Building smallholder farmers’ resilience is essential to the sustainability of food security interventions. Being food secure alone is not enough, as disasters, including climate related extremes can quickly wipe out hard won development gains. Climate variability is an immediate challenge affecting the economy and poses threats to agriculture production and food security for smallholder farmers in rural communities. The livelihoods of people who depend on climate sensitive agricultural resources are particularly vulnerable. This study used a survey method to envisage adaptation strategies in agricultural production of smallholder farmer so as to increase resilience and create opportunities for increasing food security and environmental sustainability. The results indicated that more frequent and severe extreme climatic events, especially drought and heavy rainfall pose challenges to agricultural production and on ensuring food security in the area. To deal with such climate related extreme events, farmers develop different adaptation measures. Although farmers’ adaptation measures may not succeed completely, they form the basis of solutions to extreme events and disaster preparedness. It suggested that, addressing the threat posed by climate change will require better quantification of the problem, greater attention for prioritizing which production systems are vulnerable, and a redoubling of land and water management efforts. Climate change is occurring within a background of other global challenges, such as population growth, urbanization, land and water use, rural- urban migration, and biodiversity depletion. Thus, efforts to adapt to the impact of climate change should do so in a manner that is consistent with these broader development issues.
Presentation by Robert Zougmore, CCAFS Regional Program Leader, West Africa, at the at the CCAFS Workshop on Institutions and Policies to Scale out Climate Smart Agriculture held between 2-5 December 2013, in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Agriculture in developing countries must undergo a significant transformation in order to meet the related challenges of achieving food security and responding to climate change. Projections based on population growth and food consumption patterns indicate that agricultural production will need to increase by at least 70 percent to meet demands by 2050. Most estimates also indicate that climate change is likely to reduce agricultural productivity, production stability and incomes in some areas that already have high levels of food insecurity. Developing climate-smart agriculture is thus crucial to achieving future food security and climate change goals. This seminar describe an approach to deal with the above issue viz. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) and also examines some of the key technical, institutional, policy and financial responses required to achieve this transformation. Building on cases from the field, the seminar try to outlines a range of practices, approaches and tools aimed at increase the resilience and productivity of agricultural product systems, while also reducing and removing emissions. A part of the seminar elaborates institutional and policy options available to promote the transition to climate-smart agriculture at the smallholder level. Finally, the paper considers current gaps and makes innovative suggestion regarding the combined use of different sources, financing mechanism and delivery systems.
Presentation by Prof. Dr. Chinwe IFEJIKA SPERANZA. Presented during a pre - SBSTA meeting on CSA Alliance: Building Climate Change Resilience in Africa held on 30th May 2014 in Bonn, Germany http://ccafs.cgiar.org/csa-alliance-building-climate-change-resilience-africa#.U42GUihCCTs
Presentation by Jeremy Bird, DG, International Water Management Institute, at the CCAFS Workshop on Institutions and Policies to Scale out Climate Smart Agriculture held between 2-5 December 2013 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Presentation by Robert Zougmore, CCAFS Regional Program Leader, West Africa, at the at the CCAFS Workshop on Institutions and Policies to Scale out Climate Smart Agriculture held between 2-5 December 2013, in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Agriculture in developing countries must undergo a significant transformation in order to meet the related challenges of achieving food security and responding to climate change. Projections based on population growth and food consumption patterns indicate that agricultural production will need to increase by at least 70 percent to meet demands by 2050. Most estimates also indicate that climate change is likely to reduce agricultural productivity, production stability and incomes in some areas that already have high levels of food insecurity. Developing climate-smart agriculture is thus crucial to achieving future food security and climate change goals. This seminar describe an approach to deal with the above issue viz. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) and also examines some of the key technical, institutional, policy and financial responses required to achieve this transformation. Building on cases from the field, the seminar try to outlines a range of practices, approaches and tools aimed at increase the resilience and productivity of agricultural product systems, while also reducing and removing emissions. A part of the seminar elaborates institutional and policy options available to promote the transition to climate-smart agriculture at the smallholder level. Finally, the paper considers current gaps and makes innovative suggestion regarding the combined use of different sources, financing mechanism and delivery systems.
Presentation by Prof. Dr. Chinwe IFEJIKA SPERANZA. Presented during a pre - SBSTA meeting on CSA Alliance: Building Climate Change Resilience in Africa held on 30th May 2014 in Bonn, Germany http://ccafs.cgiar.org/csa-alliance-building-climate-change-resilience-africa#.U42GUihCCTs
Presentation by Jeremy Bird, DG, International Water Management Institute, at the CCAFS Workshop on Institutions and Policies to Scale out Climate Smart Agriculture held between 2-5 December 2013 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Presentation on success stories and challenges ahead to make global agriculture more climate smart. Brownbag presentation in the WorldBank on 15th May by Andy Jarvis from the CCAFS program of the CGIAR.
Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review...Premier Publishers
Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of many developing countries, is highly depends on climatic conditions. This paper aimed at reviewing the climate change and its impacts on agricultural production with the specific objectives of reviewing the farmer’s adaptation strategies and barriers to the climate change and the impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food security in sub Saharan Africa countries. Empirical evidence shows that most of the smallholder famers in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced the adaptation strategy of switching from planting high water-requirement to low water-requirement crops, planting diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to the change in the precipitation pattern and mixed cropping. The farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has faced by access to information, extension services and access to credit. The effect of long-term mean climate change has significance impacts on global food production and affects all dimensions of food security in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure which may require ongoing adaptation. Finally, effective institutions on climate change at the global level help to facilitate the policy implementations and to combat the impact of climate change.
How to achieve climate-smart agriculture and the potential triple-win that can be achieved from these practices such as adaptation, mitigation and increasing livelihoods.
Forests, biodiversity and food securityCIFOR-ICRAF
The world faces many challenges in attempting to achieve global food
security, and one of those challenges is the continuing loss of forests and
biodiversity. How do we feed the world’s growing population while
maintaining its biodiversity? The answer could be in new approaches to
integrating agriculture and biodiversity.
CIFOR scientist Terry Sunderland explores the links between forests,
biodiversity and food security in this presentation, which he recently gave at the
2nd World Biodiversity Congress in Malaysia to more than 150 delegates.
