This document provides an overview of psychology as a field of study. It discusses that psychology derives from Greek words meaning soul or mind and study. It then covers several key topics in psychology including: - Psychology is considered a science because it answers questions systematically based on facts rather than wishes. - Psychology deals with both observable human behaviors and mental processes that cannot be directly observed. - There are various branches and schools of thought in psychology as well as methods used such as introspection, observation, and experimentation. - Psychology is also connected to other fields like biology, chemistry, and sociology that contribute to understanding human behavior. - The nervous system acts as the connecting mechanism between the mind and

1. Christ the King College de
Maranding
Maranding, Lala, Lanao del Norte
Submitted by:
Delmo, Lorence Dave M.
BSCS-II
Submitted to:
Sr. Maria Hazel Mejorada
Instructor

3. Psychology
 Derive from the Greek words “psyche” which means “soul or mind” “Logos”
which means study. It is the branch of science that deals with human
behaviour and mental processes.
Psychology is considered as a Science
 Because it answers questions on the fact and not on the basis of wishes or
desires. As a science that gathers facts systematically, organizes them into
general principles and formulates theories out of these factual data.
Psychology deals with Human Behaviours
 Means activities that can be observed objectively, such as the reactions of
the muscled and the glands, as well as the organized patterns of responses
as a whole.
 Classification of behaviour:
*overt or covert- open/hidden
*intrinsic or extrinsic
Psychology deals with Mental Processes
 It includes the internal processes such as thinking, feeling, and other
reaction which cannot be directly observed but can be inferred from
external behaviour.
Four goals of Psychology
1. To describe the different ways of how people behave.
2. To explain the various causes of why certain processes and behaviour occur.
3. To predict and determine how the organism will behave in a certain
situation.
4. To control or change an organism’s behaviour and mental processes by
learning how to modify or alter undesirable behaviour.
Historical background of Psychology:
A. Traditionally
 Psychology is said to have began with man’s earliest speculations regarding
human nature.
B. Greek Influence
 Democritus – believed that the human mind is composed of atoms which
could circulate freely and which enabled it to penetrate the whole body.
 Plato – the mind or soul is distinct in its own right and God- given
 Aristotle – distinguished the three functions of the soul:
 The vegetative – concerned with basic maintenance of life
 The appetitive – concerned with motives and desires
 The rational – the governing function located in the heart
 Galen – contributed his theory of the dependence of human temperament
on physiological factors.
C. Medieval Period

4.  St. Augustine – combined platonic psychology with Christian thinking.
Introduces the method of introspection (the description of one’s own
conscious processes) and manifested his interest in distinguishing several
faculties of the soul as will, memory, imagination and others, producing the
first definite development of what later was called Faculty Psychology.
D. Pre-modern Period
 Rene Descartes – formulated a theory of mind-body interaction.
 John Locke – in his an ESSAY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING
introduced the idea as the unit into which all experiences may be analysed.
 George Berkeley – in his theory of knowledge (Solipsistic philosophy) said
that ideas which in their own sum constitute mind) become the only reality.
 David Hume – wrestled with the problem between impression and ideas,
between images and direct sensations.
Relations of the Field of Psychology:
1. Anthropology
 Concerned with the behaviours of so called civilized as well as so called
primitive peoples. Understanding the influences of environment on the
behaviour of individual.
2. Biology
 Contributes much to psychology. For instance, in the study of emotions,
nervous system and parts of the brain.
3. Chemistry
 It deals substances intake of the body. It determines the effects of
behaviour.
4. Psychiatry
 Study the clinical or medical specialization concerned with the diagnosis
and treatment of disorders.
5. Sociology
 Focuses primarily on the group such as growth and shifts of population,
urban and rural living, voting trends, delinquency and crime.
6. Behavioural or as a Social Science
 Emphasizes on the individual. Emphasizes is on the group of individuals
in interaction.
School of Thoughts in Psychology
1. Structuralism (introspective psychology or elementarism)
 The leaders of the group were Wilhelm Wundt and Edward
Bradford Titchener who contributed much through their
experimental work on sensation, perception and thought
processes.
2. Functionalism – John Dewey, William James, James Rowland Angell, and
Harvey A. Carr.
 They held the view that it is not the “structure” that should be
of prime importance to the psychologist but the “function” of

5. matter- the whole system events between the stimuli(S) and
response (R).
 The most important contribution of functionalism was
changing the focus of psychology to learning, motivation, and
thinking and veered away from the structuralist.
 Emphasized the importance of how behaviour functions to
allow people and animals to adapt to their environment.
3. Behaviourisms – John B. Watson
 It is not “why” of consciousness that is important but the
“how” that should be studied. He studied what people did
and what they said, hoping to be able to predict and control
their actions and words.
 For Watson, thinking was simply talking to oneself silently;
therefore, thinking could be studied by observing a person’s
sub vocal speech through the movement of certain muscles in
the throat.
 Behaviourisms also became known as S-R psychology.
Stimulus meant any object in the general environment.
Response meant anything the animal does such as turning
toward or away from light, jumping at a sound, and more
highly complex and organized activities.
 Three important characteristics of behaviourism:
a. Emphasis on conditioned reflexes
b. Emphasis on learned behaviour
c. Emphasis on animal behaviour
 Followers of Watson were:
a. Ivan Pavlov
b. B.F. Skinner
4. Gestalt Psychology – Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler
 Emphasizes the organization, the quality of wholeness that
inheres in both behaviour and experience.
 Gestalt- German word translated as: “Form, Organization,
Configuration”
5. Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud
 Many human desires are directed and complicated by
unconscious motives which are not directly aware because of
they lie in the substrata of our consciousness but which are
nevertheless powerful drives that may dominate our lives.
6. Humanistic – Carl R. Rogers and Abraham Maslow
 They emphasized the unique qualities of humans, especially
their freedom of choice and decision making as well as their
potential for personal growth.
Exponents of School of Thought in Psychology:
Wilhelm Wundt - Father of Modern Experimental Psychology
William James – Father of American Psychology

6. Sigmund Freud – Father of Psychoanalysis
John B. Watson – Father of behaviourism
Max Wertheimer - Father of Gestalt Psychology
Methods of Psychology:
1. Introspection
 Is a method which consists of reporting subjective experiences when
stimulated by appropriate objects or events.
2. Observation
 A visual method of examining, discriminating, and interpreting the actions
of individual and groups in laboratories, classes and out-of-school situations
3. Life-history Method
Three basic forms:
a. The Daybook method – Diary of Development
b. The Clinical method – contains information concerning the emotional
and personality adjustment
c. The Biographical method – analysis of the records people’s live as
written by themselves or by others.
4. Survey method or Group method – uses data obtained from the
respondents through written questionnaires or interview
5. Experimental method – the study of behaviour inside the laboratory under
controlled conditions.
6. Statistical method- needed in order to understand the tests utilize to
appraise individuality such as intelligence test, personality test, and other
kinds of appraisal devices.
Various Branches of Psychology:
1. General Psychology
 Is the study of how and why people behave as they do, in relation to the
structural and functional mechanisms of the human body
2. Animal or Comparative Psychology
 Is the study of behaviour and mental processes of the different species
3. Developmental or Genetic Psychology
 Is the study of human behaviour in all aspects of growth and development
4. Child Psychology
 Is the study of human behaviour from prenatal until early adolescence
stages
5. Adolescence Psychology
 Is the study of behaviour from puberty to later life. It involves the physical
and mental maturations of individuals, as well as their attainment of
emotional and social maturity
6. Senescence Psychology
 Is the study of human behaviour in old age
7. Abnormal Psychology
 Is the study of the ethology or cause of personality defects or behaviour
which deviates from the average reaction
8. Experimental Psychology

7.  Deals with the investigation of different types of behaviour through
observation and experiment in psychological laboratories. The aim is to
understand the fundamental causes of behaviour
9. Differential Psychology
 Is the study of differences and similarities between individuals, social
groups and races
10. Personality or Dynamic Psychology
 Is the scientific interpretation of mental phenomena emphasizing internal
drives and motives as the cause of behaviour
11.Physiological Psychology
 Is the study of the functions of the different organs of the body, especially
the nervous system, and their bearing on behaviour and mental processes
12.Educational Psychology
 Is concerned with the psychological aspects of teaching and of formal
learning processes in schools. Laws of learning, which are useful in making
instruction effective, are put to use
13.Applied Psychology
 Is used in medicine, education, law, business, industry, and in many other
fields
14.Legal Psychology
 Is the application of the principles of human behaviour in law or any legal
proceedings
15. Clinical Psychology
 Pertains to the diagnosis and evaluation of a person who has a problem in
relation to events surrounding him or her. Three kinds of specialists
practice: psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, clinical psychologists.
16. Business Psychology
 Deals with consumer behaviour where psychological methods are used to
gain more clients and impress prospective buyers.
17. Industrial and Engineering Psychology
 Is a branch of applied psychology which investigates problems and
situations in business firms and industries. It is concerned with improving
workers efficiency and the promotion of their welfare. It also deals with
equipment design and the tasks of individuals who operate them.
18.Vocational Psychology
 Is used in scientific selection of a suitable employment or vocation
19.Mental Hygiene
 Is the science of preventing mental illness and preserving mental health
through the use of psychology, psychiatry, and education
20.Social Psychology
 Is the study of people’s behaviour in relation to their families, groups and
communities

9. Connecting Mechanism
Nervous system
 The network of nerve cells and fibbers that transmits nerve impulses
between parts of the body.
 Two main kind of cells:
- Neurons
- Glia
Neurons:
 100 billion neurons
 Basic unit of the nervous system
 Receive, integrate, and transmit information
 Operate through electrical impulses
 Communicate with other neurons through chemical signals
Glial cells
 10x more glial cells
 Support neurons(literally, provide physical support, as well as nutrients)
 Cover neurons with myelin
 Clean up debris
 Housewives
Structure of neurons:
a. Cell body – containing the nucleus, cytoplasm and other organelles
b. Dendrites - come from the Greek word “Dendron” means “tree”, transmits
signals sensory cells towards the cell body
c. Axon – quickly carry the signal away from the cell body to another cells that
produce motor output
d. Synapse – the branches endings of axons contact other cells at small
junction
e. Myelin sheath – an insulating structure that covers a large portion of the
length of axons.
Three main types of neurons:
a. Sensory neurons( afferent neurons)
 Transmit information from cells and organs that gather information about
conditions inside the body.
b. Motor neurons(efferent neurons)
 Conduct impulses away from the central nervous system. Impulses that
motor neurons transmit cause muscles, organs and glands to respond
c. Interneuron
 It connect with sensory neurons, motor neurons or other interneuron
Number of known processes of Neural Circuits and Networks:
 Synaptic Summation – the impulse reaching a synapse from a single fibber
may not bridge the synapse, but two or more impulses arriving within a
very brief period may cause a response.

