India's soils are classified based on their formation process and location. The major soil types are black soil, red soil, laterite soil, and alluvial soil. Black soil covers around 16% of India and forms from weathered volcanic basalt rock. It is generally fertile but deficient in nutrients. Alluvial soil covers around 40% of India and forms from silt deposited by river flooding. It is found in river basins and coastal areas.
India is a land of many rivers and mountains.
India’s geographical area of about 329 MHa is criss-crossed by a large number rivers. Some of the Indian rivers are figuring amongst the most notable rivers of the world. This module explain the river systems of India.
Soil is a complex mixture that forms the top layer of Earth's crust. It is influenced by climate, vegetation, relief, parent material and human activities. The main types of soil found in India are black soil, red soil, alluvial soil, laterite soil, desert soil, mountain soil and forest soil. They differ in properties based on factors like texture, color, moisture and nutrient content.
The document discusses submarine groundwater discharge and subterranean estuaries. It describes how groundwater and seawater mix underground and the use of tracers to study these systems. Case studies using radium isotopes are presented that show submarine groundwater discharge onto the inner and outer continental shelf and its role in supplying nutrients to coastal waters. The document also discusses how sea level changes and human activities like groundwater pumping can impact subterranean estuaries.
Radioactive minerals in India include uranium, thorium, and rare metals. Uranium deposits are found in three provinces - Singhbhum, Mahadek, and Cuddapah. The Singhbhum province contains vein-type deposits hosted in schist along the Singhbhum shear zone, including the major deposits at Jaduguda and Bhatin. The Mahadek province hosts large sandstone-type deposits in the Mahadek Formation such as Domiasiat. The Cuddapah province contains unconformity deposits such as Tummalapalle Rachakuntapalle and stratabound deposits. Thorium is found in monazite placers along coastal areas. Rare metals like
The document summarizes the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere. It is divided into multiple layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere - based on how temperature varies with altitude. Each layer has distinct characteristics and contains different gases. The troposphere contains around 80% of atmospheric mass and is where weather occurs. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer which absorbs harmful UV radiation. The main atmospheric gases are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), along with trace amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor and other gases. Dust and water particles are also present and influence cloud formation and precipitation.
The Great Indian Desert, also known as the Thar Desert, spans parts of northwest India and eastern Pakistan. It is characterized by large sand dunes and receives little rainfall. Wildlife such as blackbucks have adapted to the harsh desert conditions. Agriculture is the main occupation where water is available, though many nomadic herders also live in the desert, moving their flocks in search of grass and water. The Indian government has implemented irrigation projects like the Indira Gandhi Canal to bring water from other regions and increase agriculture in parts of the desert.
This document summarizes the key aspects of monsoons in India. It describes that monsoons are seasonal winds that blow in a particular direction seasonally. The southwest monsoon brings moisture from the sea to land in India from June to September, while the northeast monsoon reverses the pattern from December to February. It then explains several mechanisms that drive the monsoons, including differential heating of land and sea, shifting of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, heating of the Tibetan Plateau, and high pressure systems. The southern oscillation and El Nino patterns can also impact monsoon rains in India.
India is a land of many rivers and mountains.
India’s geographical area of about 329 MHa is criss-crossed by a large number rivers. Some of the Indian rivers are figuring amongst the most notable rivers of the world. This module explain the river systems of India.
Soil is a complex mixture that forms the top layer of Earth's crust. It is influenced by climate, vegetation, relief, parent material and human activities. The main types of soil found in India are black soil, red soil, alluvial soil, laterite soil, desert soil, mountain soil and forest soil. They differ in properties based on factors like texture, color, moisture and nutrient content.
The document discusses submarine groundwater discharge and subterranean estuaries. It describes how groundwater and seawater mix underground and the use of tracers to study these systems. Case studies using radium isotopes are presented that show submarine groundwater discharge onto the inner and outer continental shelf and its role in supplying nutrients to coastal waters. The document also discusses how sea level changes and human activities like groundwater pumping can impact subterranean estuaries.
Radioactive minerals in India include uranium, thorium, and rare metals. Uranium deposits are found in three provinces - Singhbhum, Mahadek, and Cuddapah. The Singhbhum province contains vein-type deposits hosted in schist along the Singhbhum shear zone, including the major deposits at Jaduguda and Bhatin. The Mahadek province hosts large sandstone-type deposits in the Mahadek Formation such as Domiasiat. The Cuddapah province contains unconformity deposits such as Tummalapalle Rachakuntapalle and stratabound deposits. Thorium is found in monazite placers along coastal areas. Rare metals like
The document summarizes the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere. It is divided into multiple layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere - based on how temperature varies with altitude. Each layer has distinct characteristics and contains different gases. The troposphere contains around 80% of atmospheric mass and is where weather occurs. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer which absorbs harmful UV radiation. The main atmospheric gases are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), along with trace amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor and other gases. Dust and water particles are also present and influence cloud formation and precipitation.
The Great Indian Desert, also known as the Thar Desert, spans parts of northwest India and eastern Pakistan. It is characterized by large sand dunes and receives little rainfall. Wildlife such as blackbucks have adapted to the harsh desert conditions. Agriculture is the main occupation where water is available, though many nomadic herders also live in the desert, moving their flocks in search of grass and water. The Indian government has implemented irrigation projects like the Indira Gandhi Canal to bring water from other regions and increase agriculture in parts of the desert.
This document summarizes the key aspects of monsoons in India. It describes that monsoons are seasonal winds that blow in a particular direction seasonally. The southwest monsoon brings moisture from the sea to land in India from June to September, while the northeast monsoon reverses the pattern from December to February. It then explains several mechanisms that drive the monsoons, including differential heating of land and sea, shifting of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, heating of the Tibetan Plateau, and high pressure systems. The southern oscillation and El Nino patterns can also impact monsoon rains in India.
Soil is formed through weathering and erosion of rocks over long periods of time. The main types of soil in India are black soil, red soil, alluvial soil, and laterite soil. Black soil forms from lava rock in areas like Maharashtra and is suitable for cotton. Alluvial soil covers nearly half of India and forms from silt deposited by rivers, making it fertile for crops.
Neyveli Lignite Corporation mines lignite through open cast techniques in Neyveli, Tamil Nadu. While mining eliminates vegetation and alters the landscape, NLC has taken measures to minimize environmental impacts and reclaim mined land. NLC monitors air and water quality, controls dust, noise and vibrations, and stabilizes slopes. It also plants trees, manages groundwater, and practices integrated farming to restore mined areas to productive after-uses. NLC's early investment in sustainable practices has allowed it to grow steadily while protecting the environment.
The document summarizes the mechanism of the Indian monsoon. It describes how seasonal winds blow from the sea to land for months each year in tropical regions. Meteorologists have found a seesaw relationship between pressure changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, which causes shifting winds across the equator between seasons. Specifically, lower pressure over the Indian Ocean in the Northern Hemisphere summer draws winds from the Pacific toward India, bringing the southwest monsoon. Coriolis forces cause the winds to change direction as they cross the equator.
This document summarizes the tectonic evolution of peninsular India. It discusses the major physiographic divisions and tectonic terranes that make up the Indian shield, including the Archean Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Chhotanagpur, and Bundelkhand cratons. It also describes the Proterozoic mobile belts and basins, as well as the Gondwana terranes. Finally, it mentions the Deccan Volcanic Province and provides a timeline of the tectonic events that have shaped peninsular India over the past 3.6 billion years. Key sources consulted for the information are listed.
The solar radiation that reaches Earth is the primary energy source that drives atmospheric and oceanic circulation systems and the hydrologic cycle. Most of the radiation emitted from the sun is in the visible spectrum. While some solar radiation is reflected or scattered by gases, particles, and surfaces like clouds, ice, and snow, most is absorbed by Earth and its atmosphere. This absorbed solar energy is then re-radiated as terrestrial radiation and helps maintain the planet's heat balance.
This document discusses soil erosion and conservation methods. It defines soil erosion as the detachment, transport, and deposition of soil particles. Soil erosion can be caused by natural processes like water and wind or human activities such as overcropping, overgrazing, and deforestation. The main types of erosion are sheet, gully, rill, and stream bank erosion. Soil erosion can negatively impact crop production, lead to flooding, and cause desertification. Conservation methods include agronomic practices like crop rotation and strip cropping as well as engineering practices such as constructing terraces, check dams, and windbreaks.
Sand dunes are formed by wind transporting and depositing loose sand grains. They require a source of sand, wind, and an obstacle for the sand to accumulate around. There are different types of dunes that form based on wind patterns, including crescent-shaped, linear, star-shaped, dome, and parabolic dunes. Famous sand dunes around the world include the Great Sand Dunes National Park in Colorado, home to the highest dunes in North America at 750 feet tall, and the Great Dune of Pyla in France, the tallest dune in Europe.
India has significant iron ore deposits distributed across several states. The major types of iron ore formations in India are banded iron formations from the Precambrian era and laterite ores derived from sub-aerial weathering. The key iron ore minerals are magnetite, hematite, siderite and limonite. India's major iron ore mining districts are located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa and other states. These deposits were formed by various geological processes including chemical precipitation in ancient sedimentary basins, weathering of parent rocks, magmatic activity and hydrothermal mineralization.
The document summarizes trends in mineral prospecting in India from 2004-2007. It discusses several important mineral deposits in India such as base metals like copper, lead, and zinc. It also discusses precious metal deposits of gold and diamond, located primarily in greenstone belts and carbonate rocks. Major ferrous deposits of iron ore are described along with chromite, manganese, and uranium deposits. Locations, geological settings, and formation processes are provided for several of these important mineral deposits in India.
The document summarizes the structure and physiography of India. It divides India into several physiographic divisions based on geological structure and landforms: the Himalayas, Northern Plains, Peninsular Plateau, Indian Desert, Coastal Plains, and Islands. It describes the key features of each division, including their positioning, formation processes, and distinguishing characteristics. The Islands are further divided into Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands, with details provided on each group.
A desert is defined as a region that receives less than 250-500 mm of precipitation per year. Deserts form due to global circulation patterns that result in subsiding air over subtropical regions, limiting rainfall. Key factors that influence desert formation include high surface temperatures, topography such as rain shadows, and proximity to cold ocean currents. Deserts are characterized by sparse vegetation and unique landforms shaped by wind and water erosion like sand dunes, playas, and yardangs. Common desert types include hot subtropical deserts near the horse latitudes, mid-latitude deserts, and coastal deserts near cold ocean currents.
Conjunctive use of water and water budgetingDelince Samuel
Conjunctive use of water involves using multiple water sources like groundwater and surface water together to provide sustained irrigation that meets crop demands. It allows for greater water supply security and yield by taking advantage of natural groundwater storage and the ability to rapidly deploy groundwater when other sources are limited. This helps ensure better timing of irrigation, reduces environmental impacts, prevents water scarcity in remote regions, creates equal water distribution, and meets crop demands in a reliable way.
The document discusses monsoons, which are seasonal winds that change direction with the seasons. Monsoons occur due to differences in land and sea temperatures causing changes in atmospheric pressure. India's climate is dominated by monsoons, with summer monsoons from June to September bringing most of India's rainfall. Monsoons are important but also cause floods and droughts depending on rainfall variability from year to year. Predicting monsoon rainfall amounts is challenging but important for agriculture and the economy.
This document discusses soils of India, including their formation, classification, and conservation. It notes that soil forms over millions of years through rock decomposition and is important for agriculture, plant growth, and animal life. Soils in India are classified based on factors like color, composition, and location. The eight main types described are forest soil, alluvial soil, desert soil, black soil, laterite soil, red/yellow soil, peaty soil, and saline soil. The document also covers soil horizons, degradation through erosion, and techniques for conservation like afforestation, terracing, and contour ploughing.
The document discusses the global distribution of coal deposits based on geological time periods and present-day locations. Major points include:
- Coal formation occurred in 3 episodes - late Carboniferous to Early Permian, Jurassic-Cretaceous, and Paleogene-Neogene.
- Most deposits are in the Northern Hemisphere except Australia and Southern Africa due to peat formation in tropical areas during Carboniferous and drift of continents.
- China, USA, India, Australia and Russia hold over 85% of global coal reserves and production, led by China.
- Key coal deposits of various regions like China, USA, Africa, India, South America, and Australia are also outlined.
Climatic Controls- Latitude, Altitude, Pressure and wind system, Continentality, Ocean Currents, Relief
Importance of Himalayas
Indian Monsoon
La Nina
El NIno
Water Divide
Cyclones involve a closed circulation around a low pressure center, spinning counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. They bring strong winds inward and cause extensive damage from heavy rain. Cyclones are known by different names depending on location, such as hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the Western Pacific. Anticyclones circulate clockwise around a high pressure center, pushing winds outward and typically bringing fine weather. Key differences between cyclones and anticyclones are the direction of circulation and associated weather patterns.
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENTSriram Chakravarthy
This document discusses watershed management and the role of remote sensing and GIS applications. It begins with defining a watershed and the watershed approach. It then discusses watershed characterization, prioritization, development activities, and monitoring. Remote sensing provides synoptic data to map natural resources within watersheds. GIS is used to integrate spatial data for watershed delineation and analysis. The goal of watershed management is sustainable development through activities like water conservation, afforestation, and improving livelihoods.
India has significant mineral resources including iron ore, mica, manganese, and bauxite. Coal, petroleum, water, and nuclear products are the main power resources in South Asia. India is rich in coal but poor in petroleum. Water resources have also been successfully utilized for power generation. The uneven distribution of mineral deposits in India affects industrial development, with mineral-rich regions like Jharkhand and Odisha being more industrialized. Conservation of minerals is important as they are limited resources and essential for economic development.
This document discusses plant nutrients and fertilizers. It describes macro and micro nutrients that are essential for plant growth. Macro nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are needed in large amounts, while micro nutrients like iron, copper, and zinc are needed in smaller quantities. The document outlines the roles of each nutrient, deficiency symptoms, and how fertilizers can be used to replenish nutrients in soil and promote fertility. Organic fertilizers come from plant or animal sources, while inorganic fertilizers have other chemical origins.
Soil is formed through weathering and erosion of rocks over long periods of time. The main types of soil in India are black soil, red soil, alluvial soil, and laterite soil. Black soil forms from lava rock in areas like Maharashtra and is suitable for cotton. Alluvial soil covers nearly half of India and forms from silt deposited by rivers, making it fertile for crops.
