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![Further information: Outline of psychology and Index of psychology articles
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental
functions and behaviors.[1][2]
Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals
and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases,[3][4]
and by
many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society.[5][6]
In this field, a professional practitioner
or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive
scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and
social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that
underlie certain cognitive functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion,
phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal
relationships. Psychologists of diverse stripes also consider the unconscious mind.[7]
Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between
psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive
methods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic
interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub
science",[8]
with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social
sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health
problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different
spheres of human activity. The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of
therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research
on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in
university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools,
hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[9]
such
as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic
investigation and other aspects of law.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
o 2.1 Structuralism
o 2.2 Functionalism
o 2.3 Psychoanalysis
o 2.4 Behaviorism
o 2.5 Humanism
o 2.6 Gestalt
o 2.7 Existentialism
o 2.8 Cognitivism
3 Subfields
o 3.1 Biological
o 3.2 Clinical](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-11-320.jpg)
![o 3.3 Cognitive
o 3.4 Comparative
o 3.5 Developmental
o 3.6 Educational and school
o 3.7 Evolutionary
o 3.8 Industrial–organizational
o 3.9 Personality
o 3.10 Social
o 3.11 Positive
4 Research methods
o 4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research
o 4.2 Controlled experiments
o 4.3 Survey questionnaires
o 4.4 Longitudinal studies
o 4.5 Observation in natural settings
o 4.6 Qualitative and descriptive research
o 4.7 Neuropsychological methods
o 4.8 Computational modeling
o 4.9 Animal studies
5 Criticism
o 5.1 Theory
o 5.2 Practice
o 5.3 Ethical standards
o 5.4 Systemic bias
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Etymology
The word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (ψυχή, psukhē, meaning "breath",
"spirit", or "soul"; and -λογος -logos, translated as "study of" or "research"[10]
).[11]
The Latin
word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his
book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century.[12]
The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694
in The Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology,
which treats of the Soul."[13]
History
Main article: History of psychology](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-12-320.jpg)
![Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.
Wundt is credited with setting up psychology as a field of scientific inquiry independent of the
disciplines philosophy and biology.
The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of
Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. Historians point to the writings of ancient Greek
philosophers, such as Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise),[14]
as the
first significant body of work in the West to be rich in psychological thought.[15]
As early as the
4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders were of a physical,
rather than divine, nature.[16]
Structuralism
Main article: Structuralism (psychology)
German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a
laboratory setting. Known as the "father of experimental psychology",[17]
he founded the first
psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879.[17]
Wundt focused on breaking down
mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent
advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material.
Although Wundt, himself, was not a structuralist, his student Edward Titchener, a major figure in
early American psychology, was a structuralist thinker opposed to functionalist approaches.
Functionalism
Main article: Functional psychology
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was
heavily influenced by the work of the American philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William
James. James felt that psychology should have practical value, and that psychologists should find
out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book, Principles of Psychology,[18]
published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would
explore for years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey
Carr.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-13-320.jpg)
![Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann
Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models
of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,[19]
and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan
Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning"
and applied to human beings.[20]
Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and
others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist—
concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider
cognitive science.[21]
In its early years, this development was seen as a "revolution",[21]
as it both
responded to and reacted against strains of thought, including psychodynamics and behaviorism,
that had developed in the meantime.
Psychoanalysis
Main article: Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed
psychoanalysis, which comprised a method of investigating the mind and interpreting
experience; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to
treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict.[22]
Freud's
psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical
observations. It became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality,
repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These
were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be
openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free
association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.[23][24]
Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl
Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.
Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology
became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of
the mid-20th century included psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-14-320.jpg)
![Among these thinkers were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich
Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century,
psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-
Freudian.[25]
Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and
by philosophers including Karl Popper. Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that
psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline,[26]
whereas Eysenck said that
psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of 20th century,
psychology departments in American universities had become scientifically oriented,
marginalizing Freudian theory and dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[27]
Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some
of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,[28]
while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud
was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."[27]
Behaviorism
Main article: Behaviorism
Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed
instruction.
In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s.
Behaviorism is a discipline that was established in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and
embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F.
Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might be predisposed, or
conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways.
Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that behavioral tendencies are
determined by immediate associations between various environmental stimuli and the degree of
pleasure or pain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of organisms'
conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were held to exert
influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their associated
pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which
was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.
Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism
and determinism.[29]
He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-15-320.jpg)
![scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He
focused on behavior–environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior
as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[30]
Behaviorists usually rejected or
deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing
an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped
behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[29]
Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment
which applied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and the clarification of the
difference between classical conditioning and operant (or instrumental) conditioning, first by
Miller and Kanorski and then by Skinner.[31][32]
Skinner's version of behaviorism emphasized
operant conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their
consequences.
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely
regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[33]
Martin Seligman and
colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that
opposed the predictions of behaviorism.[34][35]
But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in
part because it generated successful practical applications.[33]
The fall of behaviorism as an
overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive
approaches.[36]
Humanism
Main article: Humanistic psychology
Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it
makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first (food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be
met.[37]
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and
psychoanalysis.[38]
By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity, and first-person categories, the
humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the
personality or cognitive functioning.[39]
Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely
human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity,
death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-16-320.jpg)
![emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth
rather than pathology.[citation needed]
Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were
American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and
Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology
opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.