10.  Alternative nerve pathway- a chain of one afferent neuron, one connector
neuron, and one efferent neuron functions to carry a neural message.
 Reverberation – the nervous system does not only transmit a message then
lie idly until the next stimulus. Because of the complex arrangement of
neurons in the central nervous system, the incoming impulse travels over
the involved neural network and goes back again to re-stimulate the
neuron that originally brought the impulse.
 Temporal summation – summation occurs if the second stimulus is applied
within 15 milliseconds after the first.
 Inhibition – there is direct inhibition when two stimuli are applied
simultaneously with only one of the two leading to a response.
 Reciprocal innervations – refers to automatic process wherein there is
simultaneous excitation of one set of motor neurons and inhibition of
another
 Irradiation – as the strength of a stimulus is increased, even in a stimulus to
a reflex act, more sensory, connecting, and affector fibbers are involved;
and therefore, a more extensive response is generated.
 Timing – it takes a neural impulses to travel along a fibber and more time
for a synaptic connection.
Neurotransmitters
 Chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons.
When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the
synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby
influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse.
Some Neurotransmitters and Their Functions:
neurotransmitters Functions Examples of
malfunctions
Acetylcholine(Ach)
Enables muscle action,
learning and memory
Undersupply, as Ach-
producing neurons
deteriorate, marks
Alzheimer’s Diseases
Dopamine
influences movement,
learning, attention and
emotion
Excess dopamine
receptor activity linked
to Schizophrenia:
starved of dopamine,

11. the brain produces the
tremors and decreased
mobility of Parkinson’s
Disease
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger,
sleep and arousal
Undersupply linked to
depression; Prozac and
some other
antidepressant drugs
raise serotonin levels
Norepinephrine Helps controls alertness
and arousal
Undersupply can
depress mood
GABA(gamma-amino
butyric Acid
A major inhibitory
neuro-transmitter
Undersupply linked to
seizures, tremors, and
insomnia
Glutamate
A major excitatory
neurotransmitter;
involved in memory
Oversupply can
overstimulate brain,
producing migraines or
seizures(which is why
some people avoid MSG,
monosodium glutamate
in food)
Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Brain Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Motor Neurons
Somatic Nervous system
Autonomic
Nervous System
sympathetic
Division
Parasympathetic
Division
Sensory Neurons

12. Major Division of the Nervous system:
 Central Nervous System (CNS) – the body’s main control
center and consist of the brain and the spinal cord. This part
of the nervous system that processes information and sends
instructions to other part of the body.
 The Peripheral Nervous System(PNS) – is made of a network of
nerves that extends throughout the body. The PNS gathers
information and delivers it to and from the CNS. The CNS and
PNS work together as a team to monitor coordinate, and
control the activities of the entire body.
The Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain – the human brain has an average weight of about 1.5kilos. The ratio of
brain weight to body weight is more significant psychologically than just brain
weight. Behaviour controlled by a larger brain is a simple and routine as that of a
smaller one. The brain contains at least 15billions nerve cells called neurons. The
largest parts of the brain are two cerebral hemispheres.
Cerebrum – largest part of human brain. Responsible for thought, language,
senses, memory and voluntary movement.
Brain Stem – connects the brain to spinal cord. Responsible for breathing,
swallowing, heartbeat and blood pressure.
Three principal sections of brain: of the human brain
a. The Hindbrain – is the closest to the spinal cord. The lower part of the
hindbrain, at the top of the spinal cord, is the brain stem which relays
afferent messages from many of the sensory organs to the higher levels in
the brain.
b. The Midbrain – is located above the hindbrain, forming the upper part of
the brain stem. It serves to relay afferent and efferent messages. The
midbrain performs some reflexes response that are controlled by hindbrain.
It also controls more complex responses.
c. The Forebrain – the most complex and the biggest part of the human brain.
It is composed of three parts:
 Thalamus- is a relay station where afferent messages pass. Its
most important portion is the hypothalamus, which controls a
variety of complex human processes, like body temperature,
hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep.
 Cortex – is the most complex part of the forebrain. It is made
up of four lobes which are separated by deep valleys or
fissures. These are the frontal, parental, temporal and
occipital lobes
 Occipital Lobe – contains the primary visual center and an
association area for visual recognition.
Spinal Cord – is an extension of the brain. It extends from the base of the brain
through the center of the spinal column. It sends messages from sensory neurons

13. in various parts of the body to the brain and relays motor commands back to the
muscles and organs through motor neurons.
Techniques in Measuring Brain Function:
1. The Electroencephalograph (EEG) – is an imaging technique used to
measure the electric fields in the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp of
human.
2. Position Emission Tomography (PET) – scanning is an imaging technique
that reveals the functions of the brain.
3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – measures oxygen by groups of
neurons. It presents a three dimensional image of the living brain.
4. Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) – uses a series of X-rays of the head
taken from different directions. This is used for quick assessment of the
brain injuries.
5. Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI) – uses infrared light to generate images of the
body. It measures the absorption spectrum of haemoglobin.
6. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI) – uses magnetic fields to
map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain blood supply during
various mental activities.
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Autonomic divided into two parts:
 The Sympathetic Nervous System – controls the response of the body to
stressful situations. “Fight or Flight”
 The Parasympathetic Nervous System – controls body functions associated
with rest and digestion.
Problems of the Nervous System:
a. Concussion – a temporary disturbance of the brain’s ability to function due
to a hard blow to the head
b. Paralysis – a loss of sensation and movement of part of the body due to an
injury of the spinal cord or brain
c. Parkinson’s disease – the brain does not produce enough of the
neurotransmitter that transmits messages from the brain to the muscles.
Symptoms: tremors, rigid muscles, shuffling walk, and loss of facial
expression.
d. Alzheimer’s disease – a gradual shrinking of the neurons in the cerebrum.
Symptoms: memory loss, emotional disturbances, inability to function on
own, death.
e. Epilepsy – abnormal transmission of messages between the neurons in the
brain. Symptoms: seizures.
The Reacting Mechanism
 When we say reacting, from the word react means to act in response to
stimulus while the mechanism means that the working part of the body or

14. any system of interrelated parts and the muscles and glands comprise this
reacting mechanism.
Muscles – is a fibrous tissue that contract and relaxes, producing bodily
movement; strength; brawn and power.
Three kinds of Muscles:
1. Voluntary – means supported by voluntary effort. Some muscles just move
soft parts of the body. For example, the face muscles those allow you to
smile.
2. Involuntary - there are muscles also that work automatically to maintain
the body. The heart, for instance, beats without your being aware of it. The
muscles the squeeze your food along inside the intestines also work
automatically.
3. Cardiac Muscles – as the name implies, are found only in the heart. When
cardiac muscle contract, the blood throughout the circulatory system. The
cells of the cardiac muscles tissues, like the skeletal muscle are striated but
only smaller.
The Characteristics of Muscles:
1. Contractility – means it is the power of muscle to shorten
2. Tonicity – means it is the power to be in partial contraction
3. Extensibility – it is the power of muscle to stretch
4. Elasticity –it is the power of muscle to resume in its original shape
5. Irritability – to react to external stimuli
The Functions of the Muscles:
1. To lend shape to the body as the skeletal or voluntary muscles of the arms
and legs do.
2. To propel food and waste products along the intestinal pathway as smooth
muscles in the digestive do.
3. For movements as when the arms and legs move and when move the
mouth to form the sounds of speech.
4. To control the flow of blood, automatically opening and closing the blood
vessels in response to body needs.
5. To convert mechanical energy into mechanical work
6. To generate heat.
Facts about Muscles:
1. Muscle fibber cannot be manufactured – the growth of a muscle results
from an increase in the size of individual muscle cell hence, the kind of
exercise is important.
2. The principal source of muscle energy is glucose – obtain from sugar,
starches, and carbohydrates
3. The flow of acetylcholine ions stimulates muscular contraction.
4. Repeated movements requiring less than maximum strength increase
blood supply, and therefore the endurance but not the size of the muscle.
Endocrine System
 Group of specialized organs and body tissues that produce, store and
secrete chemical substance known as hormones
Components of the Endocrine System

15.  Hypothalamus- part of the brain, important in regulating the internal
activities of the body.
 Pituitary – master endocrine gland in vertebrate animals. The hormones
secreted by the pituitary stimulate and control the functioning of almost all
the other endocrine glands in the body.
 Thyroid – it secretes a hormone called thyroxin that controls metabolism
and growth. Found in almost all vertebrate animals and so called because it
is located in front of and on each side of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx
 Parathyroid – secretes hormones known as parathormone which controls
the concentration of calcium (calcium ion) and phosphorous (phosphate) in
the blood.
 Adrenal – vital endocrine gland that secretes hormones called adrenaline
into the bloodstream, situated in humans, on top of the upper end of each
kidney
 Pineal Gland – releases melatonin, which helps the body recognize when it
is time to go to sleep.
 Ovary – female organ that produces the reproductive cells called eggs or
ova.
 Testis – also called testicle, one of a pair of male sex glands that produce
sperm cells. Produces male sex hormones called androgens, as well as
sperm.
 Pancreas – endocrine secretion. Insulin is important part in the metabolism
of sugar in the body.
Limbic System
 The term limbic comes from the Latin limbus for border or edge or
particularly in medical terminology, a border of an anatomical component.
 It is a complex set of brain structures located on both side of the thalamus,
right under the cerebrum. It is not a separate system but a collection of
structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon.
 It supports a variety of functions including epinephrine flow, emotion,
behaviour, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction. Emotional life is
largely housed in the limbic system, and it has a great deal to do with the
formation of memories.
Function of the Limbic System
 The limbic system is a group of forebrain structures that includes the
hypothalamus, the amygdala and the hippocampus. These are involved in
motivation, emotion, learning and memory.
 it operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous
system.
The Receiving Mechanism
The Senses (Hearing, feeling, seeing, smelling and tasting)
 an organ in the body containing cells that respond to particular external
and internal stimuli. Messages from a sense organ are conveyed by sensory
neurons to the central system where they are processed and where
perception takes place. Its attributes are:
a. Sensitivity and Irritability – the power to react to stimulus

16. b. Conductivity – the power to conduct nerve impulses
c. Specificity – the attribute to reacting particular stimulus
d. Adaptability – the power to become used to particular stimulus
Taste
 Sense of taste is actually a smell sampled from the odours of food present
inside the mouth. Taste receptors in the taste buds are chemoreceptor
whose only difference with the olfactory receptor.
Smell
 The detection of odours is a function called olfaction and involves the
olfactory receptors, the chemoreceptor of the nose. Chemical signals are
perceived by specialized cells called chemoreceptor.
Hearing
 Ears are the sensory organs that allow us to hear the sounds. The structure
of the ear is adapted to catching sound.
Vision
 The human eye is a sense organ that perceives images created by light
reflected by objects.
 Focusing Problems:
a. Presbyopia – “old-sightedness” or “short-arm syndrome”. Ciliary bodies
lose their elasticity and can no longer change the shape of the lens to
bring near objects into focus.
b. Myopia – “nearsightedness”, image focuses in front of the retina rather
than on it, eyeball is elongated. Corrected by glasses, contacts or radial
keratotomy (Lasix)
c. Hyperopia – “farsightedness”, image focuses behind the retina,
produces a fuzzy image. Corrected by lens.
d. Astigmatism – “refraction error”, fuzzy image, irregular curvature of the
cornea or lens, requires special lenses to correct (Thoric lenses) or
contacts.
Types of organs to their locations are:
1. Exteroceptors – sensory receptors that respond to stimuli from the outside
the body. Includes touch, pressures, pain, and skin as well as special
receptors in the eye and ear concerned with sight and hearing.
2. Interoceptors – sense organ in the respiratory tract, digestive and genitor-
urinary tract.
3. Proprieoceptors – also called mechanoceptors. The perception of one’s on
body position and movement. Detects any changes in physical
displacements and any changes I tension or force, with in the body.