Neyveli Lignite Corporation mines lignite through open cast techniques in Neyveli, Tamil Nadu. While mining eliminates vegetation and alters the landscape, NLC has taken measures to minimize environmental impacts and reclaim mined land. NLC monitors air and water quality, controls dust, noise and vibrations, and stabilizes slopes. It also plants trees, manages groundwater, and practices integrated farming to restore mined areas to productive after-uses. NLC's early investment in sustainable practices has allowed it to grow steadily while protecting the environment.
The document summarizes the mechanism of the Indian monsoon. It describes how seasonal winds blow from the sea to land for months each year in tropical regions. Meteorologists have found a seesaw relationship between pressure changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, which causes shifting winds across the equator between seasons. Specifically, lower pressure over the Indian Ocean in the Northern Hemisphere summer draws winds from the Pacific toward India, bringing the southwest monsoon. Coriolis forces cause the winds to change direction as they cross the equator.
This document summarizes the tectonic evolution of peninsular India. It discusses the major physiographic divisions and tectonic terranes that make up the Indian shield, including the Archean Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Chhotanagpur, and Bundelkhand cratons. It also describes the Proterozoic mobile belts and basins, as well as the Gondwana terranes. Finally, it mentions the Deccan Volcanic Province and provides a timeline of the tectonic events that have shaped peninsular India over the past 3.6 billion years. Key sources consulted for the information are listed.
The solar radiation that reaches Earth is the primary energy source that drives atmospheric and oceanic circulation systems and the hydrologic cycle. Most of the radiation emitted from the sun is in the visible spectrum. While some solar radiation is reflected or scattered by gases, particles, and surfaces like clouds, ice, and snow, most is absorbed by Earth and its atmosphere. This absorbed solar energy is then re-radiated as terrestrial radiation and helps maintain the planet's heat balance.
This document discusses soil erosion and conservation methods. It defines soil erosion as the detachment, transport, and deposition of soil particles. Soil erosion can be caused by natural processes like water and wind or human activities such as overcropping, overgrazing, and deforestation. The main types of erosion are sheet, gully, rill, and stream bank erosion. Soil erosion can negatively impact crop production, lead to flooding, and cause desertification. Conservation methods include agronomic practices like crop rotation and strip cropping as well as engineering practices such as constructing terraces, check dams, and windbreaks.
Sand dunes are formed by wind transporting and depositing loose sand grains. They require a source of sand, wind, and an obstacle for the sand to accumulate around. There are different types of dunes that form based on wind patterns, including crescent-shaped, linear, star-shaped, dome, and parabolic dunes. Famous sand dunes around the world include the Great Sand Dunes National Park in Colorado, home to the highest dunes in North America at 750 feet tall, and the Great Dune of Pyla in France, the tallest dune in Europe.
India has significant iron ore deposits distributed across several states. The major types of iron ore formations in India are banded iron formations from the Precambrian era and laterite ores derived from sub-aerial weathering. The key iron ore minerals are magnetite, hematite, siderite and limonite. India's major iron ore mining districts are located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa and other states. These deposits were formed by various geological processes including chemical precipitation in ancient sedimentary basins, weathering of parent rocks, magmatic activity and hydrothermal mineralization.
The document summarizes trends in mineral prospecting in India from 2004-2007. It discusses several important mineral deposits in India such as base metals like copper, lead, and zinc. It also discusses precious metal deposits of gold and diamond, located primarily in greenstone belts and carbonate rocks. Major ferrous deposits of iron ore are described along with chromite, manganese, and uranium deposits. Locations, geological settings, and formation processes are provided for several of these important mineral deposits in India.
The document summarizes the structure and physiography of India. It divides India into several physiographic divisions based on geological structure and landforms: the Himalayas, Northern Plains, Peninsular Plateau, Indian Desert, Coastal Plains, and Islands. It describes the key features of each division, including their positioning, formation processes, and distinguishing characteristics. The Islands are further divided into Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands, with details provided on each group.
A desert is defined as a region that receives less than 250-500 mm of precipitation per year. Deserts form due to global circulation patterns that result in subsiding air over subtropical regions, limiting rainfall. Key factors that influence desert formation include high surface temperatures, topography such as rain shadows, and proximity to cold ocean currents. Deserts are characterized by sparse vegetation and unique landforms shaped by wind and water erosion like sand dunes, playas, and yardangs. Common desert types include hot subtropical deserts near the horse latitudes, mid-latitude deserts, and coastal deserts near cold ocean currents.
Conjunctive use of water and water budgetingDelince Samuel
Conjunctive use of water involves using multiple water sources like groundwater and surface water together to provide sustained irrigation that meets crop demands. It allows for greater water supply security and yield by taking advantage of natural groundwater storage and the ability to rapidly deploy groundwater when other sources are limited. This helps ensure better timing of irrigation, reduces environmental impacts, prevents water scarcity in remote regions, creates equal water distribution, and meets crop demands in a reliable way.
The document discusses monsoons, which are seasonal winds that change direction with the seasons. Monsoons occur due to differences in land and sea temperatures causing changes in atmospheric pressure. India's climate is dominated by monsoons, with summer monsoons from June to September bringing most of India's rainfall. Monsoons are important but also cause floods and droughts depending on rainfall variability from year to year. Predicting monsoon rainfall amounts is challenging but important for agriculture and the economy.
This document discusses soils of India, including their formation, classification, and conservation. It notes that soil forms over millions of years through rock decomposition and is important for agriculture, plant growth, and animal life. Soils in India are classified based on factors like color, composition, and location. The eight main types described are forest soil, alluvial soil, desert soil, black soil, laterite soil, red/yellow soil, peaty soil, and saline soil. The document also covers soil horizons, degradation through erosion, and techniques for conservation like afforestation, terracing, and contour ploughing.
The document discusses the global distribution of coal deposits based on geological time periods and present-day locations. Major points include:
- Coal formation occurred in 3 episodes - late Carboniferous to Early Permian, Jurassic-Cretaceous, and Paleogene-Neogene.
- Most deposits are in the Northern Hemisphere except Australia and Southern Africa due to peat formation in tropical areas during Carboniferous and drift of continents.
- China, USA, India, Australia and Russia hold over 85% of global coal reserves and production, led by China.
- Key coal deposits of various regions like China, USA, Africa, India, South America, and Australia are also outlined.
Climatic Controls- Latitude, Altitude, Pressure and wind system, Continentality, Ocean Currents, Relief
Importance of Himalayas
Indian Monsoon
La Nina
El NIno
Water Divide
Cyclones involve a closed circulation around a low pressure center, spinning counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. They bring strong winds inward and cause extensive damage from heavy rain. Cyclones are known by different names depending on location, such as hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the Western Pacific. Anticyclones circulate clockwise around a high pressure center, pushing winds outward and typically bringing fine weather. Key differences between cyclones and anticyclones are the direction of circulation and associated weather patterns.
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENTSriram Chakravarthy
This document discusses watershed management and the role of remote sensing and GIS applications. It begins with defining a watershed and the watershed approach. It then discusses watershed characterization, prioritization, development activities, and monitoring. Remote sensing provides synoptic data to map natural resources within watersheds. GIS is used to integrate spatial data for watershed delineation and analysis. The goal of watershed management is sustainable development through activities like water conservation, afforestation, and improving livelihoods.
India has significant mineral resources including iron ore, mica, manganese, and bauxite. Coal, petroleum, water, and nuclear products are the main power resources in South Asia. India is rich in coal but poor in petroleum. Water resources have also been successfully utilized for power generation. The uneven distribution of mineral deposits in India affects industrial development, with mineral-rich regions like Jharkhand and Odisha being more industrialized. Conservation of minerals is important as they are limited resources and essential for economic development.
This document discusses plant nutrients and fertilizers. It describes macro and micro nutrients that are essential for plant growth. Macro nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are needed in large amounts, while micro nutrients like iron, copper, and zinc are needed in smaller quantities. The document outlines the roles of each nutrient, deficiency symptoms, and how fertilizers can be used to replenish nutrients in soil and promote fertility. Organic fertilizers come from plant or animal sources, while inorganic fertilizers have other chemical origins.
This document provides instructions for a geography exam, including information about the exam format, timing, and map provided. It outlines 7 questions to attempt from 2 parts. Part I is compulsory and contains short answer questions about the provided map extract. Part II has 2 sections with longer answer questions about geography of South Asia, India, and climate.
Azobacter and Rhizobium are soil bacteria. Azobacter is free-living while Rhizobium lives symbiotically with legume plants. Both bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium to benefit plant growth, though Rhizobium does so through its symbiotic relationship with legumes. The document provides details on the size, shapes, environmental conditions and benefits of these nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
The document discusses India's efforts to provide safe drinking water to its population. It notes that in 1975, over 1 billion people globally lacked access to safe water. In response, India developed various five-year plans from 1980-1997 to expand access, with the goal of supplying safe water to all rural villages. Key aspects of ensuring water safety discussed include water quality standards, testing for contaminants, monitoring programs, and strategies like water treatment and sanitation inspections. The document also examines health impacts of contaminated water and international targets for access to improved water sources.
This document discusses biofertilizers, which are substances containing living microorganisms that promote plant growth when applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil. It describes different types of biofertilizers including nitrogen-fixing, compost, and phosphate solubilizing biofertilizers. The document discusses the morphology, physiology, and recommended crops for specific nitrogen-fixing bacteria like Rhizobium, Azospirillum, and Azotobacter. It also outlines the process for making biofertilizers including selecting carrier materials, sterilizing, and inoculating seeds or soil. The advantages and potential of biofertilizers are that they can increase yields while protecting the environment and soil fertility compared to chemical
Biofertilizers contain living microorganisms that colonize plant roots and soil to promote plant growth. They do this through natural processes like nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and stimulating plant growth with substances. There are several types of biofertilizers including bacterial (Rhizobium, Azotobacter), fungal (VAM), and algal biofertilizers. They help increase soil fertility and nutrient supply to plants, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Mass production of biofertilizers involves growing the microorganisms in large quantities and mixing them with a carrier for storage and application to soil and plants.
This document provides information on water microbiology and water sampling techniques. It defines various types of water, explains waterborne diseases and their causes. It describes the water cycle and importance of testing water microbiologically. Key indicators tested for include total coliform, E. coli, and enterococci. Sampling procedures like membrane filtration and most probable number tests are discussed. The document also outlines best practices for sampling, transportation, and submitting water samples for laboratory testing.
Four main processes shape soil formation: additions, losses, translocations, and transformations. Additions include water, minerals from dust, organic matter and nutrients from animal waste and fertilizer. Losses occur through evaporation, water runoff, and decomposition of organic matter. Translocations involve the movement of materials within the soil by gravity, evaporation, and organisms. Transformations change one component into another through processes like decomposition of leaves into humus or weathering of rock into clay. Over time, these processes cause the soil to change significantly from its original parent material in both composition and appearance.
Soil is the top layer of earth's crust consisting of organic and inorganic matter that supports plant growth and living organisms. Soil formation is influenced by factors like relief, parent rock, climate, vegetation, and time. The major soil types in India are alluvial, black, red and yellow, laterite, arid, and forest soils. Alluvial soils are the most widespread and fertile soils, deposited by Himalayan river systems in northern India. Black soils, also known as regur soils, are clay-rich and moisture-retentive, found in the Deccan trap region. Red and yellow soils develop in dry, crystalline rock areas with low rainfall. Laterite soils form in hot,
The document provides information on the classification of soils in India according to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). It discusses the eight main types of soils in India - alluvial soil, black cotton soil, red and yellow soil, laterite soil, mountainous or forest soil, arid or desert soil, saline and alkaline soil, and peaty and marshy soil. For each soil type, it provides details on their composition, location in India, characteristics, and common crops cultivated. It also discusses soil profile, soil erosion, conservation methods, and provides sample questions regarding Indian soil types that may be asked in UPSC civil services examinations.
Soil is formed through the weathering of rocks over long periods of time. The key factors that influence soil formation are parent material, climate, organisms, topography, and time. Soil is made up of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and microorganisms. It performs important functions like supporting plant growth and regulating water flow. In India, the main soil types are black, red, laterite, alluvial, desert, and marshy soils which differ based on the underlying rocks and climate of the regions. Conservation of soil through practices like tree planting, minimal tilling, and preventing erosion is important to sustain agriculture and life.
Soil has evolved over millions of years and is an important natural resource.
Soils in India can be classified as - Alluvial, Black, Red and Laterite soils. Their distribution, composition, characteristics such as color, texture, minerals, crops grown and it's conservation have been described.
This document discusses different types of soils found in India and their characteristics. It describes alluvial soil, black soil, red soil, laterite soil, arid soil, mountain soil, saline/alkaline soil, peaty/marshy soil. It also discusses soil profile, factors influencing soil formation like parent material, relief, climate. It highlights issues like soil erosion and methods of soil conservation like contour ploughing, terrace cultivation, strip cropping, shelter belts. The document also provides an overview of water resources in India and challenges like scarcity as well as conservation methods like rainwater harvesting, sprinkler irrigation, afforestation, mulching, treating industrial effluent.
This document summarizes the key soil types found in India, including alluvial soils deposited by rivers in northern plains; black soils high in clay and good for cotton/sugarcane; red soils weathered from crystalline rocks; lateritic soils leached of nutrients by heavy rainfall; forest soils high in organic matter; mountain soils shallow and rocky; desert soils sandy and alkaline but fertile with irrigation; saline/alkaline soils with high salt content; and peaty/marshy soils submerged and acidic. Each soil type is described in terms of composition, location, agricultural suitability, and distinguishing characteristics.
A Slide Of an Environment or Discoverable by Shivam and that i want public download my PowerPoint self made and i uploaded to SlideShare Slide Name: Soil Types Found In India
Thank You
Shivam Palta
This document provides information about different types of soils found in India. It discusses alluvial soil, black soil, red soil, mountain soil, desert soil, saline and alkaline soils, peaty and marshy soils, residual soils, marine soils, glacial soils, and wind-blown soils. For each soil type, it describes where they are found, how they are formed, their composition and properties. The document aims to educate the reader about the various soils across India and their characteristics.
The document summarizes the different types of soils found in India according to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). It discusses 8 major types of soils - alluvial soil, black cotton soil, red and yellow soil, laterite soil, mountain or forest soil, arid or desert soil, saline and alkaline soil, and peaty and marshy soil. Each type is described in terms of its composition, location within India, agricultural usage, and distinguishing characteristics. Key crops grown in each soil type are also mentioned.