Gestalt
Main article: Gestalt psychology
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt
psychology. This approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified
wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century
in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking down thoughts and
behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is
important, and the whole is different than the sum of its parts.
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only
peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
Existentialism
Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy
In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger
and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist
Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential
psychotherapy, a method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner conflict within a person
is due to that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence.
Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their
comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of
anxiety.[40]
Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and
meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns,[41]
and that it
can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often
anxious, regard for death and other future prospects.
Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of
meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment,[42]
and he
created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist
analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's Nietzschean
doctrine of will to power or Freud's will to pleasure.[43]
In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American
psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.[44]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-17-320.jpg)
![Cognitivism
Main articles: Cognitivism (psychology) and Cognitive psychology
Baddeley's model of working memory
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including
problem solving, perception, memory, and learning. As part of the larger field of cognitive
science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience,
philosophy, and linguistics.
Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the
behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement". Chomsky argued that such
ideas—which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be
applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a superficial and
vague manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for
acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior, including
language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement.[45]
Social learning theorists, such as
Albert Bandura, argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the
behaviors of an observant subject.[46]
The Müller-Lyer illusion. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared
phenomena such as optical illusions.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-18-320.jpg)
![Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and
representations—i.e., the cognition—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English
neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used
experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the
brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn
between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines.
Research in cognition had proven practical since World War II, when it aided in the
understanding of weapons operation.[47]
By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had
become the dominant paradigm of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular
branch.
Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied, and that the scientific method should be
used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as subliminal processing and implicit
memory in place of the psychoanalytic unconscious mind or the behavioristic contingency-
shaped behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form
the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques
developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck.
Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind,
computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science.
Subfields
Main article: Subfields of psychology
Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology disciplines
Psychology encompasses a vast domain and includes many different approaches to the study of
mental processes and behavior.
Biological
Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, and
Cognitive neuroscience
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-19-320.jpg)
![Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the study of the biological substrates of
behavior and mental processes. There are different specialties within behavioral neuroscience.
For example, physiological psychologists use animal models, typically rats, to study the neural,
genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie specific behaviors such as learning and memory
and fear responses.[48]
Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of psychological
processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological
assessments to determine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by
brain damage or disease.
Clinical
Clinical psychologists work with individuals, children, families, couples, or small groups.
Main articles: Clinical psychology and Counseling psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of
understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to
promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are
psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in
research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and
administration.[49]
Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients
with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical
psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic
approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually
an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices
are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to
form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new
ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic,
cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a
growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased
understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the
advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of
the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a
strong therapeutic alliance.[50][51]
Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are
now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.[52][53][54][55][56]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-20-320.jpg)
![Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of
non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance,
and development of behavior. Research in this area addresses many different issues, uses many
different methods, and explores the behavior of many different species, from insects to primates.
It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as ethology.[57]
Research
in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some
attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the Sociobiology of E. O.
Wilson.[58]
Animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior,
e.g. in cognitive neuroscience.
Developmental
Main article: Developmental psychology
A baby with a book
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental
psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the
world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on cognitive, affective,
moral, social, or neural development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique
research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental
tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable
for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study
the mental processes of infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists
also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change
(such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of
psychological theories to inform their research.
Educational and school
Main articles: Educational psychology and School psychology](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-22-320.jpg)
![An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test used in educational psychology.
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the
effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology
of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget,
Bernard Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and
educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in
places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to
understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted
students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe,
supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational
and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive
training in research.[59]
Evolutionary
Main article: Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or
language—from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human
psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional products of natural selection
or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that psychological adaptations evolved to
solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. By focusing on the evolution of
psychological traits and their adaptive functions, it offers complementary explanations for the
mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by other areas of psychology (that is,
it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" questions, rather than proximate or "how?" questions).
Industrial–organizational
Main article: Industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (I–O) applies psychological concepts and methods to
optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I–O psychology,
applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I–O
psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work
environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.[60]
Personality
Main article: Personality psychology
Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion—
commonly referred to as personality—in individuals. Theories of personality vary across](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-23-320.jpg)
![different psychological schools and orientations. They carry different assumptions about such
issues as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to
Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego.[61]
Trait
theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by
the statistical method of factor analysis. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An
early model, proposed by Hans Eysenck, suggested that there are three traits which comprise
human personality: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell
proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. Dimensional models of personality are receiving
increasing support, and some version of dimensional assessment will be included in the
forthcoming DSM-V.
Social
Main article: Social psychology
See also: Social psychology (sociology)
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
Social psychology is the study of how humans think about each other and how they relate to each
other. Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's
behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes
about other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order
to understand how people process, remember, or distort social information. The study of group
dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership,
communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the microsocial level. In recent
years, many social psychologists have become increasingly interested in implicit measures,
mediational models, and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for
behavior. The study of human society is therefore a potentially valuable source of information
about the causes of psychiatric disorder. Some of the sociological concepts applied to psychiatric
disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture, migration, social, and total
institution.[62]
Positive
Main article: Positive psychology](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-24-320.jpg)
![Positive psychology derives from Maslow's humanistic psychology. Positive psychology is a
discipline that utilizes evidence-based scientific methods to study factors that contribute to
human happiness and strength. Different from clinical psychology, positive psychology is
concerned with improving the mental well-being of healthy clients. Positive psychological
interventions now have received tentative support for their beneficial effects on clients. In 2010
Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological
interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of gratitude. There is,
however, a need for further research on the effects of interventions. Positive psychological
interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are thought to be superior to that of
placebos, especially with regard to helping people with body image problems.