18. Developmental Psychology
 It is the study of human behaviour from prenatal to old age.
Harry Fredrick Harlow (1905-1981)
 An American psychologist who did an experiments on infant monkeys
where one group was taken away from their mother.
 He conclude that social deprivation in the early years of his life can severely
disrupt later social and sexual behaviour
Periods of Development:
1. Period of the zygote(1-2weeks) – refers to a fertilized egg
2. Period of the Embryo(3-8weeks) – three layers begin to form
a.) Ectoderm b.) Mesoderm c.) endoderm
3. Period of the Fetus(9-38weeks) – the fetus weight less than 30grams and
increases an additional 3-4kilograms before birth
Four Prenatal Care:
1. Nutrition – a balanced diet is important. It must have protein, vitamins and
minerals
2. Age – the mother’s age can affect prenatal development. Teen mother are
at risk of miscarriages.
3. Rest and Exercise – chronic stress and inability to rest, exercise and
properly care can affects a pregnant woman’s immune system
4. Teratogens – drugs, illness and environmental hazards
Postnatal Development:
1. Prehension – refers to grasping objects
2. Psychological Changes – involves the role of transmissions
Adulthood and Aging
 Individual grows older, biological drivers reflect growth and physical
changes while societal and requirement of society
Eric Erickson (1987)
 Proposed that the development proceeds through a senses of society
Four Main Biological Theories:
1. Wear and Tear Theory – human body is like a machine, gradually
deteriorates and wear out.
2. Cellular Theories – harmful substances that can destroy cells
3. Metabolic Theories – changes in cell metabolism due for too much
exposure and stress
4. Programmed Cell Theories - genetically programmed
Classification of Aging:
A.) Primary Aging – changes that produced by the increasing of age
B.) Secondary Aging – resulting from disease, and disuse or abuse of the body
Childhood Development
 Refer to biological and emotional that occurs in human being between birth
and the end of adolescence as the individual progress from dependency to
increasing autonomy
Motor Development
 Refers to movement such as walking, swimming, grasping, etc.

19. Three Stages of Motor Development:
a.) Infanthood (0-2years old)
b.) Early Childhood(2-6years old)
c.) Later Childhood(6-12years old)
Reflexes of Children:
 Rooting reflex
 Eye blink reflex
 Sucking reflex
 Moro reflex
 Palmar and Plantar Grasp reflex
 Tonic neck reflex
 Babinski reflex
Sensory Development:
 Hearing
 Smell
 Touch
 Sight
 Taste
Adolescence
 A young person in a process of developing from a child into an adult. It is a
transitional stage of physical and emotion
Memory Decline
 Appear to decline with age from most person but it declines drastically n
persons suffering from Alzheimer’s Disease
Death and Dying
 Lack of heartbeat and respiration
Brain Death
 Having no respiration for at least an hour flat
Euthanasia
 Practice of ending life for reason of mercy. Known as “mercy killing”
Two Kinds of Euthanasia:
a.) Active Euthanasia – deliberate ending of someone’s life
b.) Passive Euthanasia – allowing a person to die
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
 study the dying process(1960)
Five Emotional States of Dying
1. Denial – shock and disbelief
2. Anger – find it unfair and frustrating
3. Bargaining – trying to negotiate with higher power for more time
4. Depression – deep sorrow and hopeless
5. Acceptance – no more pain and just accept
“Cognitive Developmental Theory”
Jean Piaget
 Proponent for the Cognitive Developmental Theory

20. Sensorimotor Period – uses the senses on exploring the environment
 Seriation – placing or grouping of light objects together
 Object Permanence – the child learns that an object or a
person continue to exist even when not in sight
 Egocentric – the child is aware only of himself and his own
likes, dislikes and wants
 Assimilation – incorporate new ideas into an existing schema
 Accommodation – adopt the old schema and develop new
schema for interacting with it
 ASSIMILATION + ACCOMODATION= LEARNING
Pre-operational Period – his memory and imagination develops but not logical. It
includes symbols
Concrete Operations Period – has the ability to do simple math and measurement,
begins to understand the cause and effect. They cannot understand abstract
concept. He can take real things in systematic way and no longer egocentric
 Conservation – the amount, weight, volume and number of
things stays the same even when the outward appearance of
objects or group is change
 Reversability – action can be undone or reverted to its
previous state
Formal Operations Period – able to think and reason in purely abstract terms and
he is able to use logic and abstract thinking.
“Psychosocial Development Theory”
Eric Hamburger Erikson
 Proponent for Psychosocial Development Theory. A neo- Freudian and a
German Psychologist, focuses in crisis resolution.
 Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-1yr.) – needs being met. Important
event is feeding.
 Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-2yrs) – learning to do things
for oneself. Important event is toilet training.
 Initiative vs. Guilt(3-5yrs) – learn to initiate task, becomes
more independent
 Competence/Industry vs. Inferiority (6yrs-puberty) – complete
task themselves. Important event is school.
 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-19yrs) – important event is
forming relationships with friends
 Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40yrs) – develops intimate
relationship gaining the capacity for intimate love. Important
event is forming love or strong relationship
 Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60yrs) – discover the stability.
Important event parenting
 Integrity vs. Despair (60yrs+) – sense of fulfilment

21. Five Stages in Freud’s Psychosexual Development:
1. Oral Stage - erotic focus is the month, pleasure seeking activities
2. Anal Stage – erotic focus is on the expelling of retaining focus
3. Phallic Stage - erotic focus is on the genital area
4. Latency Stage – erotic focus represses sexually
5. Genital Stage – erotic focus is on genital once again but moved about
becoming sexually intimate with others

23. Individual Differences
 It is stand for those differences which in their totality distinguish one
 Individual from another.
Types of Individual Differences:
1. Differences in Interest – interest may refer as a motivating force that impels
us to attend to a person, a thing or an activity.
2. Difference in Attitude – few people have positive attitude towards a
specific topic, subject and profession than other. Difference in attitude is
psyche related to something.
3. Difference in Values – values are the things that are given importance by an
individual. Some people value materialist lifestyle other moral or religious
lifestyle.
4. Difference in Study Habits – some students are studious and study all the
subjects with interest but other may not.
5. Difference in Psychomotor skills – psychomotor skill is related to some skill
acquisition. Some students differ in this area also.
6. Difference in Self Concept – totality of attitudes, judgment and values of an
individual relating to his behaviour, abilities and qualities.
Causes of Individual Differences:
1. Hereditary – individuals have various endowments, abilities and capacities
provided by hereditary. Hereditary also put limits upon individual growth
and development in various dimensions. Hereditary also contributes to
intelligence and other specific abilities.
2. Environment – individual differences occur on the basis of stimulation
received by individual from his or her internal and external environment.
Three Factors Affecting Individual Differences:
1. Physiological Factors
2. Cultural Influences
3. Interaction between Biological and Social Factors
Physiological Factors
 Surrounding the events had more to do with the outcomes than the events.
 Fatigue heightens the perception of pain and decreases
coping abilities.
 If it occurs along with sleeplessness, the perception of pain is
even greater.
 Pain is often experienced less after a restful sleep than at the
end of a long day.
Cultural Influences
 Means historical, geographical and familiar factors that affect assessment
and intervention process.

24. Psychological tests
 Use the science of statistics to simplify complex data and statistics to
simplify complex data and to make comparisons between different
individuals and groups.
Three Distribution used in Psychological Test:
1. Frequency Distribution – a set of data which varies. Frequency refers to how
many numbers to fall within a category.
2. Ranked Distribution – data that can be arranged in order from the highest
to the lowest.
3. Unordered Distribution – set of measurements where the numbers are
arranged in columns but are not in any particular order.
Technique of Sampling:
1. Random Sampling – where every member of the population is given an
equal chance of being selected as a respondent.
2. Quota Sampling – where respondents are selected so that a certain
percentage falls into prescribed categories.
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability:
1. Arithmetic Mean or Average – is perhaps the best known measure of the
central tendency of a group.
2. Median – middle score of the group.
3. Mode – score earned by most members of the group being studied
Centile
 Score below which a certain percentage of the observation may be found.
It is often used in norm reference tests.
Centile Score
 Methods of expressing a person’s place in the distribution scale.
Measure of the Central Tendency
 Provide the point of origin for measuring traits. An individual score is
measured by noting its deviation from the central tendency.
Measure of Variability
 The range, the standard deviation and the centile score.
Standard Deviation
 represents a distance along the baseline of a distribution curve
Method for computing the Standard Deviation:
1. Find the mean
2. Subtract the mean from each score to get a deviation or difference

25. 3. Square each deviation
4. Add the squared deviation
5. Divide the sum of the squared deviation by the number of scores
6. Take the square root of this ratio to get the standard deviation
Statistical Measures
 The coefficient of correlation and the coefficient of determination.
 They are used to measure the degree where different traits go together or
co-vary.
Method used to measure correlation:
1. Product – moment correlation
2. Rank – different correlation coefficient
Tests used to study Individual Differences:
1. Reliability – whether or not the test scores are self-consistent. It should give
the same results on different occasions
2. Validity – is how well the tests come up with what they are supposed to
measure, how they predict according to an acceptable criterion
3. Standardization – establishment of uniform conditioned while
administering the tests to all respondents as well as a uniform method for
evaluating responses
Kinds of Tests:
1. Aptitude Tests – attempt to predict the success of an individual in a kind of
performance not yet attained.
2. Achievement Tests – measure present attainment, or what the respondent
was learned after the completion of training.
3. Interest Tests
4. Personality Tests
5. Intelligence Tests – intended to measure intellectual ability
Behaviour Sampling
 A respondents behaviour is observed without their knowledge
Types of Projective Test:
 Rorschach Inkblots(1942)
 Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)(Murray1938)
 Holtzman Inkblot Test(Holtzman1961)
Alfred Binet (1857-1911) and Theodore Simon in France (1872-1922)
 Developed the first intelligence tests

26. Concept of Mental Age
 Initiated by Binet in 1905, wherein dull children are regarded as slow in
development and likened to children of younger age
The Binet - Simon scale
 Contained items arranged in order of increasing difficulty. The items
measured verbal ability, memory, common knowledge and other cognitive
skills.
Mental Age
 Method of estimating a child’s intellectual performance by comparing the
child’s score with the average intelligence scores of children of the same
age.
Lewis M. Terman (1877-1956)
 Introduced the intelligence quotient(IQ) as an index of mental development,
following a suggestion of William Stern(1871-1938)
Intelligence Quotient
 Presents a range from feebleminded to very superior and genius. It is
obtained by expressing intelligence as a ratio of mental age (MA) and
chronological age(CA) IQ=MA/CA x 100
Score Intelligence Scale
140- above Genius
130-139 Very Superior
120-129 Superior
110-119 Bright Normal
90-109 Average Normal
80-89 Dull Normal
70-79 Borderline
50-69 Moron- EMR
20-49
0-19 Idiot
Mental Retardation
 Deficiency present from birth with no obvious brain damage
Retarded
 Comes from Latin word “retardare”, meaning to make slow, delay, keep
back or hinder
Developmental Delay
 Gaining popular among caretakers and parents of people with mental
retardation

