
non-cracked concrete is presented in the initial section of the
diagram, ranging to point A [14].
The chemical adhesion can be also broken by the
microcracks formation in concrete, in the neighbourhood of
string. It is assumed that the tensioning force of steel bars in
concrete is in the range from 0. 5 to 1.0 MPa.
3. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
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Volume: 03 Special Issue: 13 | ICNTCC-2014 | Sep-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 155
The friction of steel bar with concrete is very important in
transmitting forces between this bar and concrete and
depends in high degree of the string shape. It even can
represent of 35% of final tensioning strength of concrete.
The mechanical meshing, formed on the bars surface
roughness, has a decisive influence on concrete tensioning
to the reinforcement. It depend significantly on the string
surface and nowadays the bars with deformed surface, or
multi-weaves wires, are commonly used in prestressed
elements. When the maximum bond strength is reaching the
microcracks in concrete wedge are beginning to form, in the
strings pockets and the slip is appearing. It can be caused
also, in minor degree, by shrinkage or other concrete volume
changes.
Fig. 3: Typical relations of tensioning stress from slip [15].
In classic prestressed concrete elements the total tensioning
force on concrete is transmitted in section of length lpt ,
called the transmission length. Out of this section the
compressive stresses of tensioning are successively
propagating on whole element intersection. The linear
distribution of this stresses propagation appear only in the
intersection at the distance from the element front equal ldisp .
These both section are shown on Fig. 4.
lpt
ldisp
x
d
h
Fig. 4: The transmission and propagation sections length in
prestressed concrete element
The length of these sections depend significantly on
concrete mechanical properties, chiefly of the tension
strength, but also on hardness, and on tensioning force and
string diameter.
In the case of such specific construction as prestressed
concrete mono-block sleepers the transmission length is a
main designing parameter, because the very high effort of
the under-rail zone, is relatively close located to the sleeper
front.
The transmission of tensioning force to the sleeper front
zone, in which the strings are anchored by tensioning only,
causes the composed, spacial stresses state, composed of the
longitudinal stress streams, compressing concrete (parallel
to the sleeper axis) and the lateral tensile stresses. The
recently published Model Code 2010 [16] is defining three
types of cracks formation in the sleeper front of prestressed
concrete, which can have basic effect on correct strings
anchorage in concrete:
bursting effect – designed as „1” in Fig. 5, caused
by lateral tensile stresses in concrete,
spalling effect – designed as „2” on Fig. 5, in the
end zones of concrete elements, particularly with
thin-walls ones,
splitting effect – designed as „3” , near the contact
surface with the string, caused mostly by to close
placed the neighboring strings.
Fig. 5: The stress streams directions and possible damage of
near-front zone of prestressed concrete element [16].
Splitting phenomenon can be easily prevented by confined
concrete with suitably shaped bars, for example in the form
of stirrup. According to the MC [16] recommendations to
prevent the cracks formation in the contact zone with the
string the minimum spacing between strings assuring, not
lower than (2÷3) Øs (where Øs is the nominal string
diameter) and minimum string cover, not lower than (2,5÷4)
Øs.
Frequently the aforementioned phenomena are
superimposing and their total effect can lead to the total loss
of load capacity, of whole element.
It will be interesting to describe the prestressed concrete
sleepers with strings in the form of weaves, composed of
three smooth wires with the diameter of three mm (weave
Øs ≈ 6,5 mm). The weaves were situated in two groups
placed vertically, one above the second. These sleepers were
frequently damaged.
The front of this sleeper is such configurated, that the ends
of particular tensioning string groups were placed in the
concrete tongue, of relatively low width. In the near-front
zones the concrete confining was not applied.
4. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
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Volume: 03 Special Issue: 13 | ICNTCC-2014 | Sep-2014, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 156
Fig. 6: The damaged sleeper front; [source the authors
archive].
The defects, in the form of concrete cracking and significant
spalling, are caused by incorrect designing of the sleepers
near-front zone. In these damage probably all the defects
defined in the MC [16] instruction take place. The
cumulating of the relatively high tensioning force, due to
several weaves placed at low distance, caused the
microcracks due to the significant transverse deformation of
highly compressed concrete i.e. spalling effect and bursting
effect. This effect should occurs in the place in which
several strings were placed, with low spacing. Applying in
the sleepers ends the tongues with low transverse
intersection of concrete without circumferential
reinforcement, caused spalling effect. However, the
phenomenon of unsymmetrical damage of sleeper is
probably due to the non-uniform tension release, during
sleepers production.
The majority of described damage of near-front zone of the
sleepers were formed probably at tensioning release of
concrete, but their intensity were significantly lower. Only
the cyclic, dynamic loading caused by railway exploitation
and frost action, caused the significant development of these
damage.
The attention should be also paid to the lack of corrosion
protection of tensioning weaves ends in the case of
reinforcing strings anchorage only through adhesion.
The alternative solution to the aforementioned anchorage of
tensioning strings in sleepers is the method with mechanical
anchorage, applied in the BBRV technology, which is used
in several European countries, also in Poland. The system of
smooth bars (diameter of 7 to 8 mm) anchorage, on the ends
of the strings with higher dimensions, is realized with the
anchorage plates. Tensioning is solved through the
tensioning screws in the anchor aging plates, placed at some
distance from the element front. This solution is shown in
the Fig. 7 and its position in the mould, before concrete
placing, in Fig. 8.
Fig. 7: Anchorage plate
Fig. 8: The damaged sleeper front. Source the authors
archive.
4. FINAL REMARKS
In to prevent the prestressed concrete sleepers from damage
and assure their durability some fundamental rules must be
observed. There are the following:
assure the usage of low alkali cement,
the temperature of heat treatment must not exceeds
70o
C, inside the concrete elements,
the application of BBRV technology should be
seriously taken into account.
The studies of four different systems of strings anchorage,
carried out in 2013 in Technical University in Kraków, have
shown that the BBRV technology is assuring the highest
load ability of sleepers by 23 to 36%.
REFERENCES
[1]. Heinz D., Ludwig U., 8th ICCC Rio de Janeiro, vol. V,
p. 189, Rio de Janeiro 1986.
[2]. Heinz D., Ludwig U., Rudger L., Concrete Pecasting
Plant and Technology, 11, 56 (1989).
[3]. Wieker W., Herr R., Schubert H., Proc. Int. Coll.
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BIOGRAPHIES
J. Pawluk – the graduate of Fachhochschule Niederrhein,
Germany, Faculty of Chemistry, Chemical Technology,
President and Chief Executive Officer, Track Tec S.A.
A. Cholewa – the graduate of Silesian University of
Technology, Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and
Computer Science, Ph. D. - Warsaw School of Economics,
Member of the Board, Chief Technical Officer, Track Tec.
S.A.
W. Kurdowski – professor at The Glass and Building
Materials Division of the Institute of Ceramics and Building
Materials in Cracow. Expert in cement chemistry.
W. Derkowski – Ph. D., lecturer in Building engineering
branch, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of
Technology.