Resource and Development nilay kapasia.pptxJAYAPATEL52
The document discusses different types of soils found in India. It describes alluvial soil, which is very fertile and found in northern plains, deposited by rivers like the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. It is rich in nutrients. Black soil covers parts of central India and is ideal for cotton. Red or yellow soils are found in southern and eastern parts of the Deccan plateau. Laterite soil, rich in iron but deficient in nutrients, is found in southern states. Arid soil in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat is saline with low humus. Forest soil in hilly and forest regions is acidic with low humus.
the presentation is about, what is soil and what it the components of soil? And major types of soil in south Asia is found. specially in Bangladesh with necessary figure. _Parves Khan
The document discusses different types of soil found in India. It begins by thanking those who helped with the soil project. It then provides information on soil formation and describes the major soil types in India - alluvial, black, red and yellow, laterite, forest/mountain, and arid soils. For each soil type, it discusses characteristics, location, and crops grown. In total, six major soil types are described that cover different percentages of India's total land area. The document concludes with information on soil erosion and conservation methods.
Six main types of soil are found in India: alluvial, black, red, laterite, mountain, and desert soils. Alluvial soils are most common, found along river basins and coastal plains, and are very fertile. Black soils develop in the Deccan lava tract and are rich in nutrients but lack phosphorus and nitrogen. Red soils are found in the south and east and give crops good yields with irrigation. Laterite soils form in wet, leached conditions in southern areas. Mountain soils vary by altitude in the Himalayas. Desert soils in Rajasthan are sandy, salty, and deficient in organic matter. The shear strength of soil is important for foundation, slope, and earth retaining
Soils in India are formed by the weathering of rocks and are influenced by climate, vegetation, relief and parent material. The eight major soil types according to ICAR are alluvial, black, red, laterite, desert, mountain, saline/alkaline and peaty/marshy soils. Alluvial soils cover a large area and are highly fertile, supporting agriculture. Soil erosion due to deforestation, overgrazing and other factors needs to be controlled through conservation measures like contour farming and afforestation.
The document discusses different types of soils found in India. It describes alluvial soil, which is the most widely spread soil deposited by river systems. Alluvial soil is further divided into old alluvial and new alluvial soils. Black soil is volcanic in origin and ideal for growing cotton. Red and yellow soil develops on igneous rock in low rainfall areas of the Deccan plateau. The types of soil are determined by factors like climate, vegetation, parent rock type and relief of the land.
The document describes the main soil groups found in India: alluvial soils, black soils, red soils, laterites and lateritic soils, and other minor groups. It provides details on the origin, characteristics, distribution, common crops, problems, and management of each soil group. Alluvial soils are formed by river deposition and come in new and old varieties. Black soils are high in clay and known for cotton and cereal production. Red soils are shallow to deep and suitable for cereals, millets, and plantation crops. Laterites are formed under tropical conditions and contain iron/aluminum oxides.
This document describes the different types of soil found in India, including alluvial, black, red, laterite, mountain, and desert soils. It provides details on the composition, location, and major crops grown in each soil type. The alluvial soil covers 40% of India and supports half the population. Black soil is found in Maharashtra and Gujarat and is suitable for cotton. Red soil occupies 10% of India and is suited to crops like rice, wheat, and pulses. Laterite soil forms under high rainfall and is located in southern India. Mountain soil contains humus and is found on hill slopes. Desert soil has high sand content and low rainfall, and is located in western India.
Introduction:
Folding, a fundamental process in structural geology, embodies the dynamic interaction between tectonic forces and the Earth's crust. Understanding the mechanics behind folding is essential for deciphering the deformation history of rock layers and unraveling the complexities of geological structures. This essay explores the mechanics of folding in structural geology, shedding light on the processes that shape the Earth's crust and drive geological evolution.
Fundamental Principles of Folding:
Folding occurs when compressional or extensional forces act upon rock layers, causing them to bend and deform. The mechanical behavior of rocks under stress is governed by principles of elasticity, plasticity, and rheology. Initially, rocks deform elastically, exhibiting reversible strain. However, as stress accumulates, rocks may undergo plastic deformation, resulting in irreversible changes in shape and structure. The rheological properties of rocks, such as their composition, temperature, and pressure conditions, influence their response to deformation and the style of folding observed.
Types of Folds:
Folds manifest in a variety of forms, each reflecting the interplay between tectonic forces and rock properties. Anticlines and synclines represent convex-upward and concave-upward folds, respectively, formed by compressional stresses. Overturned and recumbent folds involve significant tilting of the axial plane, indicating intense deformation. Monoclines and chevron folds exhibit more complex geometries, often associated with localized faulting or folding over basement structures. The diversity of fold types underscores the heterogeneous nature of tectonic processes and the intricate mechanics governing rock deformation.
Factors Influencing Folding:
Several factors influence the mechanics of folding, including the magnitude and direction of tectonic forces, the mechanical properties of rocks, and the presence of pre-existing structures. Convergent plate boundaries, where crustal plates collide, are primary sites of folding and mountain building. Divergent boundaries, characterized by crustal extension, may produce rift-related folding and basin formation. Additionally, the orientation of bedding planes, foliation, and fractures within rock layers can influence the style and orientation of folds.
Deformation Mechanisms:
The mechanisms driving folding include flexural slip, layer-parallel shortening, and buckling. Flexural slip occurs when layers of differing competence within a rock unit slide past each other, leading to the development of hinges and limbs in folds. Layer-parallel shortening involves the contraction of individual layers parallel to their bedding planes, resulting in the development of tight, closely spaced folds. Buckling occurs when compressive forces exceed the elastic limit of rocks, causing them to buckle and fold into characteristic shapes.
Conclusion:
The mechanics of folding in structural geology represent.
This document provides summaries of different soil types found in India:
- Black soil is dark grey to black in color with high clay content. It is found in 5.4 lakh sq km and suitable for cotton.
- Red soil is formed from weathered crystalline rocks. It is more sandy, less clayey, and poor in nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen.
- Laterite soil is formed under high rainfall and contains remnants of iron and aluminum oxides.
- Desert soil originates from wind deposits and is porous, coarse, and low in moisture and nutrients.
This document provides a revision checklist for the IGCSE Geography 0460 exam. It outlines the three sections that students need to focus on: 1) How they will be tested, 2) What topics will be covered, and 3) Specific content they need to know. For section 1, it describes the three exam papers - two theory papers testing knowledge and one practical paper involving coursework or an alternative exam. Section 2 outlines the skill areas that will be assessed, including knowledge, analysis, and investigations. Section 3 provides a checklist of the syllabus content to ensure students have covered all required topics.
This document provides a geography IGCSE revision guide covering various themes related to population, settlements, the natural environment, and economic development. It includes case studies for different topics within each theme. For population dynamics, it summarizes a case study on rapid population growth in Niger, highlighting high fertility rates, limited resources, and proposed solutions like increasing family planning education. It also briefly outlines case studies on China's one-child policy and population policies in Singapore and Italy aimed at increasing low birth rates.
This glossary defines key geographic terms used in the Cambridge IGCSE Geography syllabus. It includes definitions of geographic concepts like apartheid, cash crops, deltas, GDP, glaciation, irrigation, LEDCs, MEDCs, migration, monsoons, plate tectonics, and renewable/non-renewable resources. The glossary provides concise explanations of over 100 geographic terms to help students understand the vocabulary and concepts covered in the IGCSE course.
This document provides definitions for common command words used in IGCSE Geography exams. It defines 23 command words in 1-3 sentences each, including words like annotate, calculate, compare, contrast, describe, explain, identify, justify, and analyze. The document is intended to help students understand what is being asked of them in geography exam questions.
This document contains questions related to population, settlement, plate tectonics, and river processes for a geography exam. The questions cover a range of topics including the effects of migration on cities, reasons for declining birth rates, impacts of an aging population, causes and effects of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, formation of deltas and meanders, measures to reduce flooding, and advantages and challenges of living on floodplains. The questions are broken into sections based on the topics and range from 4 to 7 marks in level of detail required in the response.
This document contains feedback on different skills related to geography. It provides assessments in areas such as map skills, color usage, accuracy, reading signs/symbols, distance/area measurements, logical understanding, class participation, answering questions, work submission, and exam skills. The feedback ranges from proficient to needs improvement in these various areas. Overall, it suggests the student needs to practice certain skills more to meet standards and improve their mastery of geography fundamentals.
This document contains feedback on different skills related to geography. It provides assessments in areas such as map skills, color usage, accuracy, reading signs/symbols, distance/area measurements, logical understanding, class participation, answering questions, work submission, and exam skills. The feedback ranges from proficient to needs improvement in these various areas. Overall, it suggests the student needs to practice certain skills more to meet standards and improve their mastery of geography fundamentals.
Here are the key measures to address land degradation in India:
1. Afforestation and reforestation programs - Large scale tree planting drives can help increase forest cover and check soil erosion. Social forestry and agroforestry models should be promoted.
2. Control overgrazing - Regulate the number of livestock and implement rotational grazing to prevent overuse of grazing lands. Develop fodder farms and encourage stall feeding.
3. Contour bunding and terracing - Construct bunds and terraces along slopes to reduce run-off and soil loss during rains. This helps retain moisture in soil.
4. Watershed management - Implement integrated watershed development programs focusing on soil and water conservation
Indian agriculture contributes significantly to the wealth and livelihoods of rural and urban communities. Agriculture in India faces sustainability challenges due to increasing population pressure on limited natural resources. Ecologically sound agricultural practices that apply principles like optimizing nutrient recycling, enhancing biodiversity, and minimizing losses can help increase production while maintaining ecosystem services. Key indicators to measure sustainability include soil nutrient balance, erosion rates, productivity, and energy efficiency.
India has significant mineral resources distributed unevenly across the country. Key mineral belts include the Chota Nagpur belt spanning Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha and West Bengal rich in coal, iron ore, manganese and bauxite. Other important mineral regions include the Midland belt containing manganese, bauxite and mica and the Southern belt with iron ore, chromite and limestone. India has large reserves of coal, iron ore, manganese and mica. It is also a significant producer of petroleum, uranium and thorium. Thermal power using coal is the largest source of electricity in India, while hydroelectricity, nuclear power and renewable sources also contribute.
This document provides an overview of geographical information systems (GIS) and their concepts. It discusses that GIS allows for the integration of spatial and non-spatial data in a digital format to aid decision making. Key points include that GIS represents geographic features as vector or raster data, integrates data from different sources by georeferencing to a common coordinate system, and can perform spatial analysis and modeling to answer questions about patterns and relationships. GIS is a useful tool for tasks like natural resource management, precision agriculture, and land use planning.
Erosion control techniques like terracing, contour plowing, contour bunding, and windbreaks are used to prevent soil erosion. Terracing involves creating stepped fields on sloped land to slow water runoff. Contour plowing involves plowing across slopes along elevation contours to allow water to slowly settle into the soil. Tree planting and using organic fertilizers also help control erosion and improve soil quality over time. Sustainable land management practices like conservation agriculture can mitigate climate change by reducing emissions and increasing carbon absorption in soils and forests.
Hanukkah celebrates the Maccabees' victory over King Antiochus and the rededication of the Jerusalem Temple after only a small jug of oil lasted eight days. Kwanzaa was created in 1966 to celebrate African and African American culture and focuses on seven principles known as "Nguzo Saba." The document lists Christmas and holiday foods from several countries including barbecue in Australia, fish soup in the Czech Republic, and a seven course meal in Italy.
The document outlines 5 coaching strategies for developing staff: forging a partnership through trust and understanding, inspiring commitment by clarifying goals and values, growing skills through training and practice opportunities, promoting persistence with feedback and realistic expectations, and shaping the environment by rewarding learning and removing barriers to support it.
Hinduism is an ancient religion that originated in India between 4000-2000 BC. It has no single founder or scriptures but its oldest texts are the Vedas. Hindus believe in concepts like dharma, karma, samsara, moksha and believe God can be realized through different paths like bhakti (devotion), jnana (wisdom), and karma (action). Festivals are an important part of Hinduism and celebrate both religious occasions and changing seasons.
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1) Panentheism - God is both immanent within and transcendent over the world.
2) Meditation allows one to transcend the ego and experience their true self, which is the divine Brahman.
3) Arguments for immortality include that being cannot come from non-being, so the soul must be eternal, and Krishna's argument that the divine life-force can neither be created nor destroyed.
Odysseus is considered a classic Greek hero due to his intelligence and cunning nature. He uses his wit and deception to overcome obstacles on his journey home from the Trojan War, outwitting monsters and enemies. While clever, he also demonstrates physical strength and courage. Odysseus faces many dangers but prefers using his mind to find alternative ways to avoid direct conflict when possible. He possesses both intellectual and physical prowess that enables him to pass various trials on his journey and ultimately reclaim his place as the rightful ruler of his household.
Piggy and Simon attempt to prevent the boys from descending into savagery in different ways. Piggy uses his intelligence and knowledge to suggest practical solutions, like maintaining the rescue fire and building shelters, but the boys reject his ideas. Simon has a deeper understanding of the real source of the boys' fears and tries to explain the truth about the beast. However, both Piggy and Simon are ultimately killed - Piggy when Jack's tribe destroys the order he represents, and Simon when the other boys beat him to death in a frenzied hunt of the beast.
Map symbols are used to represent important features on a map when not all details will fit. Common symbols need to be learned so that a map without words still conveys routing and locations. The document provides a quiz to test understanding of typical map symbols like caravan parks, telephone boxes, and golf courses. It directs students to study additional symbols in their textbook and complete related activities on drawing symbols and maps.
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1. SOILS IN INDIA
Soil is the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust.
Soil is the medium in which plants grow and thus it supports the lives on earth.
How soils are formed?
Soils are formed due to the weathering of rocks.
WHAT IS SOIL?
Soil is the thin layer of loose mixture of small rock particles and rotting organic matter that covers much
of the world’s land surface.
SOIL FORMATION
Soil formation is a very long process. It begins with the weathering of rocks into small fragments. The
rocks are also worn away by the agents of erosion like river, wind, sea and glacier. The sediments and
tiny rock particles are then deposited by the agents of erosion. The accumulation of such sediments over
the ages forms soil. Eventually, the plants that grow on the soil, shed their leaves which decay to form the
topmost layer of soil called 'humus'.
India is primarily an agricultural country. The success of agriculture depends upon the fertility of soils.