27. Delay
 Preferred over “disability” by many people
Causes of Mental Retardation:
1. Organic or related to physical disorders
2. Genetic disorder, either extra or defective genes
3. Malnutrition, maternal birth trauma
4. Drug or alcohol abuse
5. Environment exposure, lead mercury or toxins
6. Familial retardation, lack of support or emotional deprivation
Other Types of Mental Retardation:
1. Microcephalic – mentally defective person who has small pointed skull and
abnormally small brain
2. Macrocephalic – congenitally large skull and brain with associated mental
deficiency
3. Cretinism – disability due to insufficient secretion of the thyroid gland
4. Mongolism – also known as “Down Syndrome”, due to a disturbance in the
endocrine glands
5. Hydrocephalism – defect that produces a very large skull because of an
excessive amount of cerebro->spinal fluid between the skull and the
undersized brain within it
Characteristics of Adults and Children with Mental Retardation:
1. Delays in oral language development
2. Deficits in memory skills
3. Difficulty with problem solving skills
4. Delays in the development of adaptive behaviour
5. Lack of social inhibitors
Gifted
 Refers to having innate natural ability or talent
Giftedness
 Said to be an indication of a child’s potential for having achievement in the
future both as a child and as an adult
National Association for Gifted Children
 Defines a gifted person as “someone who shows or has a potential for
showing an exceptional level of performance in one or more areas of
expression
Potential Ability of the Gifted Child:
1. General intellectual ability
2. Specific academic aptitude
3. Creative or productive inventive thinking
4. Social leadership ability
5. Visual and performing arts
6. Psychomotor abilities
Ways of Identifying Gifted and Mental Retardation:
1. Teacher’s observation and the child’s academic performance
2. Parental observations of the child’s ability interest and school
3. Peers observation

28. 4. Psychological test on mental ability, personality and interest test
5. Behavioural check list
Approaches to Intelligence:
1. Psychometric Approach – use the factor analysis to identify common factor
that underline performance on a variety of measures.
Three theories under Psychometric Approach:
a. Spearman’s Two factor Theory
b. Catell’s Intelligence Test
c. The Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory
2. The Heritability of IQ Studies – includes research studies of IQ scores with
differing relatedness
Culture Test
 Does not contain vocabulary, experiences, or social situations that vary in
different people
Charles Spearman (1927)
 Proposed that intelligence is the single factor that enables problem solving
and doing well in all areas of cognition
Louis Leon Thurstione (1938)
 Proposed that there are seven primary abilities such as verbal, memory,
numerical abilities and so on
Raymond Cattell (1963)
 Described intelligence as crystallized and fluid
 Crystallized Intelligence – includes knowledge and skills measured by tests
and the vocabulary.
 Fluid Intelligence – is hereditary, based on neuro-physiological structures
and manifests in a person’s ability to think and reason abstractly
Robert Sternberg (1991)
 Used cognitive approach to intelligence which is called a “Triachic Theory
of Intelligence” consist of componential, experiential, and contextual
intelligence
Academic Intelligence
 The componential aspect focuses on the mental components involved in
analysing
Howard Garner (1983-1990)
 Categorized intelligence into seven kinds which are relatively independent
of each other.
Seven Kinds of Intelligence:
1. Musical – skills involving music
2. Bodily Kinesthetic –skills in using body movements
3. Logical Mathematical – skills in problem solving and abstract thinking
4. Linguistic – skills in production and use of languages
5. Spatial – skills involving spatial configurations
6. Interpersonal – skills in interacting with others
7. Intrapersonal – awareness of internal aspect of oneself
8. Naturalist - knowledge of the environment

29. Characteristics Observed by Leo Kanner:
1. Normal physical appearance
2. Delay in speech development
3. Immediate or delay “echolalia”(repetition of words) and
pronominal reversal
4. Repetitive and stereotypical play activities
5. Insistence on sameness
6. Lack of imagination
7. Good role memory
Autism
 defined by the “Autism Society of America” as a complex developmental
ability that affects the normal functioning of the brain
Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD)
 category of neurological disorders characterized by “severe and pervasive
impairment in several areas of development”
Signs and Symptoms of Autism in Babies and Toddlers:
1. No eye contact, do not follow object visually
2. No facial expression
3. No gestures
4. Do not respond to sound
5. Do not imitate and show interest
Refrigerator Mother
 Used to describe the cold and detached type of parenting
Baron and Cohen (1988)
 They theorized that autism is the result of a cognitive impairment that
prevents the individual from developing appropriate ways to communicate
with other through language
Yirmuy and Sigmund (1991)
 Theory that postulates that autism is the result of deficit in symbolization
Therapy of Autistic Children:
1. Pivotal response training
2. Use of aversive conditioning
3. Self management
4. Use of psychoactive drugs or pharmacotherapy
5. Applied behaviour analysis by Ivan Lovas
Ellen Winter (2000)
 Revealed that nearly a forth of children with truly exceptional IQ’s have
social and psychological problems
Joseph Ranzulli (2002)
 Their success is a product of three interacting factors

31. The Meaning and Nature of Learning
 Is a relatively permanent change of behaviour as the result of practice. It is
lifetime process.
Steps in the Learning Process:
1. Motivation – an organism is constantly being bombarded by a lot of
stimulus from his environment.
2. Goal – behaviour being purposive, is oriented towards a goal.
3. Readiness – depends on training and experience as well as heredity. It is
typed according to:
a. Physiological Factors – maturation of sense organs
b. Psychological Factors – motives, emotional factors
c. Experiential Factors – previously learned skills, concepts
4. Obstacle – its presence is occasion for learning new modes of adjustment. It
may be social – as being deterred from watching TV; non-social – as electric
failure which hampers your review; personal – as the feeling that one is
unattractive, and internal – the inability to make up one’s mind.
5. Responses – are varied according to one’s interpretation of the situation
6. Reinforcement – responses are reinforced if they satisfy one’s need. These
responses are liable to be repeated.
7. Generalization – the application of what one has learned into an integrated
response in consonance with what one has previously learned
Theories of Learning:
1. Connectionism or the S-R Bond Theory(Thorndike)
 It assumes that thru conditioning specific responses come to be linked with
specific stimuli.
2. behaviourism(Watson)
 According to this theory, learning is a process of building conditioned
reflexes thru the substitution of one stimulus for another.
3. Functionalism
 This theory states that behaviour and mental processes are adaptive
(functional), they enable an individual to adjust to a changing environment.
4. Gestalt Theory
 The Gestalt or field theory of learning was advance by Koffka in 1924
making use of insight as a basic principle. Gestalt explains learning in terms
of modification that take place in response to meaningful patterns or
configuration.
Laws of Learning:
1. The law of Effect(Thorndike)
 Responses which are followed by satisfying after effects tend to be learned
and repeated.
a.) Law of Primacy (Watson) – acts or impressions learned first will be
better remembered than acts or impression learned later.

32. b.) Law of Belongingness (Thorndike) – association are easily formed if they
belong-meaning, relatedness, meaningfulness and integration, into a
unified frame of reference.
2. The Law of Readiness(Thorndike)
 Responses preceded by readiness are more satisfying than otherwise. This
law stresses the need for adequate motivation and preparation of the
learner through building up the proper background and fostering the
proper mind-set.
a.) Law of Mind-set – this law references to the mental set of the learner
at the time that the response is to be made.
b.) Law of Apperception (Herbart) – apperception pertains to the
recognition of relationships between what is presented and existing
body of knowledge.
3. The Law of Exercise
 Practice makes perfect. This law has been more or less discredited. The
present concern is that this law operates only indirectly through the fact
that practice permits the law of effect to reinforce the correct responses
and to the extent that it allows the law of effect to operate, unmotivated
drill is futile.
a.) Law of Association (Kant) – learning occurs through the connection
or functional relationship between two psychological phenomena
established through experience or learning.
b.) Law of Use and Disused (Gates) – the generalization that all factors
being equal, an association which is practised or used will be
strengthened; that which is not practised or used is weakened.
c.) Law of Frequency and Recency (Watson) – the principle that other
things being equal, the more an act of appreciation is practised, the
more rapid the learning.
d.) Law of Intensity (Carr) – this law states that the strength of any
behaviour of experience has a corresponding relation to learning.
e.) Law of Forgetting(Ebbinghaus) – this law which is related to the law
of use and disuse states that the ability to reproduce or recollect
what has been previously learned is in direct preposition to the
opportunities to use such as abilities hence, we tend to forget those
acts which we have no opportunity to use or repeat.
Techniques of Study:
 All that has been presented as features of efficient learning can also be very
well the techniques for efficiently study.
 Morgan discusses one particular technique.
a.) Motivation to Study – the degree of one’s drive to study is in proposition to
the nature of one’s motives goals. On the premise that motives always exist
is an individual because he always has unsatisfied needs, the end therefore
is to have suitable goals the attainment of which will satisfy the motives
and thus reduce the drive.

33. b.) Organized Study Routine – important to effective learning is a time
schedule wherein one’s time is apportioned and budgeted wisely to allow
for definite periods of study.
c.) Study Method – this method stands for: Survey, Question, and Read, Recite,
and Review. Before one starts to study, one must survey the literature
pertinent to what is to be learned. This covers the references you are
intending to use. Go over these materials with an eye to its contents,
illustration, study helps, vocabulary, glossary, review questions, study
guides, etc. Next, refer to the question before and at the end of the
chapters. Question yourself to find out answers to problems. Next, read
carefully, al over if necessary, the contents or guides that will help you
understand the next. Fixate or memorize that which may be necessary. The
next is to recite. Self-recitation or active recall during learning improves
memory. Review shortly after learning. The best times are immediately
after first learning the material and again just before the exam. Whatever
method is convenient for you, stick to it if you find it effective and helpful.
Remembering and Forgetting
Kinds of Remembering:
a. Reintegration – the technical form for “reintegrate”. It is to re-establish an
earlier experience on the basis of partial cues.
b. Recall – is simple revival of past experience. It may involve motor or verbal
skills like, recalling the dance steps you learned in your physical education
class, or in recalling a poem you learned in your previous grades.
c. Recognition – involves recognizing someone or something familiar. You may
be asked to identify a suspected criminal whom you saw filching something
from the supermarket yesterday.
d. Relearning – involves more rapid learning than before on the basis of some
retention from earlier learning.
TOT (Tip of the Tongue) Phenomenon
 Is a situation where in the process of recalling, we could not immediately
recall the exact word or name although it seems at the tip of our tongue. It
may eventually lead to successful recall or recognition when the word is
presented.
Forgetting and Its Theories
 Forgetting – is the loss of ability to recall, recollect or reproduce what has
been previously learned.
Various Theories:
a. Passive decay through disuse – this theory assumes that forgetting takes
place through the passage of time.
b. Systematic distortion of Memory traces – this theory also assumes changes
in memory traces.
c. Interference Effects (Retroactive or Proactive Inhibition) – Retroactive
Inhibition refers to a loss in retention as the result of new learning which
acts as back up and inhibits the traces of older learning. Proactive Inhibition

34. refers to similar inhibitory effects which occur when the interpolated
material is placed ahead of the material to be learned.
d. Motivated Forgetting – the psychoanalytic school attributes forgetting to
motivational factors, including amnesia which is the complete forgetting of
one’s personal past and to repression, which is the forgetting of material
that is psychologically painful or inconsistent with the individual’s
evaluation of the self.
e. Other Theories-Quantitative decay of Retention
 Attitudinal and Motivational Factors – things we desire to remember are
more easily remembered; while indifference or lack of interest may make
more rapid forgetting.
 Nature of Materials Learned – materials that are meaningful and that lend
themselves to good organization are not easily forgotten.
 Emotional Blocking – related to motivational forgetting
 Faulty techniques of Study
Thinking, Problem-Solving, Creativity
 Thinking – is behaviour that uses symbols as inner representations of
objects and events.
 Symbolic References – are remembered, absent, or are imagined things and
events
Kinds of Thinking:
1. Associative Learning – includes in directed and uncontrolled thinking such
as occur in reveries and dreams.
a.) Autistic Learning – also called daydreaming, is thinking which is
governed by personal needs or by the self.
b.) Night dreaming – is due to unconscious impulses and it aims to gratify or
satisfy a drive.
c.) Imagination – is the process of creating objects or events without
sensory data
d.) Eidetic Imagery (Photographic Minds) – dimensions of recalled
sensitivity differ in extensity and intensity.
2. Directed Thinking – is thinking oriented towards a goal as in reasoning
about a problem.
a.) Critical Learning – pertains to crucial judgement or evaluation of
something
b.) Creative Thinking – involves the ability to produce new forms in art or
mechanics or to solve problems by novel methods.
 Preparation – in Einstein, grappled with the problems of light
speed for a period at almost seven years before he wrote his
famous paper on relatively.
 Incubation – is described as the dormant stage the period of
warming up characterized by apparent lack of activity.
 Illumination – as the name suggests, involves a sudden
solution to a problem, or a sudden enlightenment.

