1. UNIT-4 Managing soil and land
Ch-13 Conserving soil
Erosion control
Erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water erosion in agriculture, land
development and construction. Effective erosion controls are important techniques in preventing water
pollution and soil loss.
Erosion control techniques-
Terraces are used in farming to cultivate sloped land. Graduated terrace steps are commonly
used to farm on hilly or mountainous terrain. Terraced fields decrease erosion and surface runoff,
and are effective for growing crops requiring much water, such as rice.
Terraced paddy fields are used widely in rice farming in east, south, and southeast Asia, as well
as other places. Drier-climate terrace farming is common throughout the Mediterranean Basin,
e.g., in Cadaqués, Catalonia, where they were used for vineyards, olive trees, cork oak, etc., on
Mallorca, or in Cinque Terre, Italy.
Contour plowing (or contour ploughing) or contour farming is the farming practice of
plowing across a slope following its elevation contour lines. The rows form slow water run-off
during rainstorms to prevent soil erosion and allow the water time to settle into the soil. In
contour plowing, the ruts made by the plow run perpendicular rather than parallel to slopes,
generally resulting in furrows that curve around the land and are level. A similar practice is
contour bunding where stones are placed around the contours of slopes.
Contour plowing terracing

2. Contour bunding wind-breaks
A windbreak or shelterbelt is a plantation usually made up of one or more rows of trees or
shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion.
They are commonly planted around the edges of fields on farms. If designed properly, windbreaks
around a home can reduce the cost of heating and cooling and save energy. Windbreaks are also
planted to help keep snow from drifting onto roadways and even yards. Other benefits include providing
habitat for wildlife and in some regions the trees are harvested for wood products.
Dryland farming is an agricultural technique for non-irrigated cultivation of drylands.
It is a practice of growing profitable crops without irrigation in areas which receive an annual
rainfall of 500mm or even less.
Dry land being water deficient are characterized by high evaporation rates, high temperature
during summer, low humidity and high run-off and soil erosion. Soil is saline and low in fertility.
Uncertainity of rainfall causes partial or complete failure of cropswhich leads to famines.
Dry farming Tree planting
Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land
reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in
arboriculture, and from the lower cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds.
Planting trees is an easy and effective way to beautify your property, provide shade in
summer and wind protection in winter and enhance privacy all while increasing real

3. estate values at the same time. Since a tree is such a visible part of the landscape
care must be taken to ensure proper growth conditions are maintained. A tree is far
more difficult - and expensive - to replace, once mature in the landscape, than most
shrubs. However, with some advance planning, trees too can be easily maintained.
A gully is a landform created by running water, eroding sharply into soil, typically on a hillside.
Gullies resemble large ditches or small valleys, but are metres to tens of metres in depth and
width. When the gully formation is in process, the water flow rate can be substantial, which
causes the significant deep cutting action into soil.
Gullying or gully erosion is the process by which gullies are formed. Hillsides are more prone to
gullying when they are cleared of vegetation, through deforestation, over-grazing or other means.
The eroded soil is easily carried by the flowing water after being dislodged from the ground,
normally when rainfall falls during short, intense storms such as during thunderstorms. Gullies
reduce the productivity of farmland where they incise into the land, and produce sediment that
may clog downstream waterbodies. Because of this, much effort is invested into the study of
gullies within the scope of geomorphology, in the prevention of gully erosion, and in restoration
of gullied landscapes. The total soil loss from gully formation and subsequent downstream river
sedimentation can be sizable.
Gully
Organic fertilizers are naturally occurring fertilizers (e.g. compost, manure).
Naturally occurring organic fertilizers include manure, slurry, worm castings, peat, seaweed,
humic acid, and guano. Sewage sludge use in organic agricultural operations in the U.S. has been
extremely limited and rare due to USDA prohibition of the practice (due to toxic metal
accumulation, among other factors).[1][2][3]
Processed organic fertilizers include compost, bloodmeal, bone meal, humic acid, amino acids,
and seaweed extracts. Other examples are natural enzyme-digested proteins, fish meal, and
feather meal. Decomposing crop residue (green manure) from prior years is another source of
fertility.