The soils of India are classified into the following main groups depending upon the rock cover and
climatic conditions.
The most two important factors that determine the types of soil found in India are : i. The climate ii. The
topography
The soils of India on the basis of their formation are divided in the following two broad catagories.
1.Residual Soil 2.Transported Soil
The major soil groups are:
Black Soil
Black soils are mainly found over the Deccan lava tract (Deccan Trap) including Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. These soils are found in river valley of Narmada, Tapi, Godavari
and Krishna. These soils have been formed due to the weathering of the lava rocks. This is also known as
the Regur soil and Cotton soil. These soils are rich in lime. iron, magnesia and alumina but lack in the
phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.
It is formed by the weathering of igneous rocks and the cooling of lava after a volcanic eruption.
1
2. In India, extensive deposits of black soil are found in the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu.
In the upper parts of Godavari and Krishna, the north western part of Deccan Plateau, black soil is very
deep.
BLACK SOIL IS:-
Clayey, deep and impermeable
They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried
During dry season, these soils develop wide cracks.
Rich in lime and iron, magnesia and alumina
Also contain potash
Lack phosporus, nitrogen and organic matter
Colour of the soil ranges from deep black of grey.
Known as Black Cotton Soils.
Dark in colour, suitable for cotton cultivation Are residual soils, i.e. they are formed at the place of their
origin over the underlying rocks.
Are formed in situ, i.e. formed where they are found.
Therefore, they are essentially formed by weathering of Deccan Trap.
Spread over an area of 5.4 sq. km., i.e. 16.6 % of the total land area of the country.
CHARACTERISTICS:
* Fine textured and clayey in nature .
* Has high qualities of lime, iron, mangnesium, and generally poor percentage of phosphorous, nitrogen
and organic matter.
* Black in colour as it is formed from weathered lava rocks
Soil’s colour also varies from Black to Chestnut brown
Very clayey and therefore highly retentive of water. Because of high clay content, these soils expand
when wet and become difficult to plough.
During dry season, black soils shrink and develop big cracks which help in air circulation .
Soil is very fertile in most of places.
2
3. Poor in nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and organic matter and rich in potash and lime.
Needs irrigation support for cultivation
Contains soluble salts in small quantities.
Cultivation is done with the help of fertilizers .
Suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture.
CROPS:
Cotton cultivation
Suitable for growing cereals, rice, wheat, jowar, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and
sugarcane.
Their moisture –retentiveness makes them suitable for dry farming.
RED SOIL
These soils are found in Chhotanagpur plateau, Telangana, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and periphery areas of Deccan Plateau. These soils have been formed due to decomposition fo
underlying igneous rocks under heavy rainfall. These are suitable for the cultivation of millets, pulses.
Lin-seed, tobacco etc. These soils are poor in Lime, Nitrogen and humus.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Red soils are reddish in colour due to the presence of iron. This type of soil is found in south India as well
as in the Chota Nagpur Plateau.
Formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
Parent rocks are acid granites and gneisses.
Occupy an area of about 3.5 lakh sq km – 10.6% of the total land area of the country .
These are transported type soils.
Found to a depth of 500 meters.
Coarsest in the upper section of the valley, medium in the middle and finest in the delta region.
Are mostly light to dark colour depending on new or old alluvium.
Rich in potash and become fertile with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation.
Deficient in nitrogen, lime, magnesia, humus and phosphate
Found mainly on the plateau region of peninsular India, the Malwa Plateau and the Chotanagpur Plateau.
3
4. It covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, south-eastern Maharashtra,
eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh, parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.
They practically encircle the entire black soil region on all sides.They extend northwards in the west
along with the Konkan Coast of Maharashtra.
Red due to its very high iron content.
Colour varies from red to brown, chocolate and yellow.
Are porous, friable in nature .
Loose and aerated.
Contains soluble salts in small quantities.
LATERITE SOIL
Laterite = brick (Latin word)
These soils are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry
periods. Thus its formation takes place strictly under monsoon conditions.
Residual soils formed by leaching in areas of heavy rain.
Leaching is a process in which the nutrients get percolated down below the soil due to heavy rainfall; thus
leaving the top soil in Fertile. Also called DESILICATION.
Laterite soils are found in elevated areas which receive very high rainfall
As a result, top soil gets washed away. This process is called leaching. The soil, therefore, loses its
fertility to a great extent.
It covers an area of about 2.4 lakh sq km. These soils are found in the north- eastern state of Meghalaya in
India.
Is of coarse texture, soft and friable.
Is red due to the presence of iron oxide which is formed by leaching. The soluble plant foods like potash
are removed from the top soil leaving alumina and iron oxide.
Is a porus soil, silica is removed from it by chemical action. Is poor in lime and magnesium, and deficient
in nitrogen.
Laterite soil is formed by weathering of lateritic rocks, low temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternating dry and wet periods.
TWO TYPES : Upland Laterites and Lowland Laterites
4
5. Upland laterite:- are formed over hills and uplands.From they were transported by steams towards
lowlands. Such transported soils are known as Lowland Laterites.
Laterite soil does not retain moisture and hence is not fertile. It suits only special crops like Tapioca,
Cashewnuts, etc.It is acidic in nature as alkalis are leached.
Laterite soils are found on the highland areas of the plateau. These are found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu and hilly regions of Assam, Rajmahal hills and Chhotanagpur plateau. These are shallow, acidic
and less fertile soils. These soils are poor in lime but rich in iron. So these are suitable for plantation of
crops like tea, rubber, coffee etc. Since low fertility because of high acidity and low moisture retention,
manuring and other activities are required to make them suitable for growing crops such as ragi, rice and
sugarcane. Paddy is grown on lower elevations whereas tea, cinchona, rubber, and coffee are grown on
higher elevations. It is also suitable for building purpose.
ALLUVIAL SOILS
Alluvial Soil (Riverine soil)
It covers about 40 percent of land area of the country. They are depositional soils, transported and
deposited by rivers and streams. Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of
Gujarath. These soils are formed by the deposition of fine sediments and silt by the rivers along their
banks. In India, alluvial soils are mostly found in the Great Northern Plains, the coastal plains and river
deltas
In Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys. These soils
originate from the transported alluvium brought by the rivers. They can be divided into two types:
1. Young Khadar soils: these are newer alluvium of sandy, pale brown composition, found in lower areas
of valley bottom which are flooded almost every year. It is non phorous, clayey and loamy.
2. Old Bhangar soils: these consist of older alluvium of clayey composition and are dark in colour.
They are coarse in nature, contain kankar (lime nodules), pebbles, gravels. They are found 30 m above
flood level of the rivers.
They represent the ‘riverine alluvium’ brought down by Sutlej, Yamuna, Ghagra and other rivers of Indo-
Gangetic Plains.
These soils are the most widespread soils covering an area of 8 lakh sq. km from Punjab to Assam. These
are found in the river basin, flood plains and coastal areas. These soils are deep soils rich in potash but
poor in nitrogen. These soils are covering 22.16 per cent of total area of India. The major rivers which are
contributing in the formation of the alluvial soils are :Ganga river, Brahmaputra river, Sutlej river,
Mahanadi river , Godavari river , Krishna river
CHARECTERISTICS
Alluvial soils though differ greatly in texture, are very fertile on whole. They:
5
6. Respond well to irrigation and manuring.
Good for both rabi and kharif crops.
Suitable for wheat, sugarcane, rice, cotton and oilseeds.
In delta region, they are ideal for jute cultivation.
AREA/STATES
Alluvial soils of two types: deltaic coastal and inland alluvial. Found in Uttaranchal, U.P., Bihar, W.
Bengal, Punjab, Haryana & Assam. In south, found in the plains and deltas in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu.
Useful for agriculture since it is fertile.
Soil is rich in potash and lime but poor in nitrogen and humus.
Important crops – wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton and jute.
It is very suitable for jute.
Other Soils: The other soils in the category of the Indian soils are as follows:
DESERT SOIL
These soils cover 2 lakh sq. km areas in dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. These
coarse soils are suitable for cultivation of jowar, bajara, cotton etc.
Saline and Alkaline Soils: These soils are found in the dry and marshy areas. These are locally known as
Bhur, Rehu, Kallar. The accumulation of salts makes these soils infertile.
Mountain Soils:
Mountain soils are found in, as the name suggests, in mountainous regions. They are quite prone to soil
erosion as a result of the top soil getting washed away due to the steep slopes of the mountains after a
period of heavy rainfall.
These soils are mostly thin and infertile. These include peat, meadow and forest hill soils.
The major characteristics of this soil are:
*they are rich in humus
* are coarse and infertile. They are deficient in potash, phosphorous and lime.
*Tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits
The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, Assam, Sikkim as well as higher
reaches of Arunachal Pradesh have mountain soil.
6
7. ARID AND DESERT SOILS
Large part of arid and semi-arid region of Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana
Desert soils are found in arid regions which receive very little rainfall.
CHARECTERISTICS
*Low rainfall and high temperature are reasons for the formation of this soil .
*Having less than 50 cm rainfall . The high temperature adds to the loss of any remaining moisture in the
soil. The soil is therefore sandy in nature. Thar Desert in Rajasthan has sandy soil.
*Covers an area of about 1.4 lakh sq km
* Originated from the mechanical disintegration of the ground rock of by deposition by wind
* Desert soil contain 90% of sand and 5% of clay. It contains rich percentage of soluble salts, but lack in
organic matter.
* Are porous and coarse .
* They respond well to irrigation and manuring , especially phosphate and nitrate.- it can improve the soil
fertility as it is seen in the case of Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan.
* Only suitable for drought resistance crops like millets, barley, cotton, maize and pulses.
SALINE AND ALKALINE SOILS
Soils with high proportion of salts and alkalis are called saline and alkaline soils .
They are formed due to accumulation of tidal water in adjoining coasts where drainage is poor. They are
found in drier parts of Bihar, Rajasthan, U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra. These soils contain many
salts like sodium, magnesium and calcium which make them infertile and render unfit for agriculture.
MARSHY SOIL
Found in continuously water-logged areas, or marshy areas especially in the coastal regions near the sea
or near the deltas.
* It covers about 56,000 sq km.
* They are formed as a result of water-logging
* It contain iron and varying amount of decayed organic matter.
* Found in southern parts of Siwaliks, Jammu and Kashmir, U.P.
DENUDATION
7
8. Denudation is the process of wearing away of the earth’s surface. There are many agents of denudation.
1.Rivers
2.Glaciers
3.Winds
4.Sea waves, etc.
SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is the main problem of our country . It is on the increase in recent years
Main reasons :
* Running water
* overgrazing
* faulty methods of agriculture
* Over irrigation
* Wind
* Men, plants and animals
Soil erosion happens when particles of soil come loose and are carried away by water or the wind. When
it rains so much that the water cannot seep into the soil fast enough, the extra water flows down the slope,
carrying soil particles with it. Many agricultural soils are easily eroded. The erosion problem is likely to
be more severe on certain types of soils, on steep slopes, where there is intense rainfall, and where the
vegetation is removed
Indirectly soil erosion helps in the soil forming because from wherever the soil is removed it is deposited
elsewhere.
However it disturbs the agricultural pattern and should be prevented.
There are several ways in which soil erosion takes place due to running water.
a.Splash erosion
b.Sheet erosion
c.Gully erosion
d.Rill erosion
SPLASH EROSION
8
9. Splash erosion or rain drop impact represents the first stage in the erosion process. Splash erosion results
from the bombardment of the soil surface by rain drops. Rain drops behave as little bombs when falling
on exposed or bare soil, displacing soil particles and destroying soil structure. Studies have shown that
splashed particles may rise as high as 0.6 metres above the ground and move up to 1.5 metres
horizontally. Splash erosion results in the formation of surface crusts which reduce infiltration resulting in
the start of runoff.
It is the first stage in the erosion process . It results from the bombardment of the soil surface by raindrops
.It is the primary cause of soil detachment and soil disintegration.
It means that resettled sediment blocks soil pores resulting in surface crusting and lower infiltration.
SHEET EROSION
Sheet erosion Occurs when thin layers of the topsoil are moved by the force of the runoff water, leaving
the surface uniformly eroded
Cultivation on hill slopes is the main cause of soil erosion.
RILL EROSION
Rill erosion Caused by runoff water when it creates small, linear depressions in the soil surface. These are
easily removed during land tillage
GULLY EROSION
Unlike rill erosion, gullies are too deep to be removed during normal cultivation with ordinary farm
implements. They are formed from small depressions, which concentrate water and enlarge until several
join to form a channel. The deepening channel undermines the head wall, which retreats upslope. The
gully then widens as the side-walls are worn back.
Sea or Shore erosion
* Tidal waters of sea cause considerable damage to the soil along the sea coast.
* Powerful waves dash against sea-coast and break hanging cliff rocks.
* Broken material is then removed by the retreating sea waves.
* This type of erosion is seen throughout the eastern and western coasts of India.
Typical features of coastal erosion: from the initial cracks in less resistant rock through to arches, stacks,
and stumps that can occur as erosion progresses.
STREAM BANK EROSION:
Stream bank erosion is common along rivers, streams and drains where banks have been eroded, sloughed
or undercut. However, it is important to remember that a stream is a dynamic and constantly changing
system.
9
10. It is natural for a stream to want to meander, so not all eroding banks which are slowly eroding are "bad"
and in need of repair.
Generally, stream bank erosion becomes a problem where development has limited the meandering nature
of streams, where streams have been channelized, or where stream bank structures (like bridges, culverts,
etc.) are located in places where they can actually cause damage to downstream areas.
Stabilizing these areas can help protect watercourses from continued sedimentation, damage to adjacent
land uses, control unwanted meander, and improvement of habitat for fish and wildlife.
Streams and rivers change their courses by cutting one bank and depositing the silt on the others.
During flash floods, the damage is much acclerated.
Prevalent in the flood plains of Ganga, Yamuna, and other rivers.
As a result, large areas of agricultural land in the states of U.P., Rajasthan, M.P. have been transformed
into ravines.
WIND:
Soil erosion by wind on extensive flat lands which are subject to windy dry season for part of the year.
The upper soil surface becomes loose and susceptible to wind erosion due to lack of moisture.
OVERGRAZING
Due to overgrazing, wind erosion occurs as the soil devoid of vegetation is directly exposed to the wind.