By Bruce Campbell, Director, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. Presented on 25 October 2013 at the Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences (SLU). Watch the recording at http://youtu.be/krBoz2uLUV8
Metrics and sustainable diets was the focus of a presentation by Thomas Allen of Bioversity International delivered at the Joint Conference on Sustainable Diet and Food Security co-organized by the Belgian Nutrition Society, The Nutrition Society and Société Française de Nutrition on 28 and 29 May 2013 in Lille, France under the auspices of the Federation of European Nutrition Societies, a conference on Sustainable Diet and Food Security. : A system approach to assessing Sustainable Diets. Read more about Bioversity International’s work on diet diversity for nutrition and health
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/research-portfolio/diet-diversity/
Although Africa’s contribution to the world’s greenhouse gas emission is the smallest compared to other continents, yet they tend to be affected most by the variability in Climate. Malawi is not an exception to this climate change, as they are not just faced with rising temperatures and variable rainfall patterns, but with reoccurring droughts and severe flooding. Agriculture has been noted to contribute significantly to not only climate change but also has significant impacts on global warming through its greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, not all farming systems impact negatively on climate change. Conservation Agriculture is a farming system that encourages no or minimum soil disturbance, maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of crop species. These three interlinked principles combined with good agricultural practices promote biodiversity and normal biotic processes, both on and under the ground surface, thereby increasing the productivity and nutrient use efficiency of water, into a more resilient farming system which will help sustain and improve agricultural production. This review looks at Conservation Agriculture practices in the Machinga Agricultural Development Division of Malawi and its role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. This paper shows that Conservation Agriculture has played an active role in the adaptation and mitigation of climate change effect by reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions but suggested there is a need for the government to formulate a CA framework that is founded on the three interlinked principles and not just based on soil and water conservation principles which are currently being advocated and practised.
Food is life and the global food sustainability is essential to human being survival. The global food system is highly
complex and is driven by various factors including environment, cultural, social and economic drive. It is vital to understand
these drivers and their interaction in order to help to improve the public food sustainability policies. Global polices and projects
desperately required in order improving the global food sustainability. Food sustainability is one of the unsolved global issues
and great commitment is required starting from global policy makers, national governments, and every individual home. This
research paper includes analysis and study of various elements such as global change science, policy, food crisis, factor affecting
and challenging food security, data on status and future projection and potential ways of solving problems. The goal of food
sustainability is to enable all people throughout the world to satisfy their basic needs and have a reasonable quality of life without
compromising the quality of life of future generations. Agriculture sustainability is the best solution which can feed the world
without compromising the environment or threatening human health. Scientific evidence that global environment has changed
is overwhelming and indisputable. These phenomena have a direct impact on agriculture which in turn affects food
sustainability. The food price is always toward upward trend which is validated by the periodic average global food price
monitoring report released by the Food and agricultural organizations. The factors affecting and challenging the food security
are many including increased food consumption due to population increase, uneven distribution, changes in living styles, limited
resources, environmental problems, economic problems and others. The potential ways to solve food sustainability need to be
established and implemented effectively across the world.
Priorities for Public Sector Research on Food Security and Natural Resources Report Presentation by Frank Place, ICRAF and Alexandre Meybeck, FAO
on April 12, 2013 at the Food Security Futures Conference in Dublin, Ireland.
An economic study of small-scale tilapia fish farming in Mymensingh district ...Premier Publishers
The study was designed to estimate the costs, returns and resource use efficiency of tilapia fish farming in some selected areas of Mymensingh district. Both tabular and statistical techniques were used to achieve the objectives set for the study. The study revealed that the tilapia fish production is profitable business. Per hectare yield of tilapia fish were 19432 kg, 23234 kg, 27993 kg, for which money value was Tk. 2407846, 2950242, 3517805 for marginal, small and medium farmers, respectively. Benefit cost ratio was the highest for medium farmers (1.33) followed by marginal and small farmers (1.27). It was observed that the coefficient of human labour, feed and irrigation charge had significant effect on economic returns. Resource use efficiency analysis revealed that farmers are not efficient in using resources in tilapia fish production. Human labour cost, feed cost and fish protection chemicals cost were underused and therefore increase the use of these resources can maximize profit in tilapia fish production. Multiple ownership of pond, high price of feed, high disease infestation and lack of scientific knowledge and management were found the major problems for tilapia fish.
Behavior of Bees Associated with the Wild Blueberry Agro-ecosystem in the USAPremier Publishers
Greenhouse and field studies were conducted between 1996 and 2014 in Maine to assess the behavior of selected bee taxa that visit wild blueberry, Vaccinium angustifolium (Ericaceae) Aiton. Some of my findings are as follows. When individual foraging efficiency was assessed on wild blueberry for four common bee pollinators, bumble bees were most efficient and honey bees were the least efficient in terms of the number of pollen grains deposited on a stigma in a single visit (P< 0.0001). However, I also found that the prior bumble bee visitation to flowers enhanced the pollination efficacy of honey bees. Field observations suggested that bumble bees recruit to plants with higher floral density and that bumble bees and andrenids forage for longer periods of time in the day than sweat bees and Osmia leaf cutting bees; honey bees showed intermediate foraging durations. Honey bees and solitary native bees were found to forage at an increasing rate with increasing air temperature, while bumble bee queens tended to forage independently of air temperature. Foraging patterns among the following bee taxa such as bumble bees, andrenids, megachilids, and honey bees also varied and the implications of these differing foraging patterns relative to pollination are discussed.
Presentation on success stories and challenges ahead to make global agriculture more climate smart. Brownbag presentation in the WorldBank on 15th May by Andy Jarvis from the CCAFS program of the CGIAR.
Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review...Premier Publishers
Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of many developing countries, is highly depends on climatic conditions. This paper aimed at reviewing the climate change and its impacts on agricultural production with the specific objectives of reviewing the farmer’s adaptation strategies and barriers to the climate change and the impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food security in sub Saharan Africa countries. Empirical evidence shows that most of the smallholder famers in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced the adaptation strategy of switching from planting high water-requirement to low water-requirement crops, planting diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to the change in the precipitation pattern and mixed cropping. The farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has faced by access to information, extension services and access to credit. The effect of long-term mean climate change has significance impacts on global food production and affects all dimensions of food security in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure which may require ongoing adaptation. Finally, effective institutions on climate change at the global level help to facilitate the policy implementations and to combat the impact of climate change.
How to achieve climate-smart agriculture and the potential triple-win that can be achieved from these practices such as adaptation, mitigation and increasing livelihoods.
Forests, biodiversity and food securityCIFOR-ICRAF
The world faces many challenges in attempting to achieve global food
security, and one of those challenges is the continuing loss of forests and
biodiversity. How do we feed the world’s growing population while
maintaining its biodiversity? The answer could be in new approaches to
integrating agriculture and biodiversity.
CIFOR scientist Terry Sunderland explores the links between forests,
biodiversity and food security in this presentation, which he recently gave at the
2nd World Biodiversity Congress in Malaysia to more than 150 delegates.