4. Organic fertilizers also re-emphasize the role of humus and other organic components of soil,[14]
which are believed to play several important roles:
Mobilizing existing soil nutrients, so that good growth is achieved with lower nutrient densities
while wasting less[15]
Releasing nutrients at a slower, more consistent rate, helping to avoid a boom-and-bust
pattern[15]
Helping to retain soil moisture, reducing the stress due to temporary moisture stress[citation needed]
Improving the soil structure[citation needed]
Helping to prevent topsoil erosion (responsible for desertfication and the Dust bowl[citation needed]
Organic fertilizers also have the advantage of avoiding certain problems associated with the
regular heavy use of artificial fertilizers:
The necessity of reapplying artificial fertilizers regularly (and perhaps in increasing quantities) to
maintain fertility[citation needed]
Extensive runoff of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus,[citation needed] leading to eutrophication of
bodies of water (which causes fish kills[16])
Costs are lower for if fertilizer is locally available[
Land management is the process of managing the use and development (in both urban and
rural settings) of land resources. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which may
include organic agriculture, reforestation, water resource management and eco-tourism projects.
Changes in land use such as deforestation and soil degradation—two devastating effects of
unsustainable farming practices—emit large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere; land-use
change alone is responsible for approximately 20 per cent of global emissions of carbon dioxide
each year. These unsustainable practices also have profound implications for the health and well-
being of local communities and the ecosystems in which they reside.
Yet the land-use sector also has the potential to play a large, positive role in the global effort to
address climate change—both by reabsorbing or preventing the release of carbon dioxide and by
building robust ecosystems that support adaptation to the impacts of climate change. Sustainable
land-management practices such as conservation agriculture, intercropping and sustainable
forestry can provide multiple benefits such as reducing erosion, building soil fertility and
structure, improving water quality and buffering against drought.
These improved land-management practices are also cost-effective options that could take effect
very quickly. Given that it will take time to transform our energy systems and infrastructure to
achieve deep reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, actions in the land-use sector could have a
significant role in meeting short- to medium-term greenhouse gas mitigation commitments. And
because the largest and most cost-effective mitigation opportunities in the agriculture and
forestry sectors are in developing countries, these countries are likely to play a prominent role in
efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through land management.
The work of the International Institute for Sustainable Developent (IISD) at the intersection of
land use and climate change explores ways to best achieve the mitigation and vulnerability-

5. reduction potential of this sector through the development of an effective international climate
regime. Our work focuses on strengthening the capacity of developing-country negotiators and
practitioners to effectively engage in the decisions that are shaping the emergence of reducing
emissions from deforestation and degradation in developing countries (REDD). IISD is also
undertaking analysis of how agriculture can be most effectively included in the global climate
regime.
Our work on these issues complements and supports the research we are undertaking related to
the emergence of a North American approach to energy and climate policy, reflecting the fact
that land management is also an important issue in Canada, the United States and Mexico. For
example, Alberta's emission trading system includes offsets in the agriculture and forestry
sectors, and Canada's emerging federal system is expected to include offsets in the land-
management sector. As well, our work in the Canadian prairies continues to explore how to
create a sustainable system of prairie agriculture resilient to environmental and economic shocks
and stresses.
1) Vegetative Practices
Soil-conserving and soil-improvement crops prevent or retard erosion. They maintain rather than
deplete soil organic matter, improve soil structure and tilth, and increase water intake and
productivity of the soil. Grasses and legumes are two such crops. Recommended vegetative
practices are :
1. Continuous cropping - use only on Class I land.
2. Crop rotation: one year of hay every third year - use on Class II land.
3. Crop rotation: two years of hay in every four years - use on Class III land.
4. Long term grass rotation with three or more years of hay between crops - use on Class
IV land.
5. Permanent pasture - Class V & VI land.
6. Permanent woodland - Class VII.
7. Wildlife or recreation area - Class VIII.
8. Do not burn crop residue - Class I through IV.
9. Crop production management and may include: residue management, cover crops,
grassed water ways. Classes I through IV.
10. Pasture management - may include reseeding, fertilizer and lime applications, clipping
or mowing, pasture renovation. Class V and VI land.
11. Protect from burning - grass, brush or timber. Class V, VI, VII and VIII.
12. Controlled grazing and may include deferred grazing, rotational grazing, and proper
stocking - Class V & VI land.
13. Plant recommended trees including windbreaks or woodland planting. Class VII and
VIII. When used on Class VII, check number 14.
14. Harvest trees selectively - Class VII only.
15. Protect from grazing - Classes VII and VIII.
16. Conservation plantings - shrubs and vines for erosion control, wildlife cover - Classes
VII and VIII.