FAULTY METHODS OF AGRICULTURE
i)Shifting agriculture as in Northeast India
ii)Lack of crop rotation
iii)Wrong ploughing
LEACHING
In agriculture, leaching may refer to the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil, due to rain and
irrigation. Soil structure, crop planning, type and application rates of fertilizers, and other factors are
taken into account to avoid excessive nutrient loss. Leaching may also refer to the practice of applying a
small amount of excess irrigation where the water has a high salt content to avoid salts from building up
in the soil (salinity control). Where this is practiced, drainage must also usually be employed, to carry
away the excess water.
Leaching is an environmental concern when it contributes to groundwater contamination. As water from
rain, flooding, or other sources seeps into the ground, it can dissolve chemicals and carry them into the
underground water supply. Of particular concern are hazardous waste dumps and landfills, and, in
agriculture, excess fertilizer and improperly stored animal manure.
10
11. SHEET EROSION: Removal of thin layer of soil from a large area. In sheet erosion a thin layer of soil
is removed from a large area.
RILL EROSION: A series of small channels on a slope carved by running water.
GULLY EROSION: Large, wide channels carved by running water. As a rule of thumb, a gully is large
enough that it cannot be smoothed out with conventional tillage equipment.
SPLASH EROSION: Splash erosion where the soil is pulverised by the impact of heavy drops and
hailstones as in case of convectional rainfall.
SOIL EROSION DUE TO HUMAN FACTOR:
* Loss of forest cover – annual rate- about 47,500 hectares
* Leads to sheet erosion on hilly slopes because water instead of sinking into the ground washes the soil
down.
* In the second stage, in the absence of vegetation cover and washing off of the absorbent top soil, rills
begin to appear on the landscape
* In the third stage, the water run off during heavy rains may develop deep grooves causing Gully
erosion.
* The Outer Himalayas, the Western & Eastern Ghats are subjected to deforestation by man.
* These areas receive heavy rainfalls. Removal vegetation cover for different land use like railway lines,
roads, buildings, or even agriculture has caused Sheet, Rill or Gully erosion
* Shifting cultivation – heavy rains wash away the bare soil from the slopes to the valleys below.
* Uncontrolled gazing of domestic animals in the valleys and the upper slopes.
WIND EROSION
Wind erosion refers to the movement and deposition of soil particles by wind . It occurs when soil devoid
of vegetation is exposed to high velocity wind.
Wind moves soil particles 0.1 – 0.5 mm in size in bouncing or hopping fashion and those greater than 0.5
by rolling. The former is known as saltation and the latter as soil creep. The particles less than 0.1mm or
the fines particles detach into suspension.
Infact wind erosion is most visible in the suspension stage, as dust storms or subsequently as deposition
along fence lines and across roads.
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION IN INDIA
1)Heavy population pressure on land: - forest cover as low as 20.55% of total area – population continues
to rise at a rapid rate – more forests are destroyed – heavy pressure on land.
11
12. 2)Nature of Rainfall:- receives 80 to 90 per cent of rainfall in the monsoon season. – heavy downpour
during during monsoon months causes floods. - remaining months – droughts – these affect soils
3)Overgrazing – number of domestic animals, esp cattle highest in world – cattle freely graze in open
lands making them bare of vegetation-winds carry away dry soil particles - Rajasthan
4). Bad farming techniques – plough fields in traditional ways – small size of holdings, absence of
terracing, contour cultivation, crop rotation, improper use of manure have caused erosion
5) Topography – North –Eastern parts of India, Shiwaliks and the hilly regions in south India are affected
by soil erosion because of steep slopes and heavy rainfall. During heavy rainfall, soils are washed away
by running water down the slope.
6) Deforestation: destruction of forests for cultivation – cutting of trees exposes the soil to water and wind
which leads to soil erosion
REGIONS OF SOIL EROSION
*Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, UP, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka. Worst affected
areas include:
* The badlands of Chambal and Yamuna rivers
* The piedmont zone of the western Himalayas
* The Chotanagpur plateau region
* The Tapi-Sabarmati valley region in Gujarat
* The regur soil area of Maharashtra
* The dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION:
* Loss of fertile top soil
* Lowering of the underground water table and decreasing soil moisture
* Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands, increase in the frequency of droughts and floods
* Silting of river and canal beds, Recurrence of landslides, adverse effect on economic prosperity and
cultural development
* Wind erosion reduces the productive capacity of soil, as most of the nutrients required by the plants are
carried by the wind.
PREVENTION OF SOIL EROSION AND SOIL CONSERVATION
1.Terrace Farming:- On hilly slopes, terraces act as bunds and prevent the soil from being washed away.
12
13. 2.Contour Ploughing:
Ploughing along contourson a slope prevents soil being washed away by rainwater or by surface run off.
Contours act like bunds. Terraces are levelled into step like small fields with even slope.
3)Afforestation: planting of trees along the edges of the fields, the waste land and on steepy slopes to
prevent soil erosion as wellas to enahnce the capacity of the soil to retain water.
* increase area under forests and indiscriminate felling of trees must stop.
4) Shelter Belts: Farmers plant trees in several rows to check wind erosion. Known as wind breaks.
5) Strip cropping: Crops are grown in alternate strips of land to check the impact of the winds.
6) Construction of dams: Rivers cause soil erosion. Dams are built in the upper course of rivers to
control erosion of soil. This would check the speed of water and thereby save soil from erosion
7) Ploughing Gullies: The gullies made in the soil are plugged with deposition of silt during heavy rains.
8) Shifting or Jhuming or slash and burn type of agriculture should be banned.
SOIL CONSERVATION SCHEMES
1.
The centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated Watershed Management in the catchments of flood-prone
rivers was launched during sixth Plan in eight flood-prone rivers of the Gangetic Basin covering seven
States and one Union Territory. It aims at enhancing the ability of the catchment by absorbing larger
quantity of rainwater, reducing erosion and consequent silt load in the stream and river beds and thus
helping to mitigate the fury of floods in the productive plains.
2.
A scheme for reclamation and development of ravine areas was launched in 1987-88 in MP, UP and
Rajasthan. – included prepheral bunding to halt further ingress of ravines, afforestation of ravines,
aforestaton of ravines for fuel, fodder and reclamation of shallow ravines.
3.
Control of shifting cultivation is implemented since 1994-95 in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura
The integrated programme envisages settling of families practising shifting cultivation.
it helps them to practise terraced cultivation, raising of horticultural palantations and afforestation to
support animal husbandry and to meet fuel and fodder requirements.
13
14. 4. In urban areas, rain water harvesting is means of checking soil erosion, besides recharging ground
water.
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SOLVED QUESTIONS
1.a. Name a rock from which black soils are formed? Write on characteristic of this soil?
Ans. Igneous rock. The soil has a great capacity to retain moisture.
b. Name the type of soil found on the summit of the Eastern Ghats. How is it formed?
Ans. Laterite soil. Laterite soil is formed by leaching.
c. i) Name any two regions where coastal alluvium is found.
14
15. ii.) Why is deltic alluvium more fertile than coastal alluvium?
Ans.c. i) The coastal alluvium occurs in the coastal strips of peninsular India and the plains of Gujarat.
ii. Deltic alluvium (Khaddar) is more fertile than coastal alluvium (Bhangar) as new layers are deposited
year after year during monsoonal floods.
d. State any three factors which affect the soil formation.
Ans: i) WEATHERING: Extremes of temperature (as in the day and night temperatures in deserts),
freezing and thawing of ice break down rocks, and favour soil formation.
ii) VEGETATION: The growth and decay of vegetation determines the humus content of the soil. Roots
of plants penetrate the soil and make it porous.
iii. Bio-chemical processes taking place in the soil: Bacteria and fungi cause the decay of plants and
animal remains. Some transform the atmospheric nitrogen into soil nitrogen.
2.a) Name one crop & one mineral associated with Black soil. Name two states in India where this
type of soil is found.
Ans: Crop: Cotton, Mineral: Iron State : Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh
b) How is Red soil formed? Mention two important properties of Red Soil.
Ans: Red soil is formed djue to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Peninsular
plateau. The properties of red soil are:
* it is loamy in deep depressions and in uplands, it consists of lose gravel- a highly coarse material.
* It is deficient in lime, nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus but fairly rich in potash.
C) Explain the following terms: i) Soil Erosion ii) Conservation of Soil
i) SOIL EROSION: It is the removal of topsoil by different agents of weathering such as running water,
wind, over grazing and faulty methods of agriculture used by farmers.
ii) CONSERVATION OF SOIL: Conservation of soil is an effort made by humans to prevent soil
erosion in order to retain fertility of soil.
d. With which type of soil is the term leaching associated? Name two regions in India where this
type of soil is found.
Ans: Leaching is associated with laterite soil.
TWO REGIONS: 1. Assam Hills 2) Hill summit of Eastern and Western Ghats
Question: 3
a.Give a single word for the following:
15
16. i)The organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals - Humus
ii)The soil which are carried down by agents of gradation such as river, wind – Transported soil.
b. How does the soil of the Ganga Yamuna plain differ from that of central Maharashtra?
Soil found in Ganga-Yamuna plain is alluvial soil, whereas soil found near central Maharashtra is black
soil. The soil of Ganga-Yamuna plain has been formed from the sediments deposited by rivers whereas
soils of central Maharashtra have been formed due to the weathering of the lava.
c. Give reasons:
i.Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile: Since the soil is made up of fine particles, it can hold
a lot of water.
ii.Black soil needs to be tilled after the first rain: When wet, the soil becomes sticky and is difficult to
work with. So the soil needs to be tilted after the first rains.
iii.Red soil is ideal for dry farming: It is suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture.
QUESTION 4
a.Read the feature of the soil carefully and identify the soil:
i)It develops insitu as a result of leaching - Laterite soil
ii)It develops on crystalline igneous rocks. - Red soil
iii)It develops insitu from volcanic rocks. - Black soil
iv) It is a transported soil and is formed by river sediments. – Alluvial soil
b. Mention any four human factors responsible for soil erosion. (2)
Deforestation, faulty methods of agriculture, urbanisation and industrialisation.
c.Name any two crops association with following soils: (3)
i. Alluvial soil - Rice and sugarcane
ii. Red soil - Rice and wheat
iii. Black soil - Cotton and wheat
d.‘Proper farming techniques can help in soil conservation.’ Explain by giving three examples.
* Terracing of hill slopes is effective in controlling soil erosion. Terracing is cutting into the hill slopes in
a series of large steps made up of flat fields.
* Constructing bunds across hill slopes and filed boundaries is effective in reducing soil erosion. Bunds
are low mud walls or embankments that help to obstruct the flow of water.
16
17. * Contour ploughing should be practised. It involves ploughing along the outline of the field in a circular
manner. This prevents the soil from being washed away by running water.
5A.Name four broad types of soils found in India.
Red, black, alluvial and laterite soil.
B.Give two reasons responsible for low fertility in laterite soil.
* It is formed due to leaching.
* It is poor in lime, phosphorous, nitrogen and potash which are fertile ingredients of a rich soil.
C.What is conservation of soil? Why is it necessary?
Soil conservation includes all those measures which help in protecting the soil from erosion and
exhaustion
It is necessary because soil is our most important natural resource. It alone assures prosperous agriculture.
D.Mention any three characteristics of the northern plains.
* These are constituted by two large river basins i.e. the Indus river basin and the Ganga-Brahmaputra
basin.
* These are very fertile plains.
* These plains support some of the highest population densities.
6a. Differentiate between sheet erosion and gully erosion.
1. When top soil gets eroded from very large areas due to fast flowing rivers it is called sheet erosion.
Gully erosion occurs when running water etches out deep rivers creating a badland topography in an
otherwise normal landscape.
2. The unprotected lands are most susceptible to sheet erosion. Sheet erosion is particularly harmful
because it removes the top layer which is finer and fertile.
The main cause of gully erosion is the removal of vegetation, particularly of trees with their widespread
binding roots. Gully erosion is also responsible for the formation of ravines.
b. Explain the formation of soil. Name three various forces of nature which contribute to the
evolution of soil.
Soils are derived from parent rock material through the process of break up or wear and tear.
Various forces of nature i) changing temperature, ii) running water, iii) wind contribute to the evolution
of soil.
QUESTION 7a. State two main differences between alluvial soil and red soil.
17
18. * Alluvial soil is a transported soil whereas red soil is residual.
* Alluvial soil is highly moisture retentive while red soil is not.
b. Why is laterite soil unsuitable for agriculture? Name an area in India where this soil is found.
-Laterite soil is unsuitable for agriculture due to its high content of acidity and inability to retain moisture.
It is poor in nitrogen and lime.
c. How is Regur soil formed? Mention four important properties/ features of Regur Soil.
These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic
activity in the Deccan Plateau.
Features:
* it is well known for its capacity to hold moisture
* it is a deep fine grained soil
* it is dark in colour
* it is rich in lime, iron, magnesium and potash
* poor in phosphoric content.
* made of extremely fine material i.e., clayey material.
d. Mention two ways by which soil can get nitrogen.
Soil can get nitrogen by :
* By growing pulses as there are certain bacteria in the roots of pulses which have the ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen to form nitrogen compounds.
* By applying NPK fertilizer.
e. Explain the need for soil conservation in India. State two methods of soil conservation.
i) Soil is the most precious asset of India. More than 60% of the population is dependent on agriculture.
ii) Protective soil alone ensures progress of agriculture, forests and industrial development.
METHODS: i) Afforestation ii) Proper farming technique
8.a. How is red soil formed? Why are red soils not suitable for agriculture?
Red soil is formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
Red soils are not suitable for agriculture because these are not retentive of moisture and are deficient in
nitrogen, lime, phosphoric acid and humus. It is light in texture.
18
19. b. With reference to red soils in India,
i.Name two states where it found.
ii.State two disadvantages of this soil.
i. It is found in Tamil Nadu/Karnataka, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Goa.
ii.It is poor in humus, nitrogen, lime, phosphorus AND Not retentive of moisture.
9. a. Mention two important characteristic of laterite soil.
i. Laterite soils are acidic in nature, coarse and crumbly in texture.
ii. Due to lack of nitrogen, potassium and organic elements laterite soils lack fertility.
b.Name an area of black soil in India. Mention two crops grown in this soil.
Malwa region of India having a concentration of Black soil. Major crops are cotton and sugarcane.
c.How is alluvial soil formed? Why is this soil agriculturally important?
Alluvial soil is formed after the sedimentation of alluvium by rivers. This soil is agriculturally most
important because it is fertile and renewed every year by rivers.
d.Name two important agents of erosion. For each, state one method of controlling the erosion
caused.