By Bruce Campbell, Director, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. Presented on 25 October 2013 at the Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences (SLU). Watch the recording at http://youtu.be/krBoz2uLUV8
Metrics and sustainable diets was the focus of a presentation by Thomas Allen of Bioversity International delivered at the Joint Conference on Sustainable Diet and Food Security co-organized by the Belgian Nutrition Society, The Nutrition Society and Société Française de Nutrition on 28 and 29 May 2013 in Lille, France under the auspices of the Federation of European Nutrition Societies, a conference on Sustainable Diet and Food Security. : A system approach to assessing Sustainable Diets. Read more about Bioversity International’s work on diet diversity for nutrition and health
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/research-portfolio/diet-diversity/
Although Africa’s contribution to the world’s greenhouse gas emission is the smallest compared to other continents, yet they tend to be affected most by the variability in Climate. Malawi is not an exception to this climate change, as they are not just faced with rising temperatures and variable rainfall patterns, but with reoccurring droughts and severe flooding. Agriculture has been noted to contribute significantly to not only climate change but also has significant impacts on global warming through its greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, not all farming systems impact negatively on climate change. Conservation Agriculture is a farming system that encourages no or minimum soil disturbance, maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of crop species. These three interlinked principles combined with good agricultural practices promote biodiversity and normal biotic processes, both on and under the ground surface, thereby increasing the productivity and nutrient use efficiency of water, into a more resilient farming system which will help sustain and improve agricultural production. This review looks at Conservation Agriculture practices in the Machinga Agricultural Development Division of Malawi and its role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. This paper shows that Conservation Agriculture has played an active role in the adaptation and mitigation of climate change effect by reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions but suggested there is a need for the government to formulate a CA framework that is founded on the three interlinked principles and not just based on soil and water conservation principles which are currently being advocated and practised.
Food is life and the global food sustainability is essential to human being survival. The global food system is highly
complex and is driven by various factors including environment, cultural, social and economic drive. It is vital to understand
these drivers and their interaction in order to help to improve the public food sustainability policies. Global polices and projects
desperately required in order improving the global food sustainability. Food sustainability is one of the unsolved global issues
and great commitment is required starting from global policy makers, national governments, and every individual home. This
research paper includes analysis and study of various elements such as global change science, policy, food crisis, factor affecting
and challenging food security, data on status and future projection and potential ways of solving problems. The goal of food
sustainability is to enable all people throughout the world to satisfy their basic needs and have a reasonable quality of life without
compromising the quality of life of future generations. Agriculture sustainability is the best solution which can feed the world
without compromising the environment or threatening human health. Scientific evidence that global environment has changed
is overwhelming and indisputable. These phenomena have a direct impact on agriculture which in turn affects food
sustainability. The food price is always toward upward trend which is validated by the periodic average global food price
monitoring report released by the Food and agricultural organizations. The factors affecting and challenging the food security
are many including increased food consumption due to population increase, uneven distribution, changes in living styles, limited
resources, environmental problems, economic problems and others. The potential ways to solve food sustainability need to be
established and implemented effectively across the world.
Priorities for Public Sector Research on Food Security and Natural Resources Report Presentation by Frank Place, ICRAF and Alexandre Meybeck, FAO
on April 12, 2013 at the Food Security Futures Conference in Dublin, Ireland.
An economic study of small-scale tilapia fish farming in Mymensingh district ...Premier Publishers
The study was designed to estimate the costs, returns and resource use efficiency of tilapia fish farming in some selected areas of Mymensingh district. Both tabular and statistical techniques were used to achieve the objectives set for the study. The study revealed that the tilapia fish production is profitable business. Per hectare yield of tilapia fish were 19432 kg, 23234 kg, 27993 kg, for which money value was Tk. 2407846, 2950242, 3517805 for marginal, small and medium farmers, respectively. Benefit cost ratio was the highest for medium farmers (1.33) followed by marginal and small farmers (1.27). It was observed that the coefficient of human labour, feed and irrigation charge had significant effect on economic returns. Resource use efficiency analysis revealed that farmers are not efficient in using resources in tilapia fish production. Human labour cost, feed cost and fish protection chemicals cost were underused and therefore increase the use of these resources can maximize profit in tilapia fish production. Multiple ownership of pond, high price of feed, high disease infestation and lack of scientific knowledge and management were found the major problems for tilapia fish.
Behavior of Bees Associated with the Wild Blueberry Agro-ecosystem in the USAPremier Publishers
Greenhouse and field studies were conducted between 1996 and 2014 in Maine to assess the behavior of selected bee taxa that visit wild blueberry, Vaccinium angustifolium (Ericaceae) Aiton. Some of my findings are as follows. When individual foraging efficiency was assessed on wild blueberry for four common bee pollinators, bumble bees were most efficient and honey bees were the least efficient in terms of the number of pollen grains deposited on a stigma in a single visit (P< 0.0001). However, I also found that the prior bumble bee visitation to flowers enhanced the pollination efficacy of honey bees. Field observations suggested that bumble bees recruit to plants with higher floral density and that bumble bees and andrenids forage for longer periods of time in the day than sweat bees and Osmia leaf cutting bees; honey bees showed intermediate foraging durations. Honey bees and solitary native bees were found to forage at an increasing rate with increasing air temperature, while bumble bee queens tended to forage independently of air temperature. Foraging patterns among the following bee taxa such as bumble bees, andrenids, megachilids, and honey bees also varied and the implications of these differing foraging patterns relative to pollination are discussed.
Seed Yield Stability and Genotype x Environment Interaction of Common Bean (P...Premier Publishers
When genotypes are introduced into a new and diverse production environments, occurrence of significant genotype by environment interaction (GEI) complicates selection of stable genotypes. Therefore, fifteen introduced and one check small red common bean lines were evaluated at five representative dry bean growing locations of Ethiopia for seed yield performance using a 4x4 triple lattice design in the 2013 and 2014 main cropping seasons to estimate the magnitude of GEI effects and to identify broadly or specifically adapted lines. Combined analysis of variance, Additive Main effects and Multiplicative Interaction (AMMI) and Genotype plus Genotype x Environment interaction (GGE) biplot models were used to interpret the data. Both the main and interaction effects were highly significant (p< 0.01) and environment, line, and GEI explained 81.06%, 3.21% and 15.73% of variations, respectively, indicating greater influence of environments and importance of simultaneous consideration of mean performance and stability. PC1 and PC2 were highly significant (p < 0.01) and together contributed nearly 60% variation in the GEI sum of squares. AMMI 1, GGE ranking, and GGE comparison biplots enabled identification of both high seed yielding and broadly adapted lines, KG-71-1, KG-71-23, and KG-71-44. Polygonal GGE biplot analysis enabled identification of four mega-environments and specifically adapted lines. However, the specific adaptability of lines was not repeated over years and thus, GEI couldn't be exploited and therefore, broadly adapted lines were recommended for verification and release.
Livestock waste management practices in Oyo state, NigeriaPremier Publishers
Livestock waste management methods were evaluated in Oyo State where different farms were visited, structured pre-tested and peer-reviewed questionnaires were administered. The results of this study revealed that the use of animal wastes as manure for farmlands or outright dumping in the bushes, garbage sites or open lands were the most common waste disposal methods practiced by commercial poultry and livestock keepers in Oyo State. Out of all the farms sampled, 45% of the farms practiced Open lands waste disposal methods, 10% practiced sun-dried and burned animal wastes disposal methods, 14% practiced flushing wastes into nearby streams and rivers as slurry, 24% used a combination of all the three methods as space or time permits, 2% turn their waste to biogas for cooking or lightening on the farm and 5% use part of the waste as feed source for ruminants or fishes on the farm. The results showed that larger percentage of the farms does not have an environmental friendly animal waste management system and the implication is widespread air, water and land pollution.