35.  Verification – is the stage where proof must be given to the
solution to a problem.
c.) Brainstorming – is a practise or technique which involves grouping
people to solve a problem in a free environment.
d.) Reasoning – is a process of logical thinking or problem-solving
 Deduction – an inference is made from a formal premise
 Syllogism – is a form of reasoning in which a statement is
given, followed by a second statement, the two together
leading to s conclusion on the form of a third statement
e.) Problem Solving – is a process used in discovering the correct
consequences of alternatives leading to a goal or to an ideational
solution.
Dewey in his book “How to think” describes the steps of the method of scientific
thinking which the steps for Problem solving are also:
1. Becoming aware of the problem – defines problem as a felt need, implying
that a problem is a personal matter, that what may be a problem for one
another may not be for another.
2. Clarification of the problem – here the learner defines the exact nature of
the problem, investigates the relevant information and assimilates these
data to the point that he sees their interrelationships.
3. Emergence of the Hypothesis – these sometimes come as inspirations which
may come suddenly, like insight.
4. Elaboration of the Hypothesis – next, the hypothesis must be evaluated in
terms of its consistency or relevance or implications to a principle.
5. Testing the Hypothesis – the learner sets about testing the validity of the
hypothesis.
6. Generalization – it is a process of forming an idea or judgement which is
applicable to an entire class of objects, people or events.
Four strategies in Decision-Making:
1. Additive Strategy – where each alternative is rated on their important
factor, the highest overall rating is chosen.
2. Elimination Strategy – arranging the option from most important to the
least important. Any decision that does not satisfy the most important is
totally disregarded. The most important alternative that survive is accepted.
3. Heuristic – a rule of thumb taken from experience, although there is no
assurance of its accuracy of usefulness, algorithms are procedures that
automatically generate correct solutions.
4. Framing or Understanding – is potentially useful or useless
Other Types of Learning:
1. Sign Learning 5.Programmed Learning 9.Associational Learning
2. Motor Learning 6.Associative Learning
3. Learning to learn 7. Appreciation Learning
4. Multiple-response Learning 8.Rational Learning

37. Motives and Drives
 Both generally refer to any internal stimulus condition of the organism that
impels it to activity
Words used to describe Motivation:
 Needs * Impulses
 Urges * Desires
 Goals *Purpose
Motivation – comes from the Latin word “movere” or move
Drew Western – defined motivation as the driving force behind behaviour that
leads us to pursue some things and avoid others
*Two main aspects of Motivated behaviour:
a.) Activating/Energizing – aspect produces a state of readiness for behaviour
b.) Directional – it is geared towards the achievement of a goal, reward or
incentive
Drive – a need give rise to an internal state of tension
Clark Hull (1884-1952)- explained motivation in terms of biological needs that
must be met if organisms are to survive
Hull’s Drives Reduction Theory – derived from one concept of “homeostasis” –
which is the tendency to maintain internal body balance of state of equilibrium
Physiological Drives:
1. Hunger – all organisms get hungry when the state of hunger arises there
will be activity. Internal processes involve a reaction of the hypothalamus
to the chemical state of blood.
2. Thirst – is a regulatory device which serves to control the intake of water
into the body, maintaining constant water content.
3. Air Hunger – relatively unimportant as a motive in everyday life because it
is usually easy to get. It the most basic requirement of the human body.
4. Warmth and Cold – regarded as drives because they serve as powerful
motives that keeps a person striving to maintain them at a satisfactory
level.
5. Pain – a noxious drive. It acts as a drive because it indicates a danger to the
organism and is related to the need for protection or safety.
6. Rest and Sleep –
7. Sex – it stems from physiological processes and renders the organism’s
behaviour selective and directional
Psychosocial Motives:
1. Affiliation –
2. Dependency –
3. Social Approval – learned in early childhood training when parents establish
what is right and what is wrong.
4. Status –
5. Security – its absence is responsible for much of personal unhappiness as
well as social unrest.
6. Power –

38. Eating Disorders:
1. Bulimia – consuming large amount of food followed by self-induced purging
by vomiting/laxatives
2. Anorexia – irrational fear of gaining weights, despite being underweight
3. Bigorexia – obsession with becoming more and more muscular
Causes of Eating Disorders:
1. Cultural Pressures
2. Genetics Influences
3.
4. Hormonal Imbalance
Achievement Motivation
 Is a psychosocial motive which refers to a drive to do well, to succeed or
the desire or need for excellence
Components of Achievement Motivation:
1. Performance Goals – the motives to attain a particular level; meeting a
socially defined standard.
2. Performance Avoidance – motivated by the fear of not attaining the desired
goal
3. Mastery – motive to increase one’s competence or skill techniques
Levels of Performance:
1. Prestige-seeking
2. Self-protection
Perspectives on Motivation:
1. Psychodynamic – Freud’s point of view. Humans, like other animals are
motivated by drives, an internal tension that builds up until they are
satisfied.
 Sex Drives – includes love, lust and intimacy
 Aggressive Drives – include not only hostility nor sadistic
impulses but also the desire to control or master other people
and environment
2. Evolutionary Perspective – refers not only to instinctive impulses but also to
the flexibility of human organism to select courses of action that foster
survival.
3. Behaviourists Perspective – refers to the causal role of internal states.
4. Cognitive Perspective – refers to expectancy value theory. It views
motivation as a joint function of the value.
5. Goal Setting Motivation – awareness that the conscious goals regulate
much of human action
6. Intrinsic Motivation – refers to the enjoyment of interest in an activity itself.
Recently termed as Self Determination Theory
7. Implicit Motives – can be activated and expressed outside of conscious
awareness.
Gender Identity – refers to how we identify ourselves sexually.
Sex Differences – refers to biological differences.
Intersexes – people whose genitals do not exactly match the male or female but
something intermediate.

39. Hermaphrodite – has testes on one side of the body and an ovary on the other.
Testicular Feminization – refers to androgen insensitivity
Complex Motives – also known as Functional Autonomy of Motives by Gordon
Alport
Theories of Human Motivation:
1. The behaviour Theory – formulated by Whiting and Child (1953) stated that
a few basic motives acquired in early infancy proliferate into the behaviour
system in later life.
Five behaviour system of an adult:
 Oral *Anal
 Sexual * Dependency
 Aggression
2. The Theory of Unconscious Motives - originated from Freud and
psychoanalysis.
Unconscious motives – are manifested in the form of dreams, mannerisms,
slips of the tongue and symptoms of neurosis
Sex and Aggression – are prominent impulses that find indirect, symbolic or
disguised expressions
3. The Cognitive Theory of Motivation – formulated by John W. Arkinson.
According to this theory, goals controls behaviour.
Abraham Maslow – arranged human needs in a hierarchy from stronger and
lower to weaker and higher
Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow:
1. Physiological Needs – hunger, thirst, air
2. Safety Needs – the need for free from threat or danger
3. Belongingness and Love Needs – the need for affiliation, for belongingness,
for acceptance
4. Esteem Needs – the need for achievement , for strength
5. The Need for Self-Actualization – the need for self fulfilment, to realize
potentialities, to become what one is capable of becoming.
6. Cognitive Needs – the need to know and understand, curiosity, the need to
understand the mysterious, the need to tackle the unknown
7. Esthetic Needs – the need for symmetry and order.

40. Maslow’s Ladder of Human Needs:
Clayton Alderfer – agrees with Maslow that needs are arranged in hierarchy. He
identified three of needs.
Clayton’s ERG Sets of Needs:
1. Existence – satisfied by factors such as food, air, water, pay working
conditions
2. Relatedness – satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships
3. Growth – satisfied by making creative of productive contributions
Other Theories of Human Motivation:
1. The Theory of Instinct
2. The Arousal Theory
3. Hull’s Drives Reduction Theory
Personal Growth
(Self-realization Needs)
Love and Belongingness
(Social Needs)
Safety and Security
Physical Needs
(food,water,clothing,shelter and medicine)
self- respect
(Esteem Needs)

42. Meaning and Nature of Emotions
Emotions -> occur as a result of an interaction between perception of
environment stimuli, neural/hormonal responses to these perceptions and
subjective cognitive labelling of these feelings.
-> tends to be associated with specific facial expressions.
Definition and Characteristics of Emotion
*Emotion -> a generalized disturbance of the affective process or state of a
person which is revealed by marked bodily changes in smooth muscles, glands
and gross behaviour.
Two aspects involved in an emotion:
-subjective feelings
-objectively measured responses of the organism
Characteristics of emotions:
A.) It is a state of behavioural arousal varying from deep sleep to high tension.
B.) It is also physiological state that can be measured by physical means.
C.) It is an experience or awareness of something we feel and an expression
exhibited in the behaviour seen by others.
D.)It is a motivating force to what we strive for or try to avoid.
Physiological responses in emotion
 During emotional arousal in an organism, physiological changes takes
place resulting from the activation of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system as it prepares the body for emergency action.
The sympathetic system is responsible for these changes which are as follows:
1.) Increase in blood pressure and heart rate
2.) More rapid respiration
3.) Dilation of the pupil of the eye
4.) Increase in perspiration
5.) Increase in blood-sugar level to provide more energy
6.) Quicker blood clotting in case of wounds
7.) Decrease in motility of the gastrointestinal tract; diversion of blood from
the stomach and intestines to the brain and skeletal muscles
8.) Raising of the hairs of the skin, causing “goose pimples”
Sympathetic system-> prepared the organism for a greater energy output
Parasympathetic system-> “energy-conserving system”
> Takes over and returns the organism to its normal
state when the emotional state subsides
*Recording physiological responses in emotional arousal*
Purpose of recording the bodily responses during an emotional
arousal:
 For tracing the internal story of the emotional response in a clinical or
medical investigation
 For the detection of lying as in court or legal matters

43. Seven (7) special recording devices:
1.) Sphygmomanometer – for measuring changes in blood pressure
2.) Stethoscope – for listening to the pulse at the wrist
3.) Pneumograph – for recording changes in the depth and the pattern or
breathing. It is a rubberized tube (for circling the chest) connected to a
recording pen.
4.) Electrocardiograph(ECG) – for measuring the rate of heartbeat (the
pounding heart) during strong emotion
5.) External application of slight-electrical current on the skin – for measuring
skin changes known as the galvanic skin response(GSR)
6.) Polygraph recorder or lie detector – for recording simultaneously the GSR,
the blood pressure and the breathing pattern. Emotional twinges known as
“twinges of conscience” are picked up in the moving tape of the polygraph
recorder even when small lies are reported. Polygraphers confident of their
success about 90-95% of the time.
7.) Psychological stress evaluator – for analysing the human voice to detect
emotion. This is a more recently developed lie-detection procedure that
does not claim to measure lying directly.
The behavioural expression of emotion:
1.) Innate emotional expression -> the basic ways of expressing emotion
are innate. Observations of blind children from birth indicate that many of
the facial expressions, postures and gestures that we associate with
different emotions develop through maturation; they appear at the
appropriate age even when there is no opportunity to observe them in
others.
2.)The survival value of emotional expression
 According to Darwin, in his “The Expression of Emotions in Man and
Animals”, published in 1872, many of the ways in which we express
emotion are inherited patterns that originally had some survival value.
 Expression of disgust is based on the organisms attempt to rid itself of
something unpleasant, annoying or offensive.
 Extreme disgust is expressed by movements around the mouth that seem
preparatory to the act of vomiting which is characterized by a widely
opened mouth and the turning away of the eyes or of the whole body
form the object of disgust.
3.) Facial expression and emotion -> Facial Expressions appear to have a
universal meaning regardless of the culture which the individual is raised.
4.) Vocal expression of emotion -> emotion may judged by sound of a
person’s voice. Its loudness may indicate a certain emotion. A change in
pitch may be a clue as to the emotion on hand.
Role of Learning in Emotional Expression
 Some facial expressions and gestures of emotion are learned from specific
cultures. Certain emotional expressions are modified by experience.