Two important agents of erosion are : i) Running water
ii) Faulty agricultural activities.
Construction of dam and river embankment can control the soil erosion caused by running water.
Scientific methods of cultivation like contour ploughing, terrace farming and conservation of moisture is
the important conservative measure.
MORE QUESTIONS:
1.Name one area where laterite soils is found on large scale.
Laterite soil is found in parts of Kerala, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, on the summits of
the Western and Eastern Ghats.
2. Name the type of soil found on the summits of the Eastern Ghats.
Laterite soil.
3. Why is laterite soil unsuitable for agriculture?
-unsuitable due to its high content of acidity and inability to retain moisture. It is poor in nitrogen and
lime.
19
20. 4. What is laterite soil?
Laterite soils are those formed under alternating wet and dry spells. They are composed of a mixture of
hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron. They are poor in nitrogen, potash, lime. They are low in fertility
but respond favourably to manuring and leaching of soil of its nutrients.
5. In which parts of India are laterite soils found?
They are found in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, A.P., Orissa and on the summits of Eastern and
Western Ghats.
6. What is the meaning of leached soil?
It is the process by which soluble substances such as organic and mineral salts are washed out of the
upper layer of soil into a lower layer by percolating rainwater
7. Name one Indian soil that has been formed by leaching.
Laterite soil.
8.Name the soil known for its self-ploughing quality and capacity to hold moisture. Name one cash
crop for which it is most suited?
Black soil. The cash crop that grows best is Cotton/sugarcane.
9. How does the soil of the Ganga-Yamuna plain differ from that of central Maharashtra?
Soil found in Ganga-Yamuna plain is alluvial soil, whereas soil found near central Maharashtra is black
soil. Alluvial soil is transported soil. Black soil is formed in situ.
10. State one feature of Mountain soil. Name two crops that can be grown on it.
* One feature of mountain soil is- it is rich in Iron but poor in lime.
* It is coarse in texture, friable in nature.
* Good for growing tea, coffee and fruits such as apples, plums, cherries.
11. Which soil is found suitable for growing coffee in Karnataka?
The soil found suitable for growing coffee is Mountain soil or Laterite soil, or Red soil.
12. Name the soil which is formed due to high temperatures and heavy rainfall with alternating wet
and dry periods. Name two states where this type of soil is found.
Ans: Laterite soil. Found in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Assam and Kerala.
13. Write a short note on conservation of soil.
20
21. Ans: Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the
earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, salinization, acidification, or other chemical
soil contamination.
The following are the methods of soil conservation:
1) Afforestation: In some areas the original vegetation cover has been removed such as the Shiwalik
Hills. In such areas afforestation and reforestation is needed to hold the soil.
2) Controlled grazing: The number of cattle grazing the slopes should be according to the carrying
capacity of pastures.
3) Terraced agriculture: Slopes must be cut into a series of terraces for cultivation so as to slow down
inflow of rainwater.
4) River dams: River dams should be built in the upper course of rivers to control floods and check soil
erosion.
5) Contour ploughing: Contour ploughing terracing and bunding should be done to check soil wash on
slopes. Ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slopes.
6) Crop methods: Crop rotation system should be adopted and the land should be allowed fallow for
sometime.
7) Other methods: In areas of heavy rain, basin type of cultivation should be adopted. Tall trees should
be grown as wind and shelter breaks belts in areas of strong winds.
What is soil?
Soil is a combination of four constituents: mineral material (sand, silt, clay and rocir and water. Soil is
made from the breaking down of rocks and organic matter by physical, chemical and biological
weathering processes.
What do you understand by ‘pedology’?
It is a branch of science which studies the soil.
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21
22. EXTRA QUESTIONS
1. a. Give a single word for the following: (2)
i) The organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals - Humus
ii) The soil which are carried down by agents of gradation such as river, wind – Transported soil.
iii) The loose rock material, together with humus, forming the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust and
serving as a source of food and moisture for plants”.
soil
iv) The process of percolation by which valuable mineral nutrients are washed down from the top layer of
the soil only to deposit them in the lower layers, making thereby the topsoil infertile.
b) How does the soil of the Ganga Yamuna plain differ from that of central Maharashtra? (2)
* Soil found in Ganga-Yamuna plain is alluvial soil, whereas soil found near central Maharashtra is black
soil.
22
23. * The soil of Ganga-Yamuna plain has been formed from the sediments deposited by rivers which are rich
in potash but poor in nitrogen whereas soils of central Maharashtra have been formed due to the
weathering of the lava which contains potassium, iron, magnesium and humus.
* The soil of Yamuna-Ganga plain is suitable for the cultivation of a wide varieties of crops, i.e. rice,
wheat, sugarcane, oil seeds, etc whereas the soil of the central Maharashtra region is most suitable for
cotton crop.
c. Give reasons: (3)
Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile: Since the soil is made up of fine particles, it can hold a
lot of water.
Black soil needs to be tilled after the first rain: When wet, the soil becomes sticky and is difficult to work
with. So the soil needs to be tilted after the first rains.
Red soil is ideal for dry farming: It is suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture.
d. i) Name any two regions where coastal alluvium is found.
ii.) Why is deltic alluvium more fertile than coastal alluvium?(3)
Ans.c. i) The coastal alluvium occurs in the coastal strips of peninsular India and the plains of Gujarat.
ii. Deltic alluvium (Khaddar) is more fertile than coastal alluvium (Bhangar) as new layers are
deposited year after year during monsoonal floods.
e. State any three factors which affect the soil formation. (3)
Ans: i) WEATHERING: Extremes of temperature (as in the day and night temperatures in deserts),
freezing and thawing of ice break down rocks, and favour soil formation.
ii) VEGETATION: The growth and decay of vegetation determines the humus content of the soil. Roots
of plants penetrate the soil and make it porous.
iii. Bio-chemical processes taking place in the soil: Bacteria and fungi cause the decay of plants and
animal remains. Some transform the atmospheric nitrogen into soil nitrogen.
iv. CLIMATE : Climate is the most important single factor in the soil formation. the amount of rainfall
and range of temperature are the most important climatic factors affecting soil formation.
v. RELIEF: Low relief areas generally experience deposition and have deep layer of soil whereas the soils
are generally shallow in the plateau areas.
vi) PARENT MATERIAL: Parent rock determines the composition of soil.
f. What is soil? How soil is important to man? (2)
23
24. Soil is the thin top cover of earth’s crust composed of mineral particles, humus, water and air in which
plant grows.
Most of our food items like cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, meat, eggs, milk, clothing, etc., are
obtained directly or indirectly from the soil. A large number of human and economic activities depend on
the soil. Fertile soil attracts a large number of people and human settlements.
g. State the two most important factors that determine the types of soils found in India.(1)
Parent material, relief, climate and natural vegetation are some of the major factors determining the types
of soils found in India.
h. What do you understand by humus? (1)
It is the organic matter which is formed by the decomposition of plant remains, dead animals and manure.
Humus content determines the fertility of the soil.
i. Give reason: (5)
i) Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile:- Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile
because the alluvial soil is made up of fine particles. The soil is very fertile because it is rich in mineral
nutrients like potash and lime.
ii) Black soils needs to be tilled after the first rain: The soil is sticky and difficult to work unless tilled
immediately after the first rain.
iii) Red soil is ideal for dry farming: Red soil is ideal for dry farming because it does not require much
moisture.
iv) The percentage of organic matter in desert soil is very low:- The percentage of organic matter in
desert soil is very low because of the dry climate and absence of vegetation.
v) Red soil is less fertile:- Red soil is less fertile because it is deficient in phosphorous, nitrogen, lime
and humus.
j. Distinguish between ‘Khaddar’ and ‘Bhangar’. (3)
Bhangar (old) Khaddar (new)
It is non-porous, clayey soil It is porous and loamy soil.
It is found higher up in the plains at river terraces away from rivers. It is found in the lower level in
the plains near the rivers.
It is less fertile as compared to khaddar It is more fertile compared to
bhangar. This is due to deposition of new layers
by floods during monsoon
It belongs to old alluvium. It belongs to new alluvium.
24
25. 2. a. Read the feature of the soil carefully and identify the soil: (2)
i) It develops insitu as a result of leaching - Laterite soil
ii) It develops on crystalline igneous rocks. - Red soil
iii) It develops insitu from volcanic rocks. - Black soil
iv) It is a transported soil and is formed by river sediments. – Alluvial soil
Mention any four human factors responsible for soil erosion. (2)
Deforestation, faulty methods of agriculture, urbanisation and industrialisation.
Name any two crops association with following soils: (3)
i. Alluvial soil - Rice and sugarcane, wheat
ii. Red soil - Rice and wheat
iii. Black soil - Cotton and sugarcane
iv. Desert - Barley and ragi
v. Laterite - coffee and tea
d. With reference to the type of soil only, state why: (3)
i, Jowar is grown in Maharashtra. – Jowar is grown in Maharshtra because of its black soil.
ii. Bajra is grown in Rajasthan – Bajra is grown in Rajasthan because of desert soil.
iii) Sugarcane is grown in Uttar Pradesh – Sugarcane is grown in Uttar Pradesh because of well
drained alluvial soil.
e. Name four broad types of soils found in India. (2)
Red, black, alluvial and laterite soil.
f. Mention any three characteristics of the northern plains. (3)
* These are constituted by two large river basins i.e. the Indus river basin and the Ganga-Brahmaputra
basin.
* These are very fertile plains.
* These plains support some of the highest population densities.
g. What is the importance of Northern plains for the Indian economy?(3)
25
26. * The plain supports some of the highest population densities depending upon purely agro-based
economy in some of these areas. The extensive use of irrigation has made some parts of this plain,
especially Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh the granary of India.
* The entire plan except the Thar Desert has a close network of roads and railways which has led to large
scale industrialization and urbanization.
h. Distinguish between Alluvial soil and Black soil keeping in mind texture, minerals and crops
associated. (3)
ALLUVIAL SOIL
BLACK SOIL
1. TEXTURE: Coarse, in upper regions, medium in the middle and fine in the lower regions.
Fine grained, moisture retentive.
2. MINERALS: Rich in potash.
Rich in lime, iron and potash.
3. CROPS: Rice, wheat, and sugarcane.
Cotton, sugarcane and tobacco.
4. FORMATION: It is formed due to deposition of sediments by the river.
It is formed due to the weathering of the lava.
5. AREA: It covers more than 45% of the total land area of the country.
It covers only 16% of the total land area of India.
6. FERTILITY: The soil is very fertile.
The soil is less fertile as compared to alluvial soil..
i. Explain the formation of soil. Name three various forces of nature which contribute to the
evolution of soil. (3)
Soils are derived from parent rock material through the process of break up or wear and tear.
Various forces of nature i) changing temperature, ii) running water, iii) wind contribute to the evolution
of soil.
j. State two main differences between alluvial soil and red soil. (2)
Alluvial soil
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27. Red soil
Most of the alluvial soil is derived from the sediments deposited by the rivers.
Most of the red soil has been formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
Alluvial soil is highly moisture retentive.
Red soil is not moisture retentive.
Alluvial soil is very fertile as it is rich in mineral nutrients like potash and lime.
It is less fertile as it is deficient in phosphorous, nitrogen, lime and humus.
k. Mention two ways by which soil can get nitrogen. (2)
Soil can get nitrogen by :
* By growing pulses as there are certain bacteria in the roots of pulses which have the ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen to form nitrogen compounds.
* By applying NPK fertilizer or by adding manure, by crop rotation.
l. Which minerals are found in regur soil? (1)
Iron, lime, potash, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are found in regur soil.
m. Distinguish between Transported and ‘in-situ’ soils: (2)
Transported soils
In-situ soils
These soils are carried down by the natural agents like water and winds.
These soils are found where they are formed.
Example: Alluvial soil
Example: Black soil
n. Distinguish between soils of Northern Plains and Soils of the Deccan Plateau. (3)
SOILS OF NORTHERN PLAINS
SOILS OF THE DECCAN PLATEAU
Soils of the Northern plains are alluvial soils.
Soils of the Deccan Plateau are Black soil or red soil.
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28. They are very fertile, suitable for the cultivation of rice, wheat, sugar-cane, cotton, jute, oil seeds, etc
They are also fertile, suitable for the cultivation of cotton, sugarcane, rice, tobacco, etc
o.Distinguish between Inland alluvium and Coastal alluvium: (3)
Inland Alluvium
Coastal Alluvium
Inland alluvial soils are found in the Indus river plains and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river plains.
Coastal alluvial soils are found on the coastal regions of peninsular India.
They are found in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. , Bihar, West Bengal.
They are found in the Gujarat plains.
p. Distinguish between Regur soils and Laterite Soils.(3)
REGUR SOILS
LATERITE SOILS
Regur soils are black in colour.
Latertite soils are red in colour.
They are formed due to weathering of lava-flow rocks.
They are formed due to weathering lf laterite rocks.
They are of fine texture.
They are of coarse texture.
They are clayey in nature.
They are soft and friable.
They are rich in lime and magnesium.
They are deficient in lime and magnesium.
Retention of moisture is high.
They do not retain moisture.
Regur soils are very fertile.
Laterite soils are not fertile.
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29. They are suitable for cultivation of cotton, sugarcane, wheat, jowar, gram and linseed.
They are suitable only for special crops like coffee, cashewnuts, tapioca , etc
q. Distinguish between red and laterite soil. (2)
Red soil
Laterite soil
Most of the red soil has been formed due to weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
ii. Rice, wheat, sugarcane and cotton can be cultivated.
Most of the laterite soil has been formed due to leaching.
Coffee, rubber and cashew are some of the crops cultivated on this soil.
3.a. Write two differences between intensive and extensive farming. (2)
INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE
EXTENSIVE FARMING
1. Production is increased by using higher inputs and new techniques.
1. Production is increased by bringing more and more area under cultivation.
2. This is done in thickly populated areas where no more land is available.
2. This is done in thinly populated areas.
b. Give a single word for each of the following: (1 mark each)
* The loose rock material , together with humus, forming the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust and
serving as a source of food and moisture for plants. – Answer: Soil or Top soil
* The process of percolation by which valuable mineral nutrients are washed down from the top layer of
the soil only to deposit them in the lower layers, thereby making the top soil infertile. – Ans: leaching.
c. Name the type of soil which is : (1 mark each)
i) Useful for the cultivation of jute. - Alluvial soil
ii) Formed by decomposition of metamorphic rocks. – Red soil
iii) Covers 40% of the land area of India. - Alluvial Soil
iv) Develops on old crystalline rocks under moderate to heavy rainfall. - Red Soil
v) Alkaline in nature and contains a high proportionof salts. - Desert Soil.