Research methods
Main article: Psychological research
Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on knowledge from other fields to help explain and
understand psychological phenomena. Additionally, psychologists make extensive use of the
three modes of inference that were identified by C. S. Peirce: deduction, induction, and
abduction (hypothesis generation). While often employing deductive–nomological reasoning,
they also rely on inductive reasoning to generate explanations. For example, evolutionary
psychologists attempt to explain psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or
language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual
selection.
Psychologists may conduct basic research aiming for further understanding in a particular area of
interest in psychology, or conduct applied research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or
other areas. Masters level clinical programs aim to train students in both research methods and
evidence-based practice. Professional associations have established guidelines for ethics,
training, research methodology and professional practice. In addition, depending on the country,
state or region, psychological services and the title "psychologist" may be governed by statute
and psychologists who offer services to the public are usually required to be licensed.
Qualitative and quantitative research
Research in most areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the standards of the scientific
method. Psychological researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and
hypotheses from data, using qualitative or quantitative methods (or both).
Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and
participant observation. Creswell (2003) identifies five main possibilities for qualitative research,
including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Qualitative
researchers[63]
sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective
experiences, or social structures. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also been served by
"quantitative methods", as in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting[citation needed]
or Stanley
Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-25-320.jpg)
![Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses.
Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-
sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study. The measurement and
operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs.
Statistical methods include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of
variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and
hierarchical linear modeling.
Controlled experiments
Main article: Experiment
Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a
parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the CONSORT 2010 Statement[64]
Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions.
This method of research relies on the application of the scientific method to understand behavior.
Experimenters use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and
various psychometric measurements. Experiments are designed to test specific hypotheses
(deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive approach). A true
experiment with random allocation of subjects to conditions allows researchers to infer causal
relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. In an experiment, one
or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and
another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable).
Experiments are one of the primary research methods in many areas of psychology, particularly
cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological
psychology/cognitive neuroscience.
Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely informed and voluntary
consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of
experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of
Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board
in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-26-320.jpg)
![Phineas P. Gage survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through
his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and is remembered for that injury's
reported effects on his personality and behavior.[65]
Main article: Naturalistic observation
Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of
chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct observational studies of ongoing human
social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being
observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict ethical
guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out.
Qualitative and descriptive research
Artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast
network of neurons in the human brain.
Main article: Qualitative research
Research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs such as the thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors of individuals is known as descriptive research. Descriptive research can
be qualitative or quantitative in orientation. Qualitative research is descriptive research that is
focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the
richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena
that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations have been made.
Neuropsychological methods](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-28-320.jpg)
![Main article: Neuropsychology
A rat undergoing a Morris water navigation test used in behavioral neuroscience to study the role
of the hippocampus in spatial learning and memory.
Neuropsychological research methods are employed in studies that examine the relation of
mental activity and behavior to the structure and function of the brain. These methods include
testing (e.g., the various Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), functional
neuroimaging, and transcranial magnetic stimulation.
Computational modeling
The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter
believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and confederate. The
subject believes that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks,
though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the
confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-
recorded sounds for each shock level etc.[66]
Computational modeling[67]
is a tool often used in mathematical psychology and cognitive
psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-29-320.jpg)
![advantages. Since modern computers process information extremely quickly, many simulations
can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows
psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that
couldn't be directly observed in a human.
Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural
networks to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many
different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic
systems and stochastic modeling.
Animal studies
Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including
perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human
primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats, and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments.
Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to
ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in
laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely,
and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human
subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans
through animal models.[68]
Criticism
Theory
Criticisms of psychological research often come from perceptions that it is a "soft" science.
Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique[69]
implied psychology overall was in a pre-
paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as
chemistry and physics.
Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires,
critics have asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Other concepts that
psychologists are interested in, such as personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly
measured[70]
and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic.[71][72]
Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Research[which?]
has documented
that many psychologists confuse statistical significance with practical importance. Statistically
significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples.[73]
Some
psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole
reliance on the Fisherian p < .05 significance criterion (whereby an observed difference is
deemed "statistically significant" if an effect of that size or larger would occur with 5% -or less-
probability in independent replications, assuming the truth of the null-hypothesis of no difference](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-30-320.jpg)
![between the treatments).[citation needed]
False positive conclusions, often resulting from the pressure
to publish or the author's own confirmation bias, are an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a
certain degree of skepticism on the part of readers.[74]
Sometimes the debate comes from within psychology, for example between laboratory-oriented
researchers and practitioners such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there
has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance
of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.[75]
Practice
Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the
application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[76]
Critics say there has been an increase
in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence.[77]
One
skeptic asserts that practices, such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; memory-
recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and
reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.[78]
In 1984, Allen
Neuringer made a similar point[vague]
regarding the experimental analysis of behavior.[79]
Ethical standards
Current ethical standards of psychology would not permit some studies to be conducted today.
These human studies would violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association,
the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report.
Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only
acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the
benefits of the research.[80]
Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use on animals research
techniques that could not be used on humans.