Identification and pathogenicity of fusarium and phomopsis foliar diseases of...Premier Publishers
Research on foliage disease of Jatropha curcas was conducted in Sokoto, Kebbi and Zamfara States of Nigeria to determine the occurrence, incidence and severity of the diseases. Fusarium and Phomopsis species were the fungal pathogens found to be responsible for the disease on J. curcas in the study area. A spore count of the isolates was made and used as inocula in the pathogenicity trial in glasshouse of the department to prove Kochs’ postulate. Results from the farmers’ field revealed that, highest incidence (81.00%) and severity (53.33%) of Phomopsis leaf blight was recorded in Tsaki of Sokoto State, while Janbaki in Kebbi State had the highest incidence (75.33%) and severity (60.00%) of Fusarium leaf blight. The surveys conducted showed that, J. curcas planted in lowland areas tend to be more prone to the fungal leaf blight particularly those close to water source. In the pathogenicity trial, results indicated that, there was no significant difference in the methods of inoculation and number of days after inoculation with respect to incidence and severity of leaf blight. It is recommended that fungicides that can be used for the management of fungal leaf blight of J. curcas should be identified.
Municipal solid waste landfill site selection in the Sekondi-Takoradi metropo...Premier Publishers
One of the threats to global environmental health is waste generation. Growth in population as well as rise in the quantity of municipal solid waste generated has made it difficult to locate appropriate site for waste disposal in most urban areas. Land filling is now accepted as the most widely used method for addressing this problem in all countries of the world. However, appropriate site selection for land filling is a problem in waste management and therefore needs to be addressed. This research sought to identify a suitable landfill site for waste disposal in Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis of Ghana. To achieve this, Geographical Information System (GIS), Fuzzy Logic and Multi-criteria Evaluation (MCE) were applied in order to display and rank candidate sites. The analysis was limited to criteria that were selected and relevant to the area under investigation. The results obtained provide clear areas for landfill sites in the study area and finally arrives at suitable areas.
Building capacity in urban communities and schools: Community collaboration a...Premier Publishers
This research uses survey evidence gathered from more than 5,500 voters living in Wichita, Kansas (USA). The purpose was to better understand coproduction in community development organized around neighborhood schools. When this approach is combined with direct investment paid for through increased taxes, it can build community capacity and create opportunity for disadvantaged school children. This research found that, in spite of modernity, neighborhoods are still valued places for community development. Most citizens are willing to work collaboratively to improve schools and the neighborhoods where schools are located. In addition, taxpayers pledged support for increased investment in the education of disadvantaged schoolchildren. This pledge was honored by the passage of a referendum and the issuance of debt to support investment in neighborhood schools with the understanding that this debt would be retired through increased taxes.
Characterization and In vitro antifungal potential of Rosmarinus officinalis ...Premier Publishers
Antifungal activities of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oils evaluated, suppressed the mycelial growth of postharvest pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum sp. The result obtained with the Agar well diffusion method at 75% and 100% concentration of the essential oil were negligible, with the Agar incorporation method the essential oils had effect on the fungus. Eucalyptus essential oil having the highest inhibition of 100% on the mycelial growth of Colletotrichum sp followed by Rosemary essential oil which had 95.24% inhibition on the growth of the fungus Colletotrichum sp, The GC-MS analysis result of the essential oils shows that in Rosemary: Eucalyptol (1,8-Cineole) (32.83%) and Camphor (24.17%) are the main constituents and in Eucalyptus: Eucalyptol (1,8-Cineole) (26.67%) and Terpinen-4-ol (25.08%) are the main constituents, which could be responsible for the antifungal activities of the different essential oils. These essential oils could be used as possible biofungicides as an alternative to synthetic fungicides against pathogenic fungi on tomato fruits.
Bone health of postpartum women: Unexpected high prevalence of a health probl...Premier Publishers
The aim was to see the effect of pregnancy on Bone Mineral Density (BMD) and bone turnover markers (BTMs) in the immediate postpartum period and 12 months thereafter. Eighty women delivered at KAUH (May 2009-Oct 2010) had BMD, bone profile, 25-OH vitamin D and (BTMs). Inclusion criteria: Singleton pregnancy without medical or pregnancy complications. Exclusion criteria: multiple pregnancies, history of diabetes thyroid or bone disease, and use of any medication that affect calcium metabolism. Biochemical tests were repeated for 27 women after one year. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS 16. Eighty women had BMD before discharge. Sixty four women (80%) had low BMD; sixteen of these (25%) had osteoporosis. Although bone profiles were normal, Vitamin D levels were moderately or severely deficient in 35.37% of women. After adjustment for BMI and age there was no correlation between BMD and other variables. Multiple linear regressions showed that BMI was the predictor for BMD (P=0.0014). There was no significant difference between postpartum bone BTMs and bone profiles, and those after twelve months.
Osteoporosis/ osteopenia is a significant health problem in this group of women. Further studies are needed to look into predisposing factors.
Standard heterosis of pipeline maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids for grain yield an...Premier Publishers
The knowledge of gene action and heterosis also helps in identification of superior F1 hybrids in order to use further in future breeding programs. The objective of this study was to estimate the amount of standard heterosis of the pipeline maize hybrids for grain yield and yield related traits. A total of eleven pipeline maize hybrids and two standard checks (BH546 and BH547) were evaluated using randomized complete block design with three replications during the 2015 main cropping season at Northwestern Ethiopia. Mean squares due to genotypes were highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) for most grain yield and yield related traits indicating the existence of genetic variation among the evaluated genotypes. The standard heterosis ranged from -38.72 to 33.65%and the highest heterosis was recorded for CML395/CML202//CML464 cross. The observed highest heterosis for grain yield and related traits indicated the possibility of increasing yield by exploiting heterotic potential of maize genotypes. The information generated by this study could be useful for researchers who need to develop high yielding maize hybrids.
Alternate livelihood income plan for vulnerability reduction through communit...Premier Publishers
The occurrence of natural disasters is currently one of the major developmental challenges that the world is facing. The Society for National Integration through Rural Development (SNIRD), an NGO working with the fisherfolk communities in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India, has long been working towards reducing community vulnerability and strengthening coping mechanisms. As there were no preparedness measures among the communities, the impact of the disaster was worsened, often destroying their livelihood support mechanisms. Hence SNIRD initiated a project to organize the community and imparted trainings towards disaster coping mechanisms. The project followed a community-based strategy, making use of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques by involving the community. This paper deals with the techniques of vulnerability assessment by involving the community and in preparing alternate livelihood income plan towards disaster preparedness and management. The project was evaluated using an amended version of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) and found that the project was able to sufficiently increase their alternative livelihood mechanisms and therewith comprehensively and sustainable decrease community vulnerability to natural disasters.