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30. vi) Agriculturally most significant - Alluvial Soil
vii) formed due to volcanic activity - Black/Regur soil
viii) Rich in iron but poor in silica – Laterite soil
ix) rich in humus - Alluvial soil of the Ganga Delta
x) Rich in potash but poor in phosphorus – Alluvial Soil
xi) Rich in lime and potash but deficient in phosphorous and nitrogen – Laterite Soil
d. What is dry farming? (1)
Dry farming is the method of farming adopted in certain region having inadequate rainfall and devoid of
irrigation facilities by conserving moisture in the soil and by raising drought-enduring crops.
e. Explain the following terms: (1 mark each)
i) In situ : - The soils which are found where they are formed. They are also called residual soil. e.g.
Black Soil.
b. Transported Soil: These are soils which are carried down by agents of gradation such as river, wind.
e.g. Alluvial Soil
c. Badland: it is a region with a large number of deep gullies which cannot be put to any use till soil
restoration takes place.
d. Soil profile: A soil profile is a section showing the successive layers of the soil which would appear if
you cut straight down into the soil.
e. Humus: It is the organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals.
Humus content determines the fertility of the soil.
f. Parent Rock: The weathered and partially broken rock from which a soil is formed is termed as parent
rock.
g. Soil Texture: The proportion of the various particle sizes in a soil.
h) Deccan Trap: The word ‘trap’ is Swedish which means steps. The term describes the step-like rock
formation that covers the north-western part of the Deccan Plateau.
f. Place two broad categories the soils of India on the basis of their formation. (2)
i) RESIDUAL SOILS: These are found where they are formed, hence called ‘in situ’. Black soil, Red
Soil, and Laterite soil are the examples of residual soils.
ii) TRANSPORTED SOILS: These are carried down by agents of gradation such as rivers, and wind.
Alluvial soil and Loess are the examples of transported soils. The most important transported soil in India
is alluvial soil. The states are West Bengal and Bihar.
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31. g. Name the soils found abundantly in the following regions: (1 mark each)
i) Hills of Assam and Meghalaya – Mountain Soil
ii) Coastal strip of Deccan Plateau – Coastal alluvium
iii) South-Western parts of Punjab – Desert Soil
iv) Chhotanagpur Plateau – Laterite Soil
v) Delta of Krishna - Deltaic alluvium
vi) Sunderbans of West Bengal – Deltaic alluvium
4a) Explain the following terms: i) Soil Erosion ii) Conservation of Soil iii) Deforestation
iv) Contour Ploughing v) Strip Cropping vi) Crop Rotation (1 mark each)
i) SOIL EROSION: It is the removal of topsoil by different agents of weathering such as running water,
wind, over grazing and faulty methods of agriculture used by farmers.
ii) CONSERVATION OF SOIL: Conservation of soil is an effort made by humans to prevent soil erosion
in order to retain fertility of soil.
iii) DEFORESTAION: The removal of trees of an area of land by felling or burning is called
deforestation. The process of deforestation is deliberate in order to make the land available for other uses.
iv) CONTOUR PLOUGHING: It is the cultivation of soil according to contour lines, i.e. at the right
angles to the hill slopes.
v) STRIP CROPPING: It is the cultivation of crops in strips to check the fast-blowing winds.
vi) CROP ROTATION: It is the cultivation of crops in a year in such a sequence that the fertility of the
soil is not reduced.
b.. Explain the need for soil conservation in India. State two methods of soil conservation. (3)
i) Soil is the most precious asset of India. More than 60% of the population is dependent on agriculture.
ii) Protective soil alone ensures progress of agriculture, forests and industrial development.
METHODS: i) Afforestation ii) Proper farming technique iii) shelter belts iv) terraced cultivation
c. Name two important agents of erosion. For each, state one method of controlling the erosion
caused. (3)
Two important agents of erosion are : i) Running water
ii) Faulty agricultural activities.
iii) wind
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32. RUNNING WATER: Construction of dam, river embankment , terrace farming and afforestation can
control the soil erosion caused by running water.
FAULTY AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES: Scientific methods of cultivation like contour ploughing,
terrace farming and conservation of moisture is the important conservative measure
WIND: One method of controlling erosion caused by wind is planting of shelter belts alongside of desert.
d. ‘Proper farming techniques can help in soil conservation.’ Explain by giving three examples. (3)
* Terracing of hill slopes is effective in controlling soil erosion. Terracing is cutting into the hill slopes in
a series of large steps made up of flat fields.
* Constructing bunds across hill slopes and filed boundaries is effective in reducing soil erosion. Bunds
are low mud walls or embankments that help to obstruct the flow of water.
* Contour ploughing should be practised. It involves ploughing along the outline of the field in a circular
manner. This prevents the soil from being washed away by running water.
e. Differentiate between sheet erosion and gully erosion. (2)
1. When top soil gets eroded from very large areas due to fast flowing rivers it is called sheet erosion.
Gully erosion occurs when running water etches out deep rivers creating a badland topography in an
otherwise normal landscape.
2. The unprotected lands are most susceptible to sheet erosion. Sheet erosion is particularly harmful
because it removes the top layer which is finer and fertile.
The main cause of gully erosion is the removal of vegetation, particularly of trees with their widespread
binding roots. Gully erosion is also responsible for the formation of ravines.
f. Difference between Sheet erosion and wind erosion and sheet erosion and gully erosion.(3)
SHEET EROSION
WIND EROSION
It is caused by running water or heavy rain .
It is caused by wind..
It is found in hilly regions.
It is found in desert and dry regions.
Due to high speed of water, a layer of the soil on the surface is removed over a large area.
Under this top fertile soil is blown away by high speed wind.
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33. It is the first stage of water erosion.
It is the third stage of water erosion.
It is caused by running water or heavy rain in hill regions which lead to the removal of a large area by
running rainwater through steep slopes.
Gully erosion is caused due to running down of water in distinct path which results in the removal of soil
in the path.
Sheet erosion is also harmful since it removes fertile top soil of the land.
Gully erosion is harmful since it cut up agricultural land.
g. Man is largely responsible for soil erosion. How?(2)
Soil erosion is the removal of soil by the forces of nature, particularly wind and water. Soil erosion
mainly takes place due to man’s activities such as deforestation, overgrazing of cattle, faulty methods of
cultivation.
h. What is conservation of soil? Why is it necessary? (3)
It is an effort made by man to prevent soil erosion, or at least to reduce the rate of soil erosion, to retain
the fertility of the soil.
It is necessary because soil is our most important natural resource. It alone assures prosperous agriculture.
i. Explain the following terms: (1 mark each)
i) Soil Erosion. ii) Conservation of Soil iii. Soil Texture iv. Contour Ploughing v. slip erosion vi. Strip
cropping
SOIL EROSION: It is removal of topsoil by different agents of weathering such as running water, wind,
overgrazing and faulty methods of agriculture used by farmers.
CONSERVATION OF SOIL: Conservation of soil is an effort made by humans to prevent soil erosion in
order to retain fertility of soil.
SOIL TEXTURE: soil texture refers to the size of particles in soil. The texture of soil ay be gravel, sand,
silt or clay.
CONTOUR PLOUGHING: It is a farming technique which is used in hilly areas to prevent soil erosion.
It involves ploughing along the outline of the fields in the circular manner.
SLIP EROSION: During heavy rains, water filters into the soil until it is unable to penetrate further by the
underlying impervious rocks.
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34. STRIP CROPPING:It is a farming technique in which different kinds of crops are grown in alternate rows
instead of leaving strips of land uncultivated.
j. What are the different types of soil erosion?(3)
The types of soil erosion by different agencies are as follows:
Soil erosion by running water:
i) GULLY EROSION: This type of erosion is occurred due to heavy rainfall in hilly regions and as a
result deep gullies are formed on bare soils when water gushes down.
ii) SHEET EROSION: This type of erosion takes place due to slow removal of a thin layer of soil by
running water on account of destruction of the vegetation.
iii) LEACHING: It occurs during the rainfall when the nutrients in the soil are washed away.
iv) RILL EROSION: In this type of erosion finger like rills appear on the surface of the land which are
formed due to cutting of soil by flowing down of water.
v) STREAM BANK EROSION: It takes place on the banks of rivers and stream by the flowing water.
vi) SHORE EROSION: It occurs due to tidal water along the coast during the rainy season.
k. How does the soil of the Ganga-Yamuna plain differ from that of central Maharashtra? (2)
Soil found in Ganga-Yamuna plain is alluvial soil, whereas soil found near central Maharashtra is black
soil. Alluvial soil is transported soil. Black soil is formed in situ.
l. Define : Gully erosion ii) Sheet Erosion (1 mark each)
GULLY EROSION: Gully erosion takes place when running water cuts deep ravines in the absence of
vegetation. This type of erosion makes soil unfit for cultivation.
SHEET EROSION: When top soil gets eroded from very large areas due to fast flowing rivers or due to
heavy monsoons, it is called sheet erosion..
Soil erosion by wind: Soil erosion by wind mainly occur in dry areas such as western Rajasthan and
Southern Punjab where strong wind blows away the loose sand in the form of dust and as a result top soil
is removed.
m. What are the causes of soil erosion in: (1 mark each)
i) Shiwaliks or the Outer Himalayas: Destruction of vegetation is the main cause of soil erosion in hilly
areas because when vegetation is removed, the soil surface becomes loose and is more easily removed by
running water.Due to this , a large amount of debris domes down the slopes of Shiwaliks and chokes up
the rivers and causes floods. Hence, land slides and land slips are very frequent.
ii) North-Eastern parts of India: Heavy rainfall which leads to frequent floods is responsible for soil
erosion in Assam, West Bengal and hilly regions of North-east.
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35. iii) Arid regions of India: In deserts and dry regions like Rajasthan, Southern Punjab and south-western
areas of Haryana, where there is little or no vegetation, wind is the most powerful agent of soil erosion,
blowing away fine particles of sand depositing them in other areas making both areas unproductive.
iv) Hilly areas of the South: In this region, steep slopes, heavy rainfall and unscientific methods of
cultivation are responsible for the soil erosion.
n. Name a part of India where: (1)
a. Wind is the main agent of erosion - Rajasthan
b. Water is the main agent of erosion - Meghalaya
o. How is the migration of sand dunes from Thar desert checked? (1)
By building shelter belts, the migration of sand dunes from Thar desert checked.
p. Name any four states which have been affected by gully erosion. (1)
U.P. , M.P. , Bihar and Rajasthan.
q. What are the main causes of soil erosion? (2)
Main causes of soil erosion are:
* Steep slopes * Deforestation * Torrential rainfall * Strong winds * Over grazing
* Unscientific methods of cultivation
r. What are the different methods of soil conservation? (3)
AFFORESTATION: Afforestation or planting of trees in deforested areas saves the soil from erosion
caused both by water and wind.
CONSTRUCTION OF CHECK DAMS: is an important method of checking soil erosion in the upper
course of the rivers.
OVERGRAZING should be checked. Grazing should be limited according to the size of the pasture.
GULLIES should be plugged by stone dams, wire netting or by raising trees across gullies to check the
flood water.
SHELTER BELTS of trees and shrubs should be planted to check wind velocity in arid regions.
PROPER FARMING TECHINIQUES, i.e. strip cropping, contour ploughing and terracing of hills should
be adopted for soil conservation.
s. Discuss important soil conservation measures undertaken by the Government of India.(3)
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36. * A scheme for reclamation and development of ravine areas was launched in 1987-88 in Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
The scheme for control of shifting cultivation is being implemented since 1994-95.
In urban area, rain water harvesting is a means of checking soil erosion besides recharging ground water.
The centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated Watershed Management in the catchments of flood-prove
rivers was launched during Sixth Plan in eight flood-prove rivers of the Gangetic Basin covering seven
States and one Union Territory.
t. Name two methods of soil conservation adopted in the mountainous areas. (1)
i) Terrace cultivation ii) Contour ploughing
u. State how destruction of vegetation cover increases the soil erosion. (2)
Vegetation cover protects the soil from erosion as the roots of the trees and plants hold the soil particles
together and strengthen the soil. Therefore, the destruction of vegetation cover increases the soil erosion.
RED SOIL
5.a. How is Red Soil formed? Mention two important properties of Red Soil. (2)
Red soil is formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Peninsular
plateau. The properties of red soil are:
* Red soils are rich in iron contents , hence, they are red in colour.
* It is loamy in deep depressions and in uplands , it consists of loose gravel – a highly coarse material.
* It is deficient in lime, nitrogen, phosphorous and humus but fairly rich in potash.
* The productivity of the red soils increases with regular use of fertilizers.
* They are porous in nature but not retentive to moisture.
* They are suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture.
b. Why are red soils not suitable for agriculture? or State two reasons for the low productivity of
red soil. (2)
Red soils are not suitable for agriculture because these are not retentive of moisture and are deficient in
nitrogen, lime, phosphoric acid and humus. It is light in texture.
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37. c. With reference to red soils in India,
i) Name two states where it found.
ii. State two disadvantages of this soil. (2)
It is found in Tamil Nadu/Karnataka, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Goa.
i. It is poor in humus, nitrogen, lime, phosphorus
ii. It is coarse, porous, crumbly and does not retain moisture . It needs irrigation support for
cultivation as it is loose and aerated.
d. Red soil is red in colour. Give reason. (1)
Red soil is red in colour due to the presence of iron oxides.
e. Give three reasons for the low fertility of Red soils. (3)
# Red soils are less fertile as they lack nitrogenous, phosphorous and organic matter.
# On uplands, they abound in loose gravels and are less fertile.
# Their coarse grains lack sustenances of fertility.
f. Where are Red soils found in India? (1)
Red soils are found in the states of Kerala, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Goa, eastern part of Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, and on the Chhota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkand.
g. Mention some properties of Red soils. (3)
* Red soils are formed in situ by weathering of the ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
* Red soils are rich in iron contents, hence, they are red in colour.
* The productivity of the red soils increases with regular use of fertilizers.
* These soils are deficient in nitrogen, lime, phosphoric acid and humus.
* They are rich in potash, porous, friable but not retentive of moisture.