An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised questions about the ethics of scientific
experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants. It
measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed
them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.[81]
Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments on rhesus macaque
monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s.[82]
The aim of the
research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression. Harlow also devised
what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey
mating posture.[83]
In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry
Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade,
invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed
by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism
of the morality of his work.[84]
University psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-
being of research subjects. Researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-31-320.jpg)
![projects before conducting any experiment to protect the interests of human participants and
laboratory animals.[85]
Systemic bias
In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and
discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying a possible publication
bias.[86][87][88]
Similarly, Fanelli (2010)[89]
found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies
confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a
positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as space- or geosciences. Fanelli
argues that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their
conscious and unconscious biases.
In 2010, a group of researchers reported a systemic bias in psychology studies towards WEIRD
("western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic") subjects.[90]
Although only 1/8 people
worldwide fall into the WEIRD classification, the researchers claimed that 60–90% of
psychology studies are performed on WEIRD subjects. The article gave examples of results that
differ significantly between WEIRD subjects and tribal cultures, including the Müller-Lyer
illusion.
See also
Psychology portal
Mind and Brain portal
Philosophy portal
Psychology at Wikipedia books
Group psychotherapy
List of psychologists
List of psychology organizations
List of important publications in psychology
Media psychology
Philosophy of psychology
Social work
References
1. ^ "How does the APA define "psychology"?". Retrieved 15 November 2011.
2. ^ "Definition of "Psychology (APA's Index Page)"". Retrieved 20 December 2011.
3. ^ Fernald LD (2008). Psychology: Six perspectives (pp. 12–15). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
4. ^ Hockenbury & Hockenbury. Psychology. Worth Publishers, 2010.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-32-320.jpg)
![5. ^ O'Neil, H.F.; cited in Coon, D.; Mitterer, J.O. (2008). Introduction to psychology:
Gateways to mind and behavior (12th ed., pp. 15–16). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
6. ^ "The mission of the APA [American Psychological Association] is to advance the
creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society
and improve people’s lives"; APA (2010). About APA. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
7. ^ Although psychoanalysis and other forms of depth psychology are most typically
associated with the unconscious mind, behaviorists consider such phenomena as classical
conditioning and operant conditioning, while cognitivists explore implicit memory,
automaticity, and subliminal messages, all of which are understood either to bypass or to
occur outside of conscious effort or attention. Indeed, cognitive-behavioral therapists
counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of
which the clients previously had not been conscious.
8. ^ "Psychology is a Hub Science". Association for Psychological Science Observer
(September 2007)
9. ^ Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2010–11 Edition, Psychologists, on the Internet at bls.gov (visited July 08,
2010).
10. ^ Psychology
11. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary. (2001). "Psychology".
12. ^ "Classics in the History of Psychology – Marko Marulic – The Author of the Term
"Psychology"". Psychclassics.yorku.ca. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
13. ^ (Steven Blankaart, p. 13) as quoted in "psychology n." A Dictionary of Psychology.
Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online.
Oxford University Press. oxfordreference.com
14. ^ "Aristotle's Psychology". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
15. ^ Green, C.D. & Groff, P.R. (2003). Early psychological thought: Ancient accounts of
mind and soul. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
16. ^ T.L. Brink. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. "Unit One: The
Definition and History of Psychology." pp 9 [1].
17. ^ a b
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2006). "Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt".
18. ^ The Principles of Psychology (1890), with introduction by George A. Miller, Harvard
University Press, 1983 paperback, ISBN 0-674-70625-0 (combined edition, 1328 pages)
19. ^ Wozniak, R.H. (1999). Introduction to memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913).
Classics in the history of psychology
20. ^ Windholz, G. (1997). "Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological
work". American Psychologist 52 (9): 941–946. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.941.
21. ^ a b
Mandler, G. (2007). A history of modern experimental psychology: From James and
Wundt to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
22. ^ Moore, B.E.; Fine, B.D. (1968), A Glossary of Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts,
Amer Psychoanalytic Assn, p. 78, ISBN 978-0-318-13125-2
23. ^ Freud, S (1900). The Interpretation of Dreams. IV and V (2nd ed.). Hogarth Press,
1955.
24. ^ Freud, S (1915). The Unconscious XIV (2nd ed.). Hogarth Press, 1955.
25. ^ Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, Lacanian,
and relational psychoanalysis. Modification of Jung's theories led to the archetypal and
process-oriented schools.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-33-320.jpg)
![26. ^ Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963,
pp. 33–39; from Theodore Schick, ed., Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mountain
View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 9–13. Faculty.washington.edu
27. ^ a b
June 2008 study by the [[American Psychoanalytic Association, as reported in the
New York Times], "Freud Is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology
Department" by Patricia Cohen, November 25, 2007.
28. ^ For example, scientists have related brain structures to Freudian concepts such as
libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression. The contributors to neuro-psychoanalysis
include António Damásio (Damásio, A. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and
the human brain; Damásio, A. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible
functions of the prefrontal cortex; Damásio, A. (1999). The feeling of what happens:
Body and emotion in the making of consciousness; Damásio, A. (2003). Looking for
Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain); Eric Kandel; Joseph E. LeDoux (LeDoux,
J.E. (1998). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life
(Touchstone ed.). Simon & Schuster. Original work published 1996. ISBN 0-684-83659-
9); Jaak Panksepp (Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of
human and animal emotions. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press); Oliver
Sacks (Sacks, O. (1984). A leg to stand on. New York: Summit Books/Simon and
Schuster); Mark Solms (Kaplan-Solms, K., & Solms, M. (2000). Clinical studies in
neuro-psychoanalysis: Introduction to a depth neuropsychology. London: Karnac Books;
Solms, M., & Turnbull, O. (2002). The brain and the inner world: An introduction to the
neuroscience of subjective experience. New York: Other Press); and Douglas Watt.