Adapted progressive isoinertial lifting evaluation for determining lifting ca...Premier Publishers
Weight of the load and its characteristics is considered to be the important risk factor for low back disorders (LBD) among manual materials handlers. Determining weight of the load and the amount of load a person can lift is important in minimizing the incidence of LBD. Among various methods like isometric, isoinertial and isokinetic, isoinertial approach of lifting evaluation is best as it is safe, inexpensive, simple and dynamically represents real world lifting. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of adapted progressive isoinertial lifting evaluation (PILE) for determining maximum acceptable weight of lift (MAWL). This experimental study was conducted among 30 adult male participants recruited from a university community. Adaptation was done to the box dimensions and the weights used for PILE. The subjects were instructed to perform the PILE protocol using adapted box and weights using free lifting technique at two vertical distances and lifting capacity was determined. Heart rate was monitored throughout the trial and the participants were asked to rate their discomfort in a six point likert scale. All the participants were comfortable in performing adapted PILE and no untoward incident was noticed during the procedure. It may be feasible to adapt PILE for determining lifting capacity.
Free radical scavenging activity, phytochemistry and antimicrobial properties...Premier Publishers
This study is aimed at investigating the phytochemistry, free radical scavenging activity and antimicrobial properties of Tetrapleura tetraptera seeds. The results of the analysis of Tetrapleura tetraptera seeds showed the presence of phenols (0.34 %), flavonoids (0.91 %), alkaloids (0.52 %), tannins (0.23 %) and saponins (0.51 %). Vitamins include ascorbic acid (5.23 %), riboflavin (0.11 %), niacin (1.25 %),-carotenoid (3.40 %) and thiamine (0.06 %). Proximate compositions were moisture (14.73 %), ash (7.30 %), crude protein (17.36 %), crude fibre (6.68 %) and lipids (35.19 %). Mineral elements were calcium (1.41 %), magnesium (0.48 %), potassium (0.56 %), sodium (0.21 %), phosphorus (0.32 %), iron (1.20 %), copper (0.13 %) and zinc (0.77 %). The seed extract showed potent free radical scavenging activity (6.72 – 22.8 %) using ascorbic acid as a standard (12.10 - 42.00 %). The seed extract exhibited significant antimicrobial activity (7.00 – 20.00 mm) and the zones of inhibition were compared with that of ciprofloxacin as standard (15.00 – 28.00 mm). From these investigations, seed extract of Tetrapleura tetraptera has proven to be considered an excellent source of nutriceuticals, a potential antioxidant and antimicrobial agents owing to its high level of phytochemical and vitamin constituents.
The work evaluates the response of the heart rate of non-mechanics handling some specific loads in the common postures employed during road-side repair of automobile and later, the result was validated with the auto-mechanics during repair activities. The purpose is to specify the safe work-impulse of auto-mechanics in the common postures, such as, bending, stooping and supine posture, used during roadside repair. The safe work-impulse was determined for preselected healthy non-mechanics of the classified age groups who gave informed consent. Increase in heart rates at exhaustion of non-mechanics in each age group, in lifting predetermined loads were measured using digital premium pressure monitor with a comfit cuff. Consequently, the work-impulse charts for the load classifications and different age-groups were developed for the different postures. The heart rates of the auto-mechanics performing specific tasks during engine repairs were then measured to determine the equivalent work-impulse, using the developed charts. The result revealed that, auto-mechanics handling the same mass of load under the same conditions have lower safe work-impulse. In conclusion, the study reveals that roadside auto-mechanics have the capacity to sustain higher safe work-impulse in bending and supine postures than in stooping posture.
Trends and determinants of coffee commercialization among smallholder farmers...Premier Publishers
Transforming agricultural output from subsistence to commercial based is being the crucial option for many agriculture dependent developing countries. This study was aimed to assess coffee commercialization trends and factors that affect coffee commercialization level. Primary data was collected from 156 households of three coffee potential districts of Jimma zone through personal interviews. Descriptive statistics and econometric models were used to analyze the data. The result of the study revealed that the mean coffee consumption level was 21.6 % and the overall mean commercialization level was 68 % which is higher at Manna district (74 %). The results of Tobit model also shows distance to main market and distance to marketing cooperatives, transport cost and land allocated for other crops affects level of coffee commercialization negatively and significantly. However, total land holding of the household head, coffee price and volume of coffee produced affects level of commercialization positively and significantly. It is recommended support towards developing institutional sectors like marketing cooperatives and improving physical access to market places could yield positive results towards coffee commercialization by smallholder coffee producers.
Genotypic variation for agronomical and physiological traits affecting drough...Premier Publishers
The main objective of this study was to evaluate drought resistant genotypes previously developed in CIAT and local cultivars for yield traits and to identify agronomical and physiological traits associated with drought stress environments under the local environment in Yemen. The study materials were selected (16 genotypes) based on phenotypic, physiological traits and drought tolerance indexes in 2006 and 2007, then evaluated in 2008, 2009 and 2010 at three locations representing low rainfall drought (LRD) stress at the southern highland region (SHR) at Ibb – Yemen. Both experiments were subjected to medium to severe drought stress. Genotypes responded differently to drought stress and normal conditions; accordingly these bean genotypes categorized into four groups. The most important group, the group that includes MIB-154, MIB-155, Ser-72, BFB-141, SXB-416, Ser-111, Ser-88, NSL and Taiz-305 genotypes. This group expressed uniform superiority under both normal and drought conditions. The most important group, the group that includes MIB-154, MIB-155, Ser-72, BFB-141, SXB-416, Ser-111, Ser-88, NSL and Taiz-305 genotypes. This group expressed uniform superiority under both normal and drought conditions. Among phenotypic, physiological traits and drought tolerance indexes; delayed leaf senescence (DLS), growth recovery tolerance (LRT), grain filling index (GFI), seed production efficiency (SPE), stomatal conductance, early maturity and stress tolerance index (STI) were found to be the most suitable indices for screening bean lines for drought tolerance under both NS and SD environments as they were highly correlated with both (Yp) and (Ys). Moreover, stability indices analysis of the promising genotypes eight location x three years (2011, 2012 and 2013); proved that genotypes MIB-155, MIB-156, BFB-141, SXB-416 and NSL has high yields with low response indices.