44. Relationship between Motivation and Emotion
 Emotions are usually aroused by external stimuli and that emotional
expression is directed toward the stimuli in the environment that aroused
it while motives are often aroused by internal stimuli and are directed
toward certain objects in the environment such as food, water, or a mate.
 Emotions accompanying motivated behaviour may facilitate that particular
behaviour.
Theories of Emotions
The James-Lange Theory
 Formulated by an American Psychologist, William James, and the Danish
Psychologist, Carl Lange.
 States that emotional situations are accompanied by certain characteristic
bodily changes which are both internal and external. These bodily
reactions, as they claimed, are our emotions.
 Holds that physiological responses give rise to our cognitive experience of
emotion.
The Cannon- Bard Thalamic Theory
 Formulated by a psychologist, Walter Cannon and his student, L. Bard.
 States that the thalamus, which is part of the brain’s central core, has the
central role in emotion. They called it the thalamic theory. When an
emotion arousing situation is encountered, the thalamus simultaneously
sends messages to the cerebral cortex and to the body’s internal organs.
The joint arousal of the cortex and the sympathetic nervous system results
in emotional feelings.
 The belief that the bodily changes and the experience of emotion occur at
the same time is the core of the theory.
Cognitive Physiological Theory of Emotion (Schachter-Singer Theory)
 Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer emphasize the role of cognitive
factors and social situations in determining emotional states.
EMOTION
N
AROUSALEVENT
EVENT
AROUSAL
EMOTION

45.  States that an event causes physiological arousal first. Theorized that the
perception of the emotional state is influenced by the interpretation of the
situation as well as by physiology.
Lazarus Theory
 States that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological
arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation before
you can experience an emotion.
Classification of Emotions:
A.) Pleasant – joy, love
B.) Unpleasant – anger, fear
 Many emotional terms can also be classified by intensity.
Examples of word pair that convey differences in emotional intensity:
A.) Displeasure-rage
B.) Pain-agony
C.) Sadness-grief
Feelings -> milder affective states
Three (3) Major Emotions
1.) Love
 Experienced from womb to tomb.
 Kinds of love develop:
- The affection of one child for another
- Heterosexual affection
- Maternal affection
- Paternal affection
Typical movement of love:
*Symbiotic – love of the infant
*Dependent – love of the toddler
*Possessive – love of the child for the opposite-sex parent
*Confidential- love of the adolescent friends
*Romantic – love of young adults
*Constructive – love of marriage
*Caring – love of parenthood
EVENT AROUSAL REASONING EMOTION
EVENT THOUGHT
EMOTION
AROUSAL

46. > Robert Sternberg (1986) – psychologist in Wortman identified the three
components of loving.
Three components of Love:
A.) Intimacy – the feeling of being close and connected that leads two
people to have confidence in each other
B.) Passion – the desire for physical union
C.) Commitment – the decision to be with each other and to stay
together
 Compassionate Love – based on intimacy and commitment but not
passion
 Infatuated Love – passion without intimacy or commitment. It is a torrid
but shallow affair that is short- lived.
 Empty Love – commitment without passion or intimacy exemplified by
marriage in which a couple has grown distant but has opted to stay
together
 Consummated Love – combines intimacy, passion and commitment. It is
regarded as the most difficult type to achieve and maintain.
Romantic Love
Infatuated
Liking
(Friendship)
Consummated Love
Compassionate
Love
Fatuous Love
Empty Love
2.) Fear
> unlearn response that is aroused in threatening situations. It is a fixed
combination of physiological and behavioural responses to certain stimuli.
Two basic functions of Fear in life:
A.) It has a survival value in that it helps the organism avoid injury or death.
B.) Fear helps to keep social groups together.
Passion
Erotic, sexual
Attraction
Intimacy
Sharing &
Confiding
Commitment
Intent to remain in
relationship

47. 3.) Anger
> The fundamentals stimulus- situation eliciting anger is some kind of
frustration.
> tends to rise and fall rapidly. It dissipates faster than other emotions.
> produces the feeling of aggression we need when we have to fight.
Significance of emotion
 The positive role that emotions play in our lives is to wit, they add color,
flavour, or spice to our existence. They break the lull or monotomy of what
can be a dull or boring affair or activity. When uncontrolled, they can also
disrupt the calm and quiet in what used to be a peaceful abode or dwelling.
The Tolls of Disruptive Emotion
Phobias and psychosomatic
 May result from persistent emotions that interfere with our adaptability.
Phobia
 A persistent fear that seems unrealistic or irrational to an outsider.
Twenty-Six (26) Common types of Phobia:
 Acrophobia- fear of high places
 Agoraphobia- fear of open spaces
 Claustrophobia- fear of closed places
 Pyrophobia-fear of fire
 Adontophobia- fear of teeth
 Hematophobia- fear of the sight of blood
 Monophobia- fear of being alone
 Demonophobia- fear of demons
 Phobophobia- fear of one’s own fear
 Xenophobia- fear of foreigners or strangers
 Sitiophobia- fear of strange places
 Aero-phobia-fear of airplanes
 Algophobia- fear of pain
 Toxicophobia-fear of poison
 Hydrophobia- fear of water
 Zoophobia-fear of animals
 Thanatophobia-fear of death
 Photophobia- fear of light
 Neophobia-fear of novelty
 Dysmorphobia-fear of becoming misshapen
 Lyssophobia-fear of hydrophobia
 Ochotophobia- fear crowds
 Ergasiophobia- fear of work
 Gamophobia- fear of marriage
 Hapephobia- fear of being touched
 Taphophobia- fear of being buried alive
The power of Music on Emotions

48.  Music is reported to be one of the most powerful ways to play on a
person’s emotions. Our emotions are easily swayed by music: music
catches our attention and stimulates the brain.
Ten Therapeutic Characteristics of Music:
 Music captivates and maintains attention – it stimulates and utilizes many
parts of the brain.
 Music is easily adapted to, and can be reflective of, a person’s ability.
 Music structures time in a way that we can understand.
 Music provides a meaningful, enjoyable context for repetition.
 Music provides a social context – it sets up a safe, structured setting for
verbal and nonverbal communication.
 Music is an effective memory aid.
 Music supports and encourages movement.
 Music taps into memories and emotions.
 Music – and the silences within it provide nonverbal, immediate feedback.
 Music is success oriented: people of all ability levels can participate.
Emotional Intelligence
 Better known as EQ, is the ability to relate effectively with oneself
(intrapersonal intelligence) and with others (interpersonal intelligence).
 David Goleman presents a psychology that puts emphasis on the
intelligence of emotions in his book Emotional Intelligence (1996). He
focuses his concerns on personal characteristics which he refers to as
Emotional Intelligence.
Two (2) personal intelligence in Gardner’s evolution of the multiplicity of
intelligence:
 Interpersonal Intelligence – is the ability to understand other people:
what motivates them, how they work, and how to work cooperatively with
them.
 Intrapersonal Intelligence – is a correlative ability, turned inward. It is a
capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to be able to
use that model to operate effectively in life.
Five domains of Emotional Intelligence:
 Knowing One’s Emotions. Self-awareness – recognizing a feeling as it
happens is the keystone of emotional intelligence. The ability to monitor
feelings from moment to moment is characteristics of psychological
insights and self-understanding. An inability to notice our true feelings
leaves us at their mercy.

49.  Managing Emotions. Handling feelings so they are appropriate is an ability
that builds on self-awareness, anxiety, gloom, or irritability. People who
are poor in this ability are constantly harbouring feelings of distress, while
those who excel in it can bounce back far more quickly from life’s setbacks
and upsets.
 Motivating Oneself. Marshalling emotions in the service of a goal is
essential for paying attention, for self-motivation and mastery, and for
creativity. Emotional self-control, delaying gratification and stifling
impulsiveness underlies accomplishment of every sort. People who have
this skill tend to be more highly productive and effective on whatever they
undertake.
 Recognizing Emotions in Others. Empathy is an ability that builds on
emotional self-awareness and is fundamental “people skilled”. People who
are emphatic are more attuned to the subtle social signals that indicate
what others need or want.
 Handling relationships. Social competence and incompetence are the
abilities that undergird popularity, leadership, and interpersonal
effectiveness. People who excel in these skills do well at anything that
relies on interacting smoothly with others; they are social stars.
“Educating the Emotions”
 Is a major concern of Values Education programs in the schools.
Certain experimental and transpersonal strategies which are also suggested in
Goleman’s books are used such as: self-awareness exercises which are
introspective in nature, personal-decision making, self-talk, guided, imagery,
meditation and relaxation methods, empathizing, sharing feelings and thoughts,
self-disclosure, insights building, self-acceptance, taking responsibility, making
commitment and resolution, group dynamics and conflicts resolution exercises.

51. Sources of Frustration
1.) the physical environment,
-such as floods, typhoons, or rugged mountains
Example: A drought or typhoon can frustrate farmers because it adversely
affects their harvest.
2.) the social environment, and
-such as restrictions imposed by other people and the customs and laws of
the community. Children are thwarted by parental denial, disapproval, and
postponement.
3.) the organism itself
-within individuals themselves are deficiencies which can cause frustration.
Some people are handicapped by disease, blindness, deafness, or paralysis
that can limit their activities.
Types of Conflicts
Conflicting attraction or approach-approach conflicts - when there are two
desirable but exclusive goals.
Approach-avoidance conflict – when there is an attraction to an object or
state of affairs and at the same time a repulsion towards something associated
with it. The situation contains two elements: one which is very desirable and the
other which is undesirable and disadvantageous.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict – when there are two unpleasant
alternatives and one cannot be avoided without encountering the other.
Multiple Conflicts – when there are two courses of action, each of which
has both pleasant and unpleasant consequences. Multiple conflicts take a longer
time to resolve.
Responses to Frustration
The first thing the individual does when an operating motive is blocked is to
develop an emotionality about the situation. The emotions arising from
frustration is anger. The emotional responses may serve to strengthen the
motives and to redouble the efforts to overcome the blocked activity.
Individuals who are able to keep the emotional responses under control
and succeed in expending increased energy to pursue the goal are said to have a
high frustration tolerance. A frustrated individual, will demonstrate a variety of
responses. Instead of using the old habits, one can reduce the trial-and-error
approach to an old problem.
The tension produced by frustration or conflict is more severe if there is
ego-involvement. Each individual has a concept of self. One tries very hard to
maintain a satisfying and favourable concept of oneself and, when a frustration or