29. ^ a b
Overskeid, G. (2007). "Looking for Skinner and finding Freud". American
Psychologist 62(6), 590–595.
30. ^ Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism. New York: Random House
31. ^ Miller, S. & Konorski, J. (1928) Sur une forme particulière des reflexes conditionels.
‘’Comptes Rendus des Seances de la Societe de Biologie et de ses Filiales’’, 99, 1155–
1157
32. ^ Skinner, B. F. (1932) ‘’The Behavior of Organisms’’
33. ^ a b
Schlinger, H.D. (2008). "The long good-bye: why B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is
alive and well on the 50th anniversary of its publication". The Psychological Record.
34. ^ Seligman M.E.P.; Maier S.F. (1967). "Failure to escape traumatic shock". Journal of
Experimental Psychology 74 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1037/h0024514. PMID 6032570.
35. ^ Overmier J.B.; Seligman M.E.P. (1967). "Effects of inescapable shock upon
subsequent escape and avoidance responding". Journal of Comparative and
Physiological Psychology 63 (1): 28–33. doi:10.1037/h0024166. PMID 6029715.
36. ^ [[George Abram Miller|George A. Miller. The cognitive revolution: a historical
perspective, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol.7, No.3, March 2003]
37. ^ "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs". Honolulu.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
38. ^ Gazzaniga, Michael (2010). Psychological Science. New York: W.W. Norton &
Company. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-393-93421-2.
39. ^ Rowan, John. (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy: The Dialectics of Humanistic Psychology.
London, UK: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23633-9
40. ^ Hergenhahn, B.R. (2005). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, CA,
USA: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 546–47.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-130613063510-phpapp01/85/Psychology-34-320.jpg)
![Textbooks from Wikibooks
Psychology at the Open Directory Project
Psychology, an external wiki
American Psychological Association
Association for Psychological Science
Discovering Psychology. (2001). The History of Psychology:Contemporary Foundations
The Florida State University PSYCHOLOGY.(2011).HISTORY
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Uploaded byRodelio Dela Cruz
Psychology
1. The document discusses the major branches of psychology, including abnormal psychology, behavioral psychology, biopsychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, cross-cultural psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, experimental psychology, and forensic psychology. 2. Each branch looks at psychological questions from a different perspective, with foci including psychopathology, learning and behaviorism, the brain and nervous system, thinking and cognition, animal behavior, cultural influences, lifespan development, education issues, research methods, and psychology and law. 3. While each branch has its own focus, all share the goal of studying and explaining human thought and behavior from different angles using scientific approaches.
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Psychology
- 1. 1. Education Psychology Psychology Basics Theories Experiments Share Print Free PsychologyNewsletter! Discuss in my forum Branches of Psychology Overview of the Major Branches of Psychology By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide Ads: Courses Psychology Careers in Psychology School Psychology Educational Psychology Psychology Degree Program There are a number of unique and distinctive branches of psychology. Each branch looks at questions and problems from a different perspective. While each branch has its own focus on psychological problems or concerns, all areas share a common goal of studying and explaining human thought and behavior. The following are some of the major branches of psychology within the field today. 1. Abnormal Psychology
- 2. Photo by MarcinBalcerzak/iStockPhoto Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsession-compulsion to sexual deviation and many more. Counselors, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists often work directly in this field. What is Abnormal Psychology? Mental Disorders Ads What Does My Dream Meanwww.DreamsCloud.comFree dream analysis / reflection. Online Dream Journal. Try it free. What is DownSyndrome?www.downtv.orgAll videos on DownSyndrome All the info at Down TV Questions & Answerswww.Facebook.comOnline Tests, Quizzes and Surveys On Various Subjects. Sign Up now! 2. Behavioral Psychology Photo by Kim Gunkel/iStockPhoto Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. While this branch of psychology dominated the field during the first part of the twentieth century, it became less prominent during the 1950s. However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education and many other areas. What is Behaviorism? Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules Behavioral Analysis 3. Biopsychology
- 3. Photo from theWikimedia Commons The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain influences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it has also been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology. What is Biopsychology? Neuron Basics Nervous & Endocrine Systems Structure of a Neuron 4. Cognitive Psychology Photo by Bart Coenders/iStockPhoto Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s. What is Cognitive Psychology? Careers in Cognitive Psychology Memory Intelligence 5. Comparative Psychology Photo by Dimitri Castrique Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology. What is Comparative Psychology?