Opportunities and constraints of coffee production in West Hararghe, EthiopiaPremier Publishers
Assessing factors influencing coffee production and productivity was used to develop appropriate technology for improvement and inform policy makers to understand gap concerning the commodity. Therefore, this study was designed to assess constraints and opportunities of coffee production in West Hararghe Zone. It employed multi-stage sampling procedure. In the first stage, Daro Lebu, Habro and Boke districts were selected purposively based on coffee production potential from the zone. In the second stage, a total of seven kebeles and 170 households were randomly selected. Household questionnaires were employed to collect primary data and analyzed by using descriptive statistics. The study revealed diseases, pest, poor access to market information, lack of physical infrastructure, lack of improved coffee variety and weak extensions services were major constraints of coffee production and productivity. On the other hand, high quality of Harar coffee, high demand of Hararghe coffee on world market, construction of rural road, availability of mobile phone, good indigenous knowledge were major opportunities for coffee producers in the area. Therefore, findings of study indicated that development of disease resistance coffee variety, assessment of farmers` indigenous knowledge, providing extension service and enhancing infrastructural and institution facilities need emphasis to improve coffee production and productivity.
Combining ability of inbred lines in quality protein maize (QPM) for varietal...Premier Publishers
Information on the combining ability of elite germplasm is essential to maximize their use for variety development. Sixty-six F1 crosses resulted from diallel crosses of 12 QPM inbred lines and two standard checks BHQP542 and Melkassa6Q were evaluated to determine general (GCA) and specific (SCA) combining ability for yield and yield related traits using alpha-lattice design with two replications during the 2013 cropping season at Mechara. Analysis of variance showed that mean squares due to entries were significant for most traits studied, indicates existence of variability among the materials. Mean squares due to crosses and crosses versus checks were also significant for most studied traits. GCA and SCA mean squares revealed highly significant (p<0.01) differences for grain yield and most yield related traits. Inbred lines P1, P3 and P12 were good general combiners as the lines showed significant and positive GCA effects for grain yield. Among the crosses, P2 x P11 and P6 x P8 manifested positive and significant SCA effects for grain yield, indicating high yielding potential of the cross combinations. In general, this study identified inbred lines and hybrid combinations that had desirable expression of important traits which will be useful for the development of high yielding varieties.
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...Premier Publishers
Climate change is posing serious environmental, economic, and social impacts in the study area where people’s livelihoods depend on agriculture. This study was initiated to identify the existing adaptation strategies persuaded by smallholder farmers, and factors affecting the choices of adaptation strategies against climate change in Ankesha Guagusa district. Primary data were collected from a randomly selected 156 sample households in the district through interview method and focus group discussion whereas secondary data were collected from different organizations and published sources. Descriptive statistics, and econometric model were employed to achieve the stated objectives. The result of multivariate probit model showed that the likelihood of households to adopt irrigation, improved crop varieties, adjusting planting date, use crop diversification, and soil and water conservation practices were 46.79%, 52.26%, 45.51%, 69.68% and 78.20%, respectively. The result also shows that the joint probability of using all adaptation strategies was 11.53% and the joint probability of failure to adopt all of the adaptation strategies was 7.7%. The model result also confirms that sex, educational level, family size, livestock holding, land holding, off/non-farm income, farm income, extension contact, credit used, access to climate information, distance to market, and agro-ecological zone had significant effect on climate change adaptation strategies. Therefore, future policies shall focus on the smallholder farmers’ technical capacity through adult education system, and on updated extension services, improving credit facilities, irrigation facilities, farm and off-farm income earning opportunities, and use of new crop varieties that are more suited to the local environment.
Vulnerability to climate change impact is the most pressing issues for less developed countries whose economy mainly depends on the agricultural sector. The demand for food is growing swiftly whereas impacts of climate change on the global food production are increasing. More area specific research outputs and evidences-based policy directions are needed to tackle the ever changing climate and to reduce its impacts on the agricultural production. The aim of this study was to investigate subsistence farmer household’s vulnerability level to climate change impacts and its associations with household’s agricultural production. Then primary data was collected from 400 households from Kolla Temben District, Tigray Regional State, North Ethiopia. Multistage sampling techniques were applied to select households for interview from the district. In the first stage, 4 Kebelles (Kebelle - administration unit) were selected randomly out of 27 Kebelles and then400 households were selected for interview through systematic random sampling techniques (Figure 1). Multiple regressions were used to examine the associations between household’s vulnerability to climate change impacts and agricultural production. Grounded theory and content analysis techniques were use to analyze data from key informant interviews and focus group discussions. For every single unit increase in household vulnerability to climate change impacts, there was an average agricultural production decrease between 16.99 and 25.83 (Table 4). For single unit increase in household’s vulnerability to climate change impact, there was a decrease of total crop production, Total income, total livestock, total food consumption and food consumption per adult equivalent. Rainfall decrease, small farmland ownership, steep topography, frequent flood occurrences and large family size are among the major factors that negatively affect household’s agricultural production and total income. The more the vulnerable the households, the less in total annual crop production, total livestock size, total income from agricultural production and the more dependent on food aid). There is a negative association between household’s vulnerability level to climate change impacts and agricultural production (crop production, total livestock ownerships and total income from crop production). More access to irrigation and agricultural fertilizers, improved varieties of crops, small family size, improve farmland ownership size, more access to education and Agricultural Extension services are an effective areas of intervention to improve household’s resilient, reduce households vulnerability level to climate change impacts and increase household’s total agricultural production.
What is Climate-Smart Agriculture? Background, opportunities and challengesCIFOR-ICRAF
This presentation by Alexandre Meybeck of the FAO was given at a session titled "Using climate-smart technologies to scale up climate-smart agriculture practices" at the Global Landscapes Forum in Lima, Peru, on December 7, 2014.
The panel presentation and discussion focused on how these climate-smart technologies can be scaled-up to benefit smallholder farmers. This was followed by a public debate.
Agricultural sector remains the main source of food and income for most rural communities in
Ethiopia. Being dependent mainly on rainfall, this sector has been affected by climate change. Hence,
employing adaptation strategies within the agricultural sector to climate change is vital to ensure food security
and care for the livelihoods of farmers. Food security and adaptation are among the options to abate the
negative impact of climate changes. This study has analyzed factors influencing the impact of climate change
on food security and adaptation choices by farm households in eastern Ethiopia. The study used data obtained
from 330 household heads randomly and proportionately sampled from two agroecologies in East Hararghe
Zone of Oromiya Region and Dire Dawa Administration, Ethiopia. The study used a univariate profit model
and multinomial logistic regression model to identify factors affecting food security and the choice of
adaptation strategies to climate change. As food security indicator, calorie intake per adult equivalent per day
was considered for adaptation strategies; changing planting date, irrigation water use, soil and water
conservation, and crop variety selection were considered. The result indicated that farmers in the study area are
vulnerable to climate change and the factors determining the choice of climate adaptation options were
determined by sex of household head, family size, education status of household head, Agroecology, distance
to market, cultivated land, credit access, decreasing precipitation and change of temperature. Policy thrust
should focus on linking farmers to fertilizer usage, credit access and social participation as well as in creating
awareness of climate change.