6. (2) Mechanical Practices
These practices are needed to correct problems with the land so that it may be used according to
its most intensive use. Controlling undesirable plant species is often necessary to improve growth
of desirable plants. Certain mechanical and conservation practices reduce the potential for
erosion, while others correct erosion or drainage problems.
17. Control brush and trees - the use of herbicides or cutting to remove undesirable brush
or trees. Should not be marked if brush can be removed by normal plowing or clipping
with a cutter bar (stem diameter 1 inch or less). Class I through VI.
18. Farm on contour - plowing the whole field on the contour or at right angles to the slope.
Use only on fields 2 acres or smaller having a slope of 3% or greater.
19. Contour strip cropping - alternating sod strips with row crops grown on the contour
reduces wind and water erosion. Use only on fields greater than 2 acres having a slope of
3% or greater.
20. Build diversion ditch - a shallow channel built on a gently grade, across a slope, to
intercept water from the slope above and carry it to a safe outlet. Mark only when
"overhead water problem" is indicated on field sign. Build a diversion ditch should be
marked only on Class II to VI land.
21. Install drainage system - to remove excess surface or subsurface water. Use only on
imperfectly or poorly-drained soils. Classes III and IV.
22. Control gullies - one or more conservation practices that will adequately control runoff
and erosion. Gullies are defined as 8 inches across and 6 inches deep, and actively
eroding.
23. No mechanical treatment needed. This box must be marked when no mechanical
practices are necessary.
Conserving soil and water together
Strip cropping is a method of farming used when a slope is too steep or too long, or when other
types of farming may not prevent soil erosion. Striely sown crops such as hay, wheat, or other
small grains with strips of row crops, such as corn, soybeans, cotton, or sugar beets.
Strip cropping helps to stop soil erosion by creating natural dams for water, helping to preserve
the strength of the soil. Certain layers of plants will absorb minerals and water from the soil more
effectively than others. When water reaches the weaker soil that lacks the minerals needed to
make it stronger, it normally washes it away. When strips of soil are strong enough to slow down
water from moving through them, the weaker soil can't wash away like it normally would.
Because of this, farmland stays fertile much longer.
Strip - cropping to control soil erosion caused by runoff derives its effectiveness mainly from
following two factors:
a) Reducing the runoff flowing through the close - growing sod strips.
b) Increasing the infiltration rate of the soil under cover condition.

7. Strip cropping
tree crops are any edible fruit, nut or legume that can serve as food for humans, livestock, or
wildlife. In the context of northern temperate climates, this means the crops of hardy cultivars of
commercial orchard tree species from further south and west in this country and from similar
climates in other parts of the world. It also means the crops of improved varieties of native tree
species that have not yet been developed for commercial use.
Non-traditional examples of the first category would be Chinese chestnut, Persian walnut,
European filbert/hazel, Japanese walnut (heartnut), pecan and almond. Examples of the second
category would be black walnut, butternut, hickory, persimmon and pawpaw. There are also
hybrid trees such as Chinese/ European chestnut, European/American hazels and
butter/heartnuts.
Figure 1. Some northern nuts that can be grown in zones 5-7 in North America. Can you name
these nuts? Answers at the end of this paper. Photo by Dr Lawrence MacDaniels.