- 4. 6. Cross-Cultural Psychology Photoby B S K Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that time. Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures throughout the world. 7. Developmental Psychology Photo by Lotus Head This branch of psychology looks at development throughout the lifespan, from childhood to adulthood. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual and personality development. Topics studied in this field include everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease. What is Development? How is Development Studied? Issues in Developmental Psychology Child Development Theories 8. Educational Psychology Photo by Heriberto Herrera Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology, educational issues and student concerns. Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers and administrators to improve student outcomes. Careers in School Psychology
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- 8. Psychology Dictionary Careers inPsychology History of Psychology Homework Help Research & Experiments Disorders / Therapies Psychology 1. About.com 2. Education 3. Psychology 4. Psychology 101 5. Branches of Psychology 6. Branches of Psychology Advertise on About.com Our Story News & Events SiteMap All Topics Reprints Help Write for About Careers at About User Agreement Ethics Policy Patent Info. Privacy Policy Your Ad Choices ©2013 About.com. All rights reserved. Psychology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Psychology
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- 11. Further information: Outlineof psychology and Index of psychology articles Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors.[1][2] Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases,[3][4] and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society.[5][6] In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie certain cognitive functions and behaviors. Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists of diverse stripes also consider the unconscious mind.[7] Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science",[8] with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as philosophy. While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[9] such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History o 2.1 Structuralism o 2.2 Functionalism o 2.3 Psychoanalysis o 2.4 Behaviorism o 2.5 Humanism o 2.6 Gestalt o 2.7 Existentialism o 2.8 Cognitivism 3 Subfields o 3.1 Biological o 3.2 Clinical
- 12. o 3.3 Cognitive o3.4 Comparative o 3.5 Developmental o 3.6 Educational and school o 3.7 Evolutionary o 3.8 Industrial–organizational o 3.9 Personality o 3.10 Social o 3.11 Positive 4 Research methods o 4.1 Qualitative and quantitative research o 4.2 Controlled experiments o 4.3 Survey questionnaires o 4.4 Longitudinal studies o 4.5 Observation in natural settings o 4.6 Qualitative and descriptive research o 4.7 Neuropsychological methods o 4.8 Computational modeling o 4.9 Animal studies 5 Criticism o 5.1 Theory o 5.2 Practice o 5.3 Ethical standards o 5.4 Systemic bias 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Etymology The word psychology literally means, "study of the soul" (ψυχή, psukhē, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"; and -λογος -logos, translated as "study of" or "research"[10] ).[11] The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century.[12] The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."[13] History Main article: History of psychology
- 13. Wilhelm Wundt (seated)with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind. Wundt is credited with setting up psychology as a field of scientific inquiry independent of the disciplines philosophy and biology. The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. Historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such as Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise),[14] as the first significant body of work in the West to be rich in psychological thought.[15] As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders were of a physical, rather than divine, nature.[16] Structuralism Main article: Structuralism (psychology) German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a laboratory setting. Known as the "father of experimental psychology",[17] he founded the first psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879.[17] Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material. Although Wundt, himself, was not a structuralist, his student Edward Titchener, a major figure in early American psychology, was a structuralist thinker opposed to functionalist approaches. Functionalism Main article: Functional psychology Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of the American philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology should have practical value, and that psychologists should find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book, Principles of Psychology,[18] published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would explore for years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.
- 14. Other 19th-century contributorsto the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin,[19] and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[20] Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist— concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[21] In its early years, this development was seen as a "revolution",[21] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought, including psychodynamics and behaviorism, that had developed in the meantime. Psychoanalysis Main article: Psychoanalysis From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, which comprised a method of investigating the mind and interpreting experience; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict.[22] Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. It became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.[23][24] Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi. Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century included psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers.
- 15. Among these thinkerswere Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo- Freudian.[25] Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper. Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline,[26] whereas Eysenck said that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of 20th century, psychology departments in American universities had become scientifically oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[27] Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,[28] while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."[27] Behaviorism Main article: Behaviorism Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed instruction. In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline that was established in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might be predisposed, or conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways. Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associations between various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated. Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism.[29] He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific
- 16. scrutiny and thatscientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He focused on behavior–environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[30] Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[29] Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment which applied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and the clarification of the difference between classical conditioning and operant (or instrumental) conditioning, first by Miller and Kanorski and then by Skinner.[31][32] Skinner's version of behaviorism emphasized operant conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences. Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[33] Martin Seligman and colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism.[34][35] But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications.[33] The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[36] Humanism Main article: Humanistic psychology Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first (food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[37] Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[38] By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity, and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[39] Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its
- 17. emphasis on subjectivemeaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology.[citation needed] Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration. Gestalt Main article: Gestalt psychology Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is important, and the whole is different than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. Existentialism Main articles: Existentialism and Existential therapy In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psychotherapy, a method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety.[40] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns,[41] and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment,[42] and he created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine of will to power or Freud's will to pleasure.[43] In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.[44]
- 18. Cognitivism Main articles: Cognitivism(psychology) and Cognitive psychology Baddeley's model of working memory Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including problem solving, perception, memory, and learning. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics. Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement". Chomsky argued that such ideas—which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a superficial and vague manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement.[45] Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura, argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject.[46] The Müller-Lyer illusion. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical illusions.
- 19. Meanwhile, accumulating technologyhelped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and representations—i.e., the cognition—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since World War II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.[47] By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant paradigm of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular branch. Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied, and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as subliminal processing and implicit memory in place of the psychoanalytic unconscious mind or the behavioristic contingency- shaped behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science. Subfields Main article: Subfields of psychology Further information: Outline of psychology and List of psychology disciplines Psychology encompasses a vast domain and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Biological Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, and Cognitive neuroscience MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.