Agricultural sector remains the main source of food and income for most rural communities in Ethiopia. Being dependent mainly on rainfall, this sector has been affected by climate change. Hence, employing adaptation strategies within the agricultural sector to climate change is vital to ensure food security and care for the livelihoods of farmers. Food security and adaptation are among the options to abate the negative impact of climate changes. This study has analyzed factors influencing the impact of climate change on food security and adaptation choices by farm households in eastern Ethiopia. The study used data obtained from 330 household heads randomly and proportionately sampled from two agroecologies in East Hararghe Zone of Oromiya Region and Dire Dawa Administration, Ethiopia. The study used a univariate profit model and multinomial logistic regression model to identify factors affecting food security and the choice of adaptation strategies to climate change. As food security indicator, calorie intake per adult equivalent per day was considered for adaptation strategies; changing planting date, irrigation water use, soil and water conservation, and crop variety selection were considered. The result indicated that farmers in the study area are vulnerable to climate change and the factors determining the choice of climate adaptation options were determined by sex of household head, family size, education status of household head, Agroecology, distance to market, cultivated land, credit access, decreasing precipitation and change of temperature. Policy thrust should focus on linking farmers to fertilizer usage, credit access and social participation as well as in creating awareness of climate change.
Climate Change and Vulnerability in Ghana by Justice Ampofo AgyeiJustice Ampofo
Climate change is one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats to the livelihood of forest dependent communities in developing countries. The impacts of climate change on ecosystem services and the livelihood of communities surrounding the SRFR have been identified in this paper. These communities are very vulnerable due to their high dependence on ecosystem services and their low capacity to climate change impacts. Sectors that are adversely affected by climate change include agriculture, biodiversity, and water resources. These impacts are most likely to deepen poverty, food insecurity and the poor livelihoods of the communities. To address these negative impacts, the communities have adapted various adaptation strategies in agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and water resources management to minimize climate change impacts. To improve ecosystem services, adaptation to climate change impacts, the resilience and capacity of the local communities, it is important to put in place appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Vulnerabilityin the Face of Climate Change and Variability: Perceptions and O...inventionjournals
Rural population in West Africa represents one of the largest vulnerable groups in the world and this vulnerability emanates from the change and variability of the climate over the years. Agriculture in Northern Ghana is rain-fed and the rural population lack adequate resources to adapt to the changing climate. This paper focuses on farm households’ perception of their vulnerability to climate change and copping strategies. Four farming communities in the Wa-West District were purposively selected for the study. The study was basically qualitative which employed Participatory Rural Appraisal methods including interview and Focused Group Discussions (FGDs) in the data collection. A total of 20 farmers were interviewed and 8 FGDs were conducted. The data was analyzed through transcription, detailed description and paraphrasing. Results of the study indicates that farmers generally agreed that there is a change in climate marked by increasing temperatures, shortened rainy season, prolonged dry season, erratic rainfall pattern and high incidence of drought. Farmers attribute the occurrence of these climatic conditions to illicit activities such as incessant armed robbery, killing of innocent people, adultery and people having sex in the bush which made the gods and ancestors of the land angry and therefore changes in climatic elements are punishment from the gods and ancestors. Farm households adopted varied copping strategies to reduce their vulnerability to climate change including sale of their casual labour, charcoal making, petty trading, pito brewing, shea nut collection, shea butter extraction and temporary out-migration to seek for “greener pastures”. It is recommended that the Ghana Meteorological Service Department should collaborate with the local radio stations to broadcast weather forecast in the local languages targeted at rural farmers so that they could properly plan their farming activities during the rainy season. Keywords: Vulnerability, Climate C
Ensuring climate resilience of agro-ecosystems and sustainable management of ...ICARDA
Dr. Rachid MRABET
Research Director
INRA Rabat
Cop 22 - Session November 16th 2016, Coping with Climate Change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region Meeting future food demand through SCIENCE & INNOVATION
Agriculture has been and continues to be the most important sector in Indian economy. Climate change is one of the most important environmental issues facing the world today. The impact of climate change is a reality and it cuts across all climates sensitive sectors including the Agriculture sector. In this situation this seminar focuses on the climate smart agriculture. CSA brings together practices, policies and institutions that are not necessarily new but are used in the context of climatic changes which is prime requirement in arena of climate change. Farmers possessed low level of knowledge regarding climate change, and they adopted traditional methods to mitigate the impact of climate change. Small land holdings, poor extension services and non availability of stress tolerant verities were the major problems faced by the farmers in adoption to climate change. Extension functionaries were having medium level awareness about impact of climate change on agriculture. They used electronic media, training and conferences and seminars as major sources of information for climate change. They need training on climate smart agriculture aspects. Based on the above facts this presentation focuses on analyzing the opportunities and challenges of climate smart agriculture.
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaPremier Publishers
The paper reports results of a study on investigating impacts of climate change on teff (Eragrostis tef) production in three agro-ecological zones (highlands, midlands and lowlands) of Endamehoni and Raya Azebo weredas of Tigray. The impact of climate change on teff farming was estimated taking into account farm households’ characteristics, socio-economic, climate, adaptations, production factors and agro-ecological settings in a low-income developing country. Ricardian model was used to analyze data obtained from teff farming households. From the fourteen predictor variables fitted in the model, six variables e.g. climate factors, adaptation strategies, production factors, weather and climate information, socio-economic factors and agro-ecology were found to have significance influence on net revenues with model coefficients at p=0.05 and less. Climate factors (temperature and rainfall) and adaptation to climate change were found to play key roles on net revenues. Increasing (decreasing) temperature reduces (increases) teff revenues. Therefore, policies of government on adaptation ought to be given enough attention to reduce vulnerability and improve food security among teff farming communities in rural areas.
Agriculture sustainability and food security is our insurance policy for futu...Howard Barmil
This is an academic lecture and discussion which was done at the University of Jordan in college of agriculture; this lecture was made for the PHD candidates.
Sustainable agriculture is the system of farming (cultivating land, harvesting and selling farm products), while enhancing wise rural land development in concert with community interests and environmental protection. We must meet the needs of the present without jeopardizing or compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Understanding sustainability.
We must envision the broadest sense; it starts at the individual farm, and ends at the consumer’s table going through the full cycle of the ecosystem (farmers, farmworkers, consumers, policymakers and others). An emphasis on this ecosystem circle allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. A systematic approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between all agents in this ecosystem cycle.