52. conflict threatens the image of one’s self, tension becomes greater. An ego-
involved situation can produce severe tension.
To adjust to ego-involving frustrations, defense mechanisms are sometimes
used. These reactions may not resolve the conflict or satisfy frustrated motives
but they defend the psychological system. Defense mechanisms to frustration can
be classified into three types of adjustive behaviour: (1) aggressive reactions, (2)
flight or withdrawal reactions, and (3) substitute activities or compromise
reactions.
 Aggressive Reactions - may be realistic and understandable.
Aggression, as an overt expression of frustration, can be directed at the
source of frustration or it can be displaced. The strength of the aggressive
response depends on its previous reinforcements or punishments, the strength of
the habit and drive being blocked, the intensity of the frustration, the number of
former frustrations, and the availability of a target for the aggressive behaviour.
However, aggression is not usually a satisfactory technique of adjustment.
Temporarily, it may serve to reduce the physical and mental tensions of
frustration, but it may meet punishment or social disapproval.
Displaced aggression – is an act when circumstances block direct attack on
the cause of frustration and the aggressive action is made against an innocent
person or object.
- Example of this is “scapegoating” and “free-floating” anger.
 Withdrawal Reactions – may be in the form of physical flight or retreating
within a “shell” of psychological defenses.
Fantasy. When a person’s desires are frustrated by reality, the person may
retreat into a fantasy world where the thwarted wishes can be satisfied.
Daydreams can help overcome obstacles. These have been called the
“nursery of accomplishment.” Daydreams mirror the change in motives that
come with age.
“Beatnik” Reaction. The eccentric behaviour of the “beat” generation may
be regarded as a withdrawal reaction from the frustration of modern life. The
“beatnik” stands apart from society and avoids most responsibilities of a
citizen. Special outfits and slang, certain rituals, and the use of drugs is the
“beatnik’s” expression of rebellion.
Repression is the process of excluding from the consciousness a thought or
feeling that causes pain, shame, or guilt. When there is excessive psychological
pain associated with a particular experience, the individual’s conscious
memory of the event may be blocked entirely for a time. However, if there is a
deliberate effort to forget by turning one’s attention to other activities, this is
called suppression, which is true forgetting.

53. Apathy. Another response to a frustrating situation is the opposite of active
aggression. Instead of being destructive and hostile, the individual may show
apathy, indifference, or inactivity.
Fixation is the tendency towards repetitive and stereotyped behaviour.
Identification. Similar to fantasy reaction, identification reduces anxiety
through an escape into a dream world, where one takes on the characteristics
of another person and thereby enhances self-esteem.
Regression is when a frustrated individual unconsciously seeks to return to
an earlier, more secure period of his/her life. It can occur at any age level.
 Compromise Reactions
In many life situations, frustrations can be reduced only by compromise, and
not by aggressive or withdrawal reactions. Without relinquishing the blocked
goals, an individual partially gives in to the threats that the frustration implies.
There is the lowering of ambitions or acceptance of symbolic and substitute goals.
Reaction Formation. People may disguise their motivation and conflict by
believing that their motive is the exact opposite of their real motive. This
mechanism helps the individual guard against unacceptable impulses.
Projection. Another common disguise that protects a person against anxiety-
producing impulses. When one finds their feelings and thoughts intolerable, aside
from repressing these, they also convince themselves that other people have
these thoughts and feelings towards others rather than toward the self.
It is also when a person blames other people for failure that is essentially their
own.
Sublimation. There are some needs where direct satisfaction is often
impossible. In such cases, an individual may resort to indirect means of obtaining
gratification. Although indirect goals never provide the same satisfaction as the
original goals, they provide an outlet for the expression of frustrated desires. The
indirect expression of a need may be in the form of sublimation.
In it, the drive is redirected towards socially acceptable forms of expression.
This provides partial satisfaction that is free of guilt feelings. Intense aggression
can be redirected to acceptable modes of behaviour through participation in
competitive sports. Artistic activities may also be a result of sublimation.
Compensation. An attempt to disguise or cover up felt deficiencies or
undesirable traits by emphasizing a desirable type of behaviour.
A peculiar form of compensation, known as over-compensation, is an attempt
to deny a weakness by trying to excel where one is weakest. The weakness thus
acts as a goal or motive towards superior performance. Over-compensation is an
energetic and effective way of meeting weakness.

54. Rationalization. Another way to compromise with problems is to
intellectualize them through rationalization. It is a process of interpreting our
behaviour in ways more acceptable to the self by using reasoning or alibis to
substitute for the causes.
Its forms:
1. “Sourgraping” attitude – where there is denial of the true motive.
2. “sweet-lemon” attitude - where the frustration is considered as a blessing
in disguise. The individual makes believe or rationalizes that the thwarting
of the motive was best and advantageous.
Stress
- Is a form of the Middle English distressed, derived via old French from
the Latin stringere, or “to draw tight.”
- Had earlier been used in physics to refer to the internal distribution of a
force exerted on a material body, resulting in strain.
- Was occasionally used in psychological circles to refer a harmful
environmental agent that could cause illness on 1920s and 1930s.
- Used by Walter Cannon on 1934 to refer to external factors that
disrupted what he called homeostasis.
- Began to use by Hans Selye (1907-1982) a Canadian scientist on 1930s to
refer not only to the environmental agent but to the state of the
organism as it responded and adapted to the environment. He
conducted studies of the effects of stress on health, and introduced the
three stages of General Adaptation Syndrome of stress.
- Defined by most psychologists as the psychological and physiological
response to a condition that threatens the person’s capacity to adjust to
the inner and outer demands.
Stressors – events that often lead to stress.
- These are focused on life events, catastrophes, and daily hassles.
Life Events – are important life activities. In 1967, psychiatrists Thomas Holmes
and Richard Rahe studied whether stressful events causes illness. They asked
patients to tally a list of 43 life events from most to the least stressful and
assigned a point value to each event. The results supported the links between
stress and illness, and is known more commonly as the Holmes and Rahe Stress
Scale.
Catastrophic Events – stressors of massive proportion. Examples are natural
phenomena like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons, twisters, floods,
landslides, etc.

55. Daily Hassles – Richard Lazarus states that there are annoying demands and
troubled relationships that can occur every day. According to Lazarus, the positive
experiences in life may neutralize the effect of daily hassles. This he termed as
uplifts or positive experiences based on the cognitive appraisal of the person.
Stress and Health
Stress can alter the structure of the brain, the immune system, and the
general wellness (health) of individuals.
1. Brain prefrontal cortexes are responsible for short term and long term
memory can be affected by stress. Chronic stress leads to permanent cell
death and reduction in the size of the hypocampus (Brenner, 1999). Stress
substantially affects physical health and mortality (Walkins & Maier 2000).
2. Immune system are groups of highly specialized cells and organs that
eliminates disease-causing agents in the body such as bacteria, parasites,
viruses, and any other foreign matters that enter the body.
The key concepts of immune systems are:
 Lymphocytes, or white blood cells.
 B cells produce antibodies that attach themselves to foreign invaders
and mark them for destruction. B cells produces proteins which are
antibodies.
 T cells¸ which are derived from the thymus glands.
 Natural killer cells fight viruses and tumors. However, the immune
system may get infected causing illness, like juvenile diabetes, multiple
sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus. Acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS), caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
attacks the cells and gradually weaken the immune system until it
becomes non-functional.
3. Religion and Other Social Support Groups have positive effects on the
immune systems, as well as on the cardiovascular and endocrine system.
Advice and emotional support provided by family and friends in terms of
time and tangible information can be viewed as the feeling of being loved,
valued, and cared for. (Miller et al 2002).
The seriousness of stress in contemporary life instigated the unity of
researchers to go deeper into the understanding the causes and effects of stress
on the immune system. This field of science is called psycho-neuro-immunology.
Stress Coping Strategies
This refers to exerted efforts or ways on how people can overcome the
demands of situations that are perceived stressful.
1. Problem focused – dealing with the stressor itself. This includes reducing,
modifying, or eliminating the source of stress itself.

56. 2. Emotion focused – efforts to modify the unpleasant emotional
consequences of stress. If a person cannot change the stressful situation
directly, he/she can try to alter his/her perception of it or the emotions it
produce.
3. Proactive coping – anticipating some stressful situations and taking active
measures to avoid or minimize its consequences.
Long-Term Strategies for Dealing with Stress
1. Identify what is causing you stress. Face or confront problems that cause
stress. Take time to know serious stressors. This will eventually help in
coming up with a strategy for managing it.
2. Recognize what you can change. Accept what needs to be changed.
Change your response to the problem and find ways to channel frustration
in another way.
3. Reduce the intensity of your reaction. Modify your reaction. Your response
to a stressful event may be exaggerated.
4. Re-examine your attitudes and obligations. Prioritize your goals and
needs. Examine your priorities in life and don’t forget to include yourself as
one of those priorities.
5. Organize yourself. Overwork and fatigue are one of the most common
causes of stress. Learn to say no to things that will not affect your job,
school, or relationship.
6. Develop emotional support systems and use them. Confide your problems
to someone – a parent, a close friend or yours peers. It is very important to
have someone to share your bad or good feelings.
7. Let it all out. Overly express, through tears or laughter, to ease your
tension. Sometimes it is better to release your anger and frustration on the
shoulder of a loved one for this make you more relaxed and relieved than
any amount of time management, deep breathing, or rational discussion.
Dealing with Short-Term Stress
Short term stress is a “burst” of reaction to something in the environment.
This can affect the body in many ways. Here are some examples:
 Faster heartbeat and breath.
 Sweat production increases.
 Cold hands, feet, or skin.
 Sick feeling in the stomach.
 Tightens muscles or increases tension in the body.
 Leaves the mouth dry.
 Frequent tips to the bathroom.
 Increased muscle spams.
 Headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

57. Assuming that this burst of energy may help physically where the body needs
to react rapidly, adverse effects on the mind and performance can happen if there
is no outlet or reason for the stress. Examples of these effects are:
 Interferences with judgment and leads to bad decisions.
 Make difficult situations seems threatening.
 Reduces enjoyment.
 Makes it difficult to concentrate or to deal with distraction.
 Anxiety, frustration and anger.
 Makes one feel rejected, unable to laugh, afraid of free time, unable to
work, and unwillingness to discuss one’s problems with others.
Physical and Mental Signs of Long-term Stress
Stress occurring over long periods of time can have a great effect on the
body and mind. Some physical effects of long-term stress are:
 Change in appetite (making it either less or more).
 Change in sleeping habits (too much or too little).
 Encouraging “nervous” behavior such as twitching, fiddling, talking too
much, nail biting, teeth grinding, pacing, and other repetitive habits.
 Increased susceptibility to colds and flu and other illnesses such as asthma,
headaches, stomach problems, skin problems, and other aches and pains.
 Constant feelings of being tired and worn out.
Long term stress can also cause serious effects on mental health and
behaviour. If one is under stress for long periods of time, he/she may find it
difficult to think clearly, deal with problems, or even handle day-to-day situations.
Mental signs for long-term stress are:
 Worrying and feeling anxious (which can sometimes lead to anxiety
disorder and panic attacks).
 Feeling out of control, overwhelmed, confused, and/or unable to make
decisions.
 Experiencing mood changes such as depression, frustration, anger,
helplessness, irritability, defensiveness, irrationality, overreaction or
impatience, restlessness.
 Increased dependence on food, cigarettes, alcohol, or drugs.
 Neglecting important things in life such as work, school, and even personal
appearance.
 Developing irrational fears of things such as physical illnesses
(hypochondria), natural disasters like thunderstorms and earthquakes, and
even being terrified of ordinary situations like heights or small spaces.
Basic Nutrition and Nutrients for a Healthy Body
Nutrition refers to our daily food intake that affects the body. Nutrients are
absorbed in our body from food. These are essential for cell growth and