- 20. Biological psychology orbehavioral neuroscience is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes. There are different specialties within behavioral neuroscience. For example, physiological psychologists use animal models, typically rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie specific behaviors such as learning and memory and fear responses.[48] Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by brain damage or disease. Clinical Clinical psychologists work with individuals, children, families, couples, or small groups. Main articles: Clinical psychology and Counseling psychology Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.[49] Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[50][51] Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.[52][53][54][55][56]
- 21. Cognitive Main article: Cognitivepsychology Green Red Blue Purple Blue Purple Blue Purple Red Green Purple Green The Stroop effect refers to the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying mental activity. Perception, attention, reasoning, thinking, problem solving, memory, learning, language, and emotion are areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by functionalism and experimental psychology. On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas neuroscience provides measures of brain activity. Comparative The common chimpanzee can use tools. This chimpanzee is using a stick in order to get food. Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition
- 22. Comparative psychology refersto the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area addresses many different issues, uses many different methods, and explores the behavior of many different species, from insects to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as ethology.[57] Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the Sociobiology of E. O. Wilson.[58] Animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience. Developmental Main article: Developmental psychology A baby with a book Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on cognitive, affective, moral, social, or neural development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research. Educational and school Main articles: Educational psychology and School psychology
- 23. An example ofan item from a cognitive abilities test used in educational psychology. Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand. School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.[59] Evolutionary Main article: Evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. By focusing on the evolution of psychological traits and their adaptive functions, it offers complementary explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by other areas of psychology (that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" questions, rather than proximate or "how?" questions). Industrial–organizational Main article: Industrial and organizational psychology Industrial and organizational psychology (I–O) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I–O psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I–O psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.[60] Personality Main article: Personality psychology Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion— commonly referred to as personality—in individuals. Theories of personality vary across
- 24. different psychological schoolsand orientations. They carry different assumptions about such issues as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego.[61] Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the statistical method of factor analysis. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early model, proposed by Hans Eysenck, suggested that there are three traits which comprise human personality: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and some version of dimensional assessment will be included in the forthcoming DSM-V. Social Main article: Social psychology See also: Social psychology (sociology) Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior. Social psychology is the study of how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remember, or distort social information. The study of group dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the microsocial level. In recent years, many social psychologists have become increasingly interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for behavior. The study of human society is therefore a potentially valuable source of information about the causes of psychiatric disorder. Some of the sociological concepts applied to psychiatric disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture, migration, social, and total institution.[62] Positive Main article: Positive psychology
- 25. Positive psychology derivesfrom Maslow's humanistic psychology. Positive psychology is a discipline that utilizes evidence-based scientific methods to study factors that contribute to human happiness and strength. Different from clinical psychology, positive psychology is concerned with improving the mental well-being of healthy clients. Positive psychological interventions now have received tentative support for their beneficial effects on clients. In 2010 Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of gratitude. There is, however, a need for further research on the effects of interventions. Positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are thought to be superior to that of placebos, especially with regard to helping people with body image problems. Research methods Main article: Psychological research Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Additionally, psychologists make extensive use of the three modes of inference that were identified by C. S. Peirce: deduction, induction, and abduction (hypothesis generation). While often employing deductive–nomological reasoning, they also rely on inductive reasoning to generate explanations. For example, evolutionary psychologists attempt to explain psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Psychologists may conduct basic research aiming for further understanding in a particular area of interest in psychology, or conduct applied research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or other areas. Masters level clinical programs aim to train students in both research methods and evidence-based practice. Professional associations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research methodology and professional practice. In addition, depending on the country, state or region, psychological services and the title "psychologist" may be governed by statute and psychologists who offer services to the public are usually required to be licensed. Qualitative and quantitative research Research in most areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the standards of the scientific method. Psychological researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data, using qualitative or quantitative methods (or both). Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation. Creswell (2003) identifies five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Qualitative researchers[63] sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also been served by "quantitative methods", as in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting[citation needed] or Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
- 26. Quantitative psychological researchlends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross- sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study. The measurement and operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs. Statistical methods include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling. Controlled experiments Main article: Experiment Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the CONSORT 2010 Statement[64] Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. This method of research relies on the application of the scientific method to understand behavior. Experimenters use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are designed to test specific hypotheses (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive approach). A true experiment with random allocation of subjects to conditions allows researchers to infer causal relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. In an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable). Experiments are one of the primary research methods in many areas of psychology, particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience. Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures
- 27. encouraged researchers toobtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority. Survey questionnaires Main article: Statistical survey Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for a wide variety of other psychological topics. Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are being used in research. Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment. Longitudinal studies Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. The reason for this is that unlike cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate and they are applied in various other fields. Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense that they observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect causal relationships than do experiments. They also suffer methodological limitations such as from selective attrition because people with similar characteristics may be more likely to drop out of the study making it difficult to analyze. Some longitudinal studies are experiments, called repeated-measures experiments. Psychologists often use the crossover design to reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to reduce the number of subjects. Observation in natural settings