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38. * They are suited for dry farming as it does not require much moisture.
i. Name the state in India which mostly has red soil. (1)
Tamilnadu and Karnataka
j. State two disadvantages of red soil. (2)
* The soil lacks in nitrogen, organic and phosphoric acid contents and is less fertile.
* Red soils are porous in nature but not retentive to moisture.
k. Give three reasons for the low fertility of the Red soil. (3)
* Red soils are less fertile as they lack nitrogenous, phosphorous and organic matter.
* On uplands, they abound in loose gravels and are less fertile.
* Their coarse grains lack sustenance of fertility.
BLACK SOIL
6.a. Mention two characteristics of black soil. Why is this soil agriculturally important? (2)
# The black soils are made of extremely fine material.
# These soils are rich in nutrient.
# It develops cracks when dry which helps in aereation.
# It has a self-ploughing quality.
It is agriculturally important because it is rich in lime,iron and potash. Because of high clay content, these
soils expand when wet and become difficult to plough. During the dry season, the black soils shrink and
develop big cracks which help in air circulation. The moisture-retentiveness makes them suitable for dry
farming.
Black soil is also called regur soil or cotton soil. Cotton is the most important crop grown in these soil.
After alluvial soils it occupy largest areas in the country. It covers 16% area of the country.
b. Name an area of black soil in India. Mention two crops grown in this soil.(2)
Deccan Plateau is an area of black soil in India. Two crops grown in this soil are cotton and sugarcane.
c. Black soils are called ‘Black Cotton Soils’. Why? (1)
Black soils are called ‘Black Cotton Soils’ because these soils are most suitable for the cultivation of
cotton.
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39. d. How black soils or Black cotton soils or Regur soils are formed? Which minerals are found in
regur soil? Name the most important crop grown on it. (3)
Black soils are formed in situ, that is , formed where they are found. These soils are formed from
solidification of basic lava spread over large areas of Deccan Plateau during volcanic activity. Hence,
these are formed by weathering of Deccan Trap.
Lime, iron, potash, alluminium, calcium and magnesium carbonate. It is deficient in phosphorous,
nitrogen and organic matter.
The most important crop grown on it is cotton.
e. Name the soil known for its self-ploughing quality and capacity to hold moisture. Name one cash
crop for which it is most suited? (2)
Black soil. The cash crop that grows best is Cotton/sugarcane.
f. How is Regur soil formed? Mention four important properties of Regur Soil. Name two states
where Regur soils are found. Name two cash crops grown best on these soils. (3)
These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic
activity in the Deccan Plateau.
Features:
* Black soils are well known for its capacity to hold moisture
* It is a deep fine grained soil
* They vary in colour from deep balck to chestnut brown.
* They are rich in lime, calcium, iron, magnesium and potash and deficient in phosphorous, nitrogen
and organic matter.
* They are made of extremely fine material i.e., clayey material.
* These soils are best-suited for cotton and sugarcane cultivation.
* Black soils are widely spread over the Deccan Plateau, comprising large areas of Maharashtra,
Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
* They are also know as Regur soils in Maharashtra and Black Cotton soils in Peninsular India.
States – Maharshtra and Gujarat
Cash crops – cotton and sugarcane.
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40. g. Large tracts in Mahatrashtra are covered with Black soil. Give reason. (1)
Large tracts in Maharashtra are covered with Black soil because it is made up of lava tracts which after
weathering is reduced to black soil.
h. Give two characteristic features of the soil found most suitable for growing cotton and sugarcane
in Maharashtra. (2)
The most suitable soil for growing cotton and sugarcane in Maharasthtra is black soil. Its characteristics
are:
* It is rich in iron, potash, lime, calcium carbonate, aluminium and magnesium.
* Its self-ploughing characteristic helps in aeration due to deep and wide cracks during dry season.
* highly retentive of moisture
* Sticky when wet, dry when fine grained.
* It is volcanic in origin.
i. Name a rock from which black soils are formed? Write on characteristic of this soil? What is the
advantage of ‘clay’ contents in Black soils.(2)
Igneous rock. The soil has a great capacity to retain moisture.
Clay contents increase the capacity of black soils to retain moisture. During dry period, they develop deep
cracks which help in aeration or air circulation.
j) Name one crop & one mineral associated with Black soil. Name two states in India where this
type of soil is found. (2)
Crop: Cotton, Mineral: Iron State: Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh
k. Name one soil of volcanic origin commonly found in India. (1)
The black soils are of volcanic origin.
l. Mention an two advantages of the black soil. OR What is the advantage of ‘clay’ contents in black
soils? (2)
* The black soil has the ability to retain moisture which is due to its clay contents.
* During dry period, they develop deep cracks which help in aeration or air circulation.
m. Name the soil which occupies largest area after alluvial soil. (1)
Black soil or Regur soil.
n. What are the advantages and disadvantages of black soil or clayey soil? (2)
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41. ADVATAGES: * As it has the ability to retain moisture, so the moisture is released to the plants during
dry spells
* During dry period, it develops deep cracks which help in aeration or air circulation..
DISADVANTAGES: Very difficult toplough when wet because it becomes sticky when wet.
ALLUVIAL SOIL
7.a. How is alluvial soil formed? Why is this soil agriculturally important? (2)
Alluvial soil is formed by the deposit of silt brought down by rivers. This soil is agriculturally important
because it is very fertile.It is rich in potash, humus and lime and soil is renewed every year by rivers.
b. What type of soil is widely distributed over the Gangetic Plain? (1)
Alluvial soil is widely distributed over the Gangetic Plain.
c. Name the transported soil most widely found in India. State the two sub cateogories into which it
is generally divided. What are local names and which one of them is superior to the other? (2)
Transported soil most widely found in India is Alluvial soil.
Sub-categories – Old alluvium/Bangar, New alluvium/Khadar.
Khadar is more superior to them, as the floods replenish it.
d. What are the differences between the alluvial soil found in the upper course of rivers and that
found in the lower courses? (2)
In the upper course of the river, the soil particles are somewhat bigger in size and are more coarse. Soil
particles are large and not uniform. The soil in this region is less fertile.
In the lower course of the river, the soil particles are fine and less coarse. Silt and clay are found in
abundance. the soil in this region is more fertile.
e. By what other name alluvial soil is known? Justify your answer. (1)
Riverine; because it is mainly found in river basins.
f. How are the soils of Gangetic Plains formed? (1)
Alluvial soil is formed by the deposit of silt brought down by the rivers Ganga and Brahamaputra. This
soil is agriculturally important because it is very fertile.It is rich in potash, humus and lime and soil is
renewed every year by rivers.
g. On regional level what are three different types of alluvium? (3)
# Deltaic alluvium in West Bengal and Orissa
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42. # Coastal alluvium in Peninsular India
# Inland alluvium in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and Orissa.
h. Mention the main characteristics of alluvial soils. (3)
# Alluvial soils are transported soils as they have come into existence because of the silt deposition
brought by rivers and wind.
# They are very fertile as they are rich in minerals like potash and lime.
# They are fine- grained.
# They are rich in humus contents.
# the soils of the Ganga valley are faint yellow and consist of a mixture of sand, clay and organic matter.
# The soils of the Godavari and Krishna valleys are clayey, non-porous and brown in colour as these
rivers flow over black soil.
i. What is the difference between Inland alluvium and Coastal alluvium? (2)
Inland alluvium is the soil found on the plains of the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers.
Coastal alluvium is of tidal origin and is found in coastal strips of Peninsular India.
LATERITE SOIL
8.a. Name one area where laterite soils is found on large scale. (1)
Laterite soil is found in parts of Kerala, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, on the summits of
the Western and Eastern Ghats.
b. Name the type of soil found on the summits of the Eastern Ghats. (1)
Laterite soil.
c. Name the soil which is formed due to high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternating wet
and dry periods. Name two states where this type of soil is found. (1)
Laterite soil develops as a result of leaching in areas of heavy rain. The soil is found in Tamil Nadu and
Orissa.
d. What is laterite soil? (1)
Laterite soils are those formed under alternating wet and dry spells. They are composed of a mixture of
hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron. They are poor in nitrogen, potash, lime. They are low in fertility
but respond favourably to manuring and leaching of soil of its nutrients.
e. In which parts of India are laterite soils found? (1)
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43. They are found in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, A.P., Orissa and on the summits of Eastern and
Western Ghats.
f. What is the meaning of leached soil? (1)
It is the process by which soluble substances such as organic and mineral salts are washed out of the
upper layer of soil into a lower layer by percolating rainwater
g. Name one Indian soil that has been formed by leaching. (1)
Laterite soil.
h. Name the soil which is formed due to high temperatures and heavy rainfall with alternating wet
and dry periods. Name two states where this type of soil is found. (2)
Laterite soil. Found in the highland of Western Ghats, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Assam and Kerala.
i. With which type of soil is the term leaching associated? Name two regions in India where this
type of soil is found. (2)
Ans: Leaching is associated with laterite soil.
TWO REGIONS: 1. Assam Hills 2) Hill summit of Eastern and Western Ghats
j. How laterite soils formed? Why is it acidic in nature? Give one difference between laterite soil
and regur soil. (3)
Laterite soil is formed by weathering of rocks under monsoon climatic conditions.
It is acidic in nature because alkalis are leached out.
Laterite soil is of coarse texture while Regur soil is fine textured.
k. Give one difference between Laterite soil and Regur soil. (1)
Laterite soil is of coarse texture while Regur soil is fine textured.
l. Mention two important characteristic of laterite soil. (2)
* Laterite soils are leached soils because alternating dry and wet spells cause the soluble silica to be
removed.
* Laterite soils are acidic in nature, coarse and crumbly in texture.
* Due to lack of nitrogen, potassium and organic elements, laterite soils lack fertility.
* They are poor in most minerals.
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44. * They are porous in nature.
* These soils support pastures and scrub forests.
* With the use of manure, coffee, rubber, cashew, etc., can be grown on these soils.
m. Why is laterite soil unsuitable for agriculture or less fertile? Name an area in India where this
soil is found. (2)
Laterite soil is unsuitable for agriculture due to its high content of acidity and inability to retain
moisture.
It is poor in nitrogen, phosphorous, potash and lime.
It is formed as a result of leaching which r enders the topsoil infertile. The soil becomes hard like
a brick when it dries up.
n.Give two reasons responsible for low fertility in laterite soil. (2)
* It is formed due to leaching.
* It is poor in lime, phosphorous, nitrogen and potash which are fertile ingredients of a rich soil.
o. Name the type of soil found on the summit of the Eastern Ghats. How is it formed? (2)
Laterite soil. Laterite soil is formed by leaching.
p. Why is laterite soil found in the Western Coastal regions? (1)
These regions receive very heavy rainfall which results in intense leaching and helps in the formation of
laterite soil.
q. Define the term ‘leaching’. In which region, south of the Tropic of Cancer can one find soil
formed by leaching? Name the soil which is formed as a result of leaching. Leached soils are red in
colour. Why? (4)
Leaching is the movement of the organic matter and mineral salts from the upper region of the soil into
the lower region of the soil due to heavy rainfall.
On the highland areas of Western Ghats, one can find the laterite soil formed by leaching.
Laterite soil is formed as a result of leaching.
Red colour of leached soil is due to presence of iron oxide, which is reddish in colour.
r. Which soil is found suitable for growing coffee in Karnataka?
In Karnataka, laterite soil is suitable for growing coffee.
MOUNTAIN SOIL
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45. 9.a. State one feature of Mountain soil. Name two crops that can be grown on it.(3)
One feature of mountain soil is-
It is rich in Iron but poor in lime.
It is coarse in texture, friable in nature.
It is good for growing tea, coffee and fruits such as apples, plums, cherries.
b. State one advantage of Mountain soil. (1)
* It is moisture retentive.
* It is rich in iron, potash, lime and humus.
* This soil does not undergo leaching.
DESERT SOIL
10.a. Why is the desert soil alkaline in nature? OR ‘The desert soil contains high proportion of
salts’. Why? (1)
The desert soil is alkaline in nature as there is no rainfall to wash away and dissolve soluble salts.
b. Why are desert soils coarse? Why are they not suitable for agriculture? Name two places, in
India, where this soil is found. (3)
Because fine topsoil particles are removed by fast-blowing winds.
Because of low water retention power and very low humus content, desert soils are unsuitable for
farming. However, under irrigation they can yield rich crops.
Rajasthan, North Gujarat and Southern Punjab
c. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of sandy soil. (1)
ADVANTAGE: Plant roots are well aerated since water and air easily penetrate through the soil.
DISADVANTAGE: The soil requires a lot of water as it dries up easily.
d. What are the characteristics of Desert soils? (3)
# These soils are coarse in texture.
# They are most saline and alkaline.
# The content of organic matter is low in these soils because of dry climate and lack of vegetation.
# These sand and porous soils are not fertile but with irrigation crops like wheat, gram, jowar, bajra, etc.,
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46. can be grown.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
(.5 MARKS EACH)
11.Which soil is found suitable for growing coffee in Karnataka?
* The soil found suitable for growing coffee is Mountain soil or Laterite soil.
12.a.Red soil is being formed as a result of decomposition of metamorphic rocks. True or false.
True
b.Alluvial soil occupies the largest area in the country. True or False
True
c.Alluvial soil is formed by the deposition being brought down by river. True or False
True
d. .Black soil is a transported soil. True or False
False
e. .Regur soil is red in colour. True or false.
False
f. Black soils need to be tilled after the first rains.
Because it becomes sticky in presence of the rain water.
* FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. Alluvial soil is formed by the deposition being brought down by river.
2. Black soil is most suitable for the cultivation of cotton.
3. The black colour of regur soil is due to its iron content.
4. Laterite soil has been developed as a result of leaching.
5. Laterite soil is the typical soil causing for the monsoon type of climates.
6. Soil containing high proportion of salts and alkali is called saline soil.
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47. * Name the soils
1. Rich in humus – Mountain soil
2. Rich in potash, poor in phosphorus – Alluvial soil
3. Rich in iron, poor in silica – Laterite soil
4. Rich in lime and potash but deficient in phosphorus and nitrogen – Black soil
5. Contains high proportion of soluble salts – Desert soils
DEFINE
SOIL EROSION: It is the removal of topsoil by different agents of weathering such as running water,
wind, overgrazing, and faulty methods of agriculture used by farmers.
CONSERVATION OF SOIL: is an effort made by humans to prevent soil erosion in order to retain
fertility of soil
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