58. providing energy to the body and keeping it working efficiently. There are six
vital nutrients which our body needs on a daily basis. These are water,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals.
 Water
It is one of the most vital nutrients which our body needs. A human
cannot live more than 4 to 6 days without water. 40 to 60% of our body
weight is water. Muscle composition is approximately 70% water. The
amount of water one needs daily depends on their body weight, height,
and the activities one partakes in. On the average, the body requires 1.5
liter of water a day. This amount of water can also come from food, such
as fruits, which contain 75 to 95% of water.
 Carbohydrates
It is the main energy source of our body. All carbohydrates are made
of units of sugar. Carbohydrates that contain only one unit
(Monosaccharide) or two units (disaccharide) of sugar are referred to as
simple sugars. Long chains of simple sugar bonded together are called
complex sugars.
Processed sugar and sugar from fruits are the sources of simple
sugar. This type of sugar is used to get instant energy during exercise.
However, using such types to have endless energy will not work
because, as sugar levels in the blood increases, the body produces more
insulin to grab the sugar and dispose of it.
Complex sugar breaks down a lot slower in the body that is why it
lasts for a longer time. It is best to take around 55% of our daily
carbohydrates from complex sugars.
 Proteins
Protein (nutrient) is made up of amino acids that help build muscle
mass. It is also necessary for proper gland functions. Each cell and all
body fluids excluding urine and bile have protein content.
A normal human body’s daily protein need is about 70 to 80 grams.
Excessive protein will be stored as body fat. Food rich in protein are egg-
white, milk, yogurt, fish, beef, chicken, and beans.
 Fats
Fat is another term for lipid. Our bodies need fat to process vitamins
and minerals and to insulate its inner systems. Fat also provides energy
to our body when doing tasks which need physical strength, such as
exercise. However, an overdose of fats in the diet can result in obesity,
heart disease, and stroke.
There are three types of fat that we get from food:
 Saturated fat is the worst type of fat for the body and consists of
triglycerides. It causes the arteries to clog which results in strokes
and coronary heart disease.
 Polyunsaturated fat (polyunsaturated fatty acid) has less fatty
acid molecules than saturated fat that is why it is better. Omega-3
fatty acid is a type of polyunsaturated fat and is found only in fish

59. oils. Omega-3 helps in the development of the nervous system
and other bodily functions.
 Vitamins
Our body needs vitamins to help the chemical reactions within its cells.
There are two kinds of vitamins: Fat-soluble and Water-soluble.
Vitamins A, D, E, and K are the fat soluble vitamins and are stored in
the fat tissue. If these are not utilized, a person can build high levels of
toxins in the body. Vitamin B and C are water-soluble vitamins and are
excreted by the body if our daily amount of intake is too great.
Dietary minerals are non-organic substances which regulate processes
within the body. Minerals in the body help create enzymes, hormones,
skeletal bones, skeletal tissues, teeth, and fluids. The most common
nutrients are:
1. Vitamin A promotes good eyesight and keeps the body’s immune
system responsive to fight off diseases. Vitamin A is abundant on
dairy products, dark leafy green vegetables, and yellow fruits.
2. Vitamin B1, also called thiamin, helps the body absorb
carbohydrates. Examples of food rich in thiamin are pasta,
cereals, and whole grain breads.
3. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) aids metabolism by converting food into
energy. It is important for red blood cell formation. Examples of
Vit. B2-rich foods are asparagus, eggs, meat, and fortified cereal.
4. Vitamin B3 (niacin) helps in the digestive processes as well as the
conversion of food into energy. B3 can be found in white meats,
like lean chicken, salmon, and tuna. B3 is also abundant in
fortified cereals, enhanced flour, and peanuts.
5. Vitamin B6 is essential in keeping a sound nervous system as it
helps break down stored sugar and protein. Good sources of B6
are light chicken meat, eggs, fortified soy-based meat substitutes,
fortified cereals, banana, and baked unpeeled potatoes.
6. Vitamin B12 is a nutrient vital to red blood cell formation and is
usually found in soybeans, marine products like clams, mussels
and crabs, poultry meat, and beef.
7. Vitamin C’s most important function is in promoting the
production of chemicals for the brain’s neurotransmitters and
reinforcing the body’s resistance against common diseases. Foods
rich in vitamin C are citrus fruits, dark and leafy green vegetables,
cabbage, cauliflower, green or red bell peppers.
8. Vitamin D is essential to calcium production, which is critical to
the formation of bone and teeth mass. Sunlight up to 8:30 am
can be a good source of vitamin D. it can also be found in cheese,
fortified milk, salmon, cereals, and egg yolks.
9. Vitamin E is an antioxidant that plays an important role in
keeping the skin healthy. Examples of vitamin E-rich foods are
leafy green vegetables, soybeans, and vegetable oils.

60. 10.Folic acid is required nutrient among pregnant woman as it plays
an important role in cell formation to prevent birth defect,
maintain a healthy heart, and in the production of red blood cells.
Folic acid is abundant in dark and leafy green vegetables, grain
products, and cereal.
11.Copper is essential for proper metabolism of iron mineral, red
blood cell formation, and helps in the conversion of energy for
cell absorption. Foods high in copper are organ meats, marine
products like clams, crabs, and oysters, whole grain products,
wheat grain cereals, and cocoa products.
12.Iron is important as it functions as a supplier of oxygen to the
body for blood circulation. Good sources of iron are shellfish,
poultry, lean red meat, soy, beans, and dark green and leafy
vegetables.
13.Potassium is very vital in the performance of the nervous and
muscular systems. It also assists in ensuring the healthy balance
of water between blood and body tissues. Foods rich in
potassium are bananas, raisin, unpeeled potatoes, leafy green
vegetables, and tomatoes.
14.Zinc plays an important role in supporting the body’s
autoimmune nervous and reproductive systems. Good sources of
dietary zinc are dairy products, red meat, peanuts, soy foods, and
oysters.
Nature of Stress
Definitions:
1. Stress is external in origin; the interval reaction to it is called strain.
2. Stress can produce physiological-psychological disturbances. It can create
bodily tension that exceeds a person’s capacity to cope.
Theories of Stress
1. The Engineering Model. Stress is a force that acts upon a person and when
it gets too much for that person they will ‘snap.’ This concept is derived
from Hooke’s Law of elasticity in Physics.
2. Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). The general
characteristics are syndromes of being sick. He enumerated three stages: 1)
Alarm Reaction - the body develops a short line alarm reaction to the
obnoxious attack; 2)Stage of Resistance – the body adapts to and resists
the attack; 3) Stage of Exhaustion – the body’s continued resistance and
adaptation results in exhaustion, thereby leading to illness.
3. Brady-Crisis Decomposition Theory. Stages of stress situation: 1) confusion,
upset, and panic reactions; 2) attempted resolution mobilizes the body to
overcome exhaustion; 3) decompensation leads to withdrawal, depression,
guilt, and physical illness.
Major Causes of Stress

61. 1. Psychosocial. It has four major processes:
a. The need to adapt or adjust to changing circumstances.
b. The sense of frustration that accompanies the inability to achieve the
goal.
c. Overload or excessive demand.
d. Overstimulation usually in the form of boredom or loneliness.
2. Bio-ecological. Arises from the external environment; stress response to
habits and noise pollution.
3. Personality. Holmes and Holmes attributed stress to lifestyle: 20%
environment, 20% biological, 10% health, and 50% due to nutrition, drugs,
alcohol, body weight, psychological outlook, and driving habits.
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman named two personality types. Type A is
characterized by: talking rapidly, unduly irritated with delay or waiting, feeling
guilty when relaxing, workaholic. Type B is characterized by: slow movement,
can delay satisfaction, and enjoys relaxing, works in moderation. Type A is
more likely to be stressed than type B.
Stress Therapies
 Richard Lazarus, Transactional Model (1981, 1993) – the effect of the
interaction between the person and environment. He devised a scale to
measure stress in daily life. The constant minor irritants appeared to be
more important than large landmark changes. The more flexible a
person is, the lesser the stress.
 Suzanne Oullette, The Coping Styles (1987) – the degree to which
participants fell that they could control or influence life events,
involvement in or commitment to life activities, and the extent to which
change was viewed as an exciting challenge to further develop the three
C’s – control, commitment, and challenge. She called a person
possessing these as the “hardiness personality type.”
The Immune Power Personality
There are seven traits that people can develop to stay healthy and be able to
overcome crises in life. These are:
1. The Ace Factor (Gary Schwatz) – attend, connect, and express. People who
tune properly to mind-body signals have better coping mechanisms.
2. The Capacity to Confide (James W. Pennebaker) – individuals who disclose
their feelings to themselves and others have healthier personality profiles.
3. Hardiness (Suzanne K. Oullete) – includes “three C’s”: ability to control,
sense of commitment, and ability to view stress as a challenge rather than a
threat.
4. Assertiveness (George F. Solomon) – the ability to recognize one’s
legitimate right and to express it.
5. Affiliative Trust (David McClelland) – the ability to form relationships based
on unconditional love and trust.

62. 6. Healthy Helping, The Trait of Altruism (Allan Luks) – those who assist others
suffer fewer illnesses.
7. Self-Complexity (Patricia Linville) – people who explore many facets of
their personalities can better withstand stressful life situations.
Unhealthy Lifestyle Factor
Contributory Factors to Bad Health
 Smoking – increases the risk for heart ailment, lung cancer,
pulmonary or respiratory infections, and tumors.
 Substance abuse – continued use of drugs and alcohol can damage
every organ in the body.
 Lack of exercise – people who are less physically fit tend to become ill
when stressed.
 Poor diet – too much carbohydrates and improper nutrition can
lower cardiovascular fitness in people of all ages.
Steps to a Healthy Lifestyle
1. Eat proper nutrition – avoid junk foods, eat less carbohydrates; drink at
least 1.5 to 2 liters of water daily; and add more dietary fiber for this will
help in the kidney to function well.
2. Apply a positive outlook on life.
3. Practice sports – promote regular physical fitness that increase muscle
flexibility; walking for at least 30 minutes a day helps regulate blood
circulation.
4. Relax and listen to music regularly.
5. Target a goal oriented life style and its benefits/
6. Smile and enhance your sense of humor. It takes 17 facial muscles to smile;
it takes only 41 facial muscles to frown.
7. Avoid smoking and substance abuse.
8. Diversity interests.
9. Practice family solidarity.
Lazarus’ Cognitive Theory of Stress
- He believes that it is not the stressor that causes stress but the person’s
perception of the stressor. When people are confronted with a
potentially stressful event, they undergo cognitive processing. It is
composed of a primary and secondary appraisal.
Primary appraisal is the evaluation of the meaning and significance of the
situation. How it affects the person is perceived relevant or positive or negative or
irrelevant. Any event appraised as stressful may involve:
 Harm or loss
 Threat leads to potential stressor
 Challenge opportunity to grow or gain

63. Any appraisal that can affect friendship, finances, and self-esteem could be
a threat. It is assessed as negative, with a feeling of anxiety and fear. An appraisal
involving challenge and chance to be productive is usually accompanied by
excitement, hopefulness, and eagerness. This is considered positive and relevant.
Secondary appraisal is an evaluation of one’s coping resources, such as,
physical health, energy and stamina, psychological skills, morale and self-esteem,
money, and time.