- 28. Phineas P. Gagesurvived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and is remembered for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior.[65] Main article: Naturalistic observation Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct observational studies of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out. Qualitative and descriptive research Artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain. Main article: Qualitative research Research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs such as the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals is known as descriptive research. Descriptive research can be qualitative or quantitative in orientation. Qualitative research is descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations have been made. Neuropsychological methods
- 29. Main article: Neuropsychology Arat undergoing a Morris water navigation test used in behavioral neuroscience to study the role of the hippocampus in spatial learning and memory. Neuropsychological research methods are employed in studies that examine the relation of mental activity and behavior to the structure and function of the brain. These methods include testing (e.g., the various Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), functional neuroimaging, and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Computational modeling The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and confederate. The subject believes that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre- recorded sounds for each shock level etc.[66] Computational modeling[67] is a tool often used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several
- 30. advantages. Since moderncomputers process information extremely quickly, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling. Animal studies Main articles: Comparative psychology and Animal cognition Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats, and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.[68] Criticism Theory Criticisms of psychological research often come from perceptions that it is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique[69] implied psychology overall was in a pre- paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Other concepts that psychologists are interested in, such as personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured[70] and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic.[71][72] Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Research[which?] has documented that many psychologists confuse statistical significance with practical importance. Statistically significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples.[73] Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on the Fisherian p < .05 significance criterion (whereby an observed difference is deemed "statistically significant" if an effect of that size or larger would occur with 5% -or less- probability in independent replications, assuming the truth of the null-hypothesis of no difference
- 31. between the treatments).[citationneeded] False positive conclusions, often resulting from the pressure to publish or the author's own confirmation bias, are an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a certain degree of skepticism on the part of readers.[74] Sometimes the debate comes from within psychology, for example between laboratory-oriented researchers and practitioners such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.[75] Practice Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[76] Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence.[77] One skeptic asserts that practices, such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; memory- recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.[78] In 1984, Allen Neuringer made a similar point[vague] regarding the experimental analysis of behavior.[79] Ethical standards Current ethical standards of psychology would not permit some studies to be conducted today. These human studies would violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report. Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research.[80] Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use on animals research techniques that could not be used on humans. An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants. It measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.[81] Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s.[82] The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression. Harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture.[83] In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.[84] University psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well- being of research subjects. Researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research
- 32. projects before conductingany experiment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals.[85] Systemic bias In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying a possible publication bias.[86][87][88] Similarly, Fanelli (2010)[89] found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as space- or geosciences. Fanelli argues that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases. In 2010, a group of researchers reported a systemic bias in psychology studies towards WEIRD ("western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic") subjects.[90] Although only 1/8 people worldwide fall into the WEIRD classification, the researchers claimed that 60–90% of psychology studies are performed on WEIRD subjects. The article gave examples of results that differ significantly between WEIRD subjects and tribal cultures, including the Müller-Lyer illusion. See also Psychology portal Mind and Brain portal Philosophy portal Psychology at Wikipedia books Group psychotherapy List of psychologists List of psychology organizations List of important publications in psychology Media psychology Philosophy of psychology Social work References 1. ^ "How does the APA define "psychology"?". Retrieved 15 November 2011. 2. ^ "Definition of "Psychology (APA's Index Page)"". Retrieved 20 December 2011. 3. ^ Fernald LD (2008). Psychology: Six perspectives (pp. 12–15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 4. ^ Hockenbury & Hockenbury. Psychology. Worth Publishers, 2010.
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- 37. 82. ^ Blum1994, p. 95, Blum 2002, pp. 218–19. Blum 1994, p. 95: "... the most controversial experiment to come out of the Wisconsin laboratory, a device that Harlow insisted on calling the 'pit of despair.'" 83. ^ Blum, Deborah. Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection. Perseus Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-7382-0278-9 84. ^ Booth, Wayne C. Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of Assent, Volume 5, of University of Notre Dame, Ward-Phillips lectures in English language and literature, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 114. Booth is explicitly discussing this experiment. His next sentence is, "His most recent outrage consists of placing monkeys in 'solitary' for twenty days—what he calls a 'vertical chamber apparatus .... designed on an intuitive basis' to produce 'a state of helplessness and hopelessness, sunken in a well of despair.'" 85. ^ The American Psychological Society: Responsible Conduct of Research 86. ^ Arjo Klamer, Robert M. Solow, Donald N. McCloskey (1989). The Consequences of economic rhetoric. Cambridge University Press. pp. 173–74. ISBN 978-0-521-34286-5. 87. ^ Lehrer, Jonah (December 13, 2010). "The Truth Wears Off". The New Yorker. Retrieved 10 April 2011. 88. ^ Sterling, Theodore D. (March 1959). "Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance—or vice versa". Journal of the American Statistical Association 54 (285): 30–34. doi:10.2307/2282137. Retrieved 10 April 2011. 89. ^ Fanelli, Daniele (2010). "'Positive' Results Increase Down the Hierarchy of the Sciences". In Enrico Scalas. PLoS ONE 5 (4): e10068. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010068. PMC 2850928. PMID 20383332. Retrieved 10 April 2011. 90. ^ The WEIRDest people in the world? Henrich, J., Heine, S., & Norenzayan, A. (2011). Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–135. External links Find more about Psychology at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions and translations from Wiktionary Media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource
- 38. Textbooks from Wikibooks Psychologyat the Open Directory Project Psychology, an external wiki American Psychological Association Association for Psychological Science Discovering Psychology. (2001). The History of Psychology:Contemporary Foundations The Florida State University PSYCHOLOGY.(2011).HISTORY [show] v t e Psychology [show] v t e Neuroscience [show] v t e Allied health professions [show] v t e Social sciences This article is in the category Neuroscience, but no reliable sources are cited to verify its inclusion. Please help by adding references that support its inclusion, or remove the category link if none exist. (July 2012) Categories:
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