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
Social capital plays an essential role in empowering people for social and economic change even during the pandemic. A livelihood project of the government was implemented among the members of a women’s association of a disadvantaged upland community in Bukidnon province, Southern Philippines for inclusive development. This study was conducted to determine the influence of some socio-economic attributes and the change in the knowledge level on the social capital of the rural women amidst the pandemic. The activities of the project were implemented considering the health protocols imposed by the government during the health crisis. The findings revealed that the trainings conducted resulted to a positive change in the knowledge level among the rural women. This facilitated the production of vegetables for their households and generated additional income very necessary during the pandemic especially that other economic activities were hindered. Similarly, there was a significant increase in the social capital of the rural women during the last two years. The main occupation, sources of income and their ethnicity significantly influenced the social capital of the rural women. The rural development workers and policymakers must consider the social capital of the group in the implementation of poverty alleviation programs.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a plant which has recently been used widely as a sweetener. This medicinal plant has some components such as diterpenoid glycosides called steviol glycosides [SGs]. Rebaudioside A is a diterpenoid steviol glycoside which is 300 times sweeter than table sugar. This study was done to investigate the effect of GA3 (50 mg/L) on the expression of 14 genes involved in Rebaudioside A biosynthesis pathway in Stevia rebaudiana under in vitro conditions. The expression of DXS remarkably decreased by day 3. Also, probably because of the negative feedback of GA3 on MEP-drived isoprenes, GGDS transcript level reached its lowest amount after GA3 treatment. The abundance of DXR, CMS, CMK, MCS, and CDPS transcripts showed a significant increase at various days after this treatment. A significant drop in the expression levels of KS and UGT85C2 is detected during the first day. However, expression changes of HDR and KD were not remarkable. Results revealed that the level of transcript of UGT74G1 and UGT76G1 up regulated significantly 4 and 2 times higher than control, respectively. However, more research needs to shed more light on the mechanism of GA3 on gene expression of MEP pathway.
Multivariate Analysis of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Clones on Mor...Premier Publishers
Information on genetic variability for biochemical characters is a prerequisite for improvement of tea quality. Thirteen introduced tea clones characterized with objective; assessing tea clones based on morphological characters at Melko and Gera research stations. The study was conducted during 2017/18 cropping season on experimental plots in RCBD with three replications. Data recorded on morphological traits like days from pruning to harvest, height to first branch, stem diameter, leaf serration density, leaf length, leaf width, leaf size, petiole length, leaf ratio, internode length, shoot length, number of shoot, canopy diameter, hundred shoot weight, fresh leaf yield per tree. Cluster analysis of morphological trait grouped into four clusters indicated, the existence of divergence among the tested clones. The maximum inter-cluster distance was between clusters I and IV (35.27) while the minimum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters I and II (7.8).Principal components analysis showed that the first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted 86.45% for 15 morphological traits. Generally, the study indicated presence of variability for several morphological traits. However, high morphological variation between clones is not a guarantee for a high genetic variation; therefore, molecular studies need to be considered as complementary to biochemical studies.
Causes, Consequences and Remedies of Juvenile Delinquency in the Context of S...Premier Publishers
This research work was designed to examine nature of juvenile offences committed by juveniles, causes of juvenile delinquency, consequences of juvenile delinquency and remedies for juvenile delinquency in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa with specific reference to Eritrea. Left unchecked, juvenile delinquents on the streets engage in petty theft, take alcohol or drugs, rape women, rob people at night involve themselves in criminal gangs and threaten the public at night. To shed light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in the Sub-Saharan region data was collected through primary and secondary sources. A sample size of 70 juvenile delinquents was selected from among 112 juvenile delinquents in remand at the Asmara Juvenile Rehabilitation Center in the Eritrean capital. The study was carried out through coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 70 juvenile delinquents. The survey evidence indicates that the majority of the juvenile respondents come either from families constructed by unmarried couples or separated or divorced parents where largely the father is missing in the home or dead. The findings also indicate that children born out of wedlock, families led by single mothers, lack of fatherly role models, poor parental-child relationships and negative peer group influence as dominant causes of juvenile infractions. The implication is that broken and stressed families are highly likely to be the breeding grounds for juvenile delinquency. The survey evidence indicates that stealing, truancy or absenteeism from school, rowdy or unruly behavior at school, free-riding in public transportation, damaging the book of fellow students and beating other young persons are the most common forms of juvenile offenses. It is therefore, recommended that parents and guardians should exercise proper parental supervision and give adequate care to transmit positive societal values to children. In addition, the government, the police, prosecution and courts, non-government organizations, parents, teachers, religious leaders, education administrators and other stakeholders should develop a child justice system that strives to prevent children from entering deeper into the criminal justice process.
The Knowledge of and Attitude to and Beliefs about Causes and Treatments of M...Premier Publishers
Stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness are a common occurrence in the Sub-Saharan region including Eritrea. Numerous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that stigma and discrimination are major problems in the community, with negative attitudes and behavior towards people with mental illness being widespread. In order to assess the whether such negative attitudes persist in the context of Eritrea this study explored the knowledge and perceptions of 90 Eritrean university students at the College of Business and Economics, the University of Asmara regarding the causes and remedies of mental illness A qualitative method involving coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 90 university students to collecting data at the end of 2019. The survey evidence points that almost 50% of the respondents had contact with a mentally ill person suggesting that the significant number of the respondents experienced a first-hand encounter and knowledge of mental illness in their family and community. The findings show an overall greater science-based understanding of the causes of mental illness to be followed by recommended psychiatric treatments. The survey evidence indicates that the top three leading causes of mental illness in the context of Eritrea according to the respondents are brain disease (76%), bad events in the life of the mentally ill person (66%) and substance abuse or alcohol taking, smoking, taking drugs like hashish. (54%). The majority of the respondents have a very sympathetic and positive outlook towards mentally ill persons suggesting that mentally illness does not simply affect a chosen individual rather it can happen to anybody regardless of economic class, social status, ethnicity race and religion. Medical interventions cited by the majority of the respondents as being effective treatments for mental illness centered on the idea that hospitals and clinics for treatment and even cures for psychiatric disease. Changing perceptions of mental illnesses in Eritrea that paralleled the very caring and sympathetic attitudes of the sample university students would require raising public awareness regarding mental illness through education, using the mass media to raise public awareness, integrating mental health into the primary health care system, decentralizing mental health care services to increase access to treatment and providing affordable service to maintain positive treatment outcomes.
Effect of Phosphorus and Zinc on the Growth, Nodulation and Yield of Soybean ...Premier Publishers
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2. Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through adaptation strategies in Southern Highlands of Tanzania
Gwambene and Liwenga 105
Climate change and variability are placing additional
stress and increased vulnerability, which limit capacity to
adapt to changes occurring in agricultural production
(Nkomo et al., 2006; Gwambene, 2011; Kangalawe, 2012;
Nyunza & Mwakaje, 2012). Smallholder farmers are
particularly vulnerable to such changes, which reduce
productivity and negatively affect their weather-dependent
livelihood systems (Ngigi, 2009).
According to CARE International brief on climate change
(2011) a recent study on the future of food and farming
identified six key drivers of change affecting the global
food system. Such drivers include a growing global
population; changing diets, an increase in demand for
resource- intensive meat products; food system
governance, including globalization of markets, subsidies
and trade restrictions; competition for resources (IIED,
2012; Word Bank, 2013), particularly land, water and
energy; consumer values and ethics; and the impacts of
climate change. Most Sub-Saharan Africa countries are
particularly vulnerable to climate change because of
limited adaptive capacity as a result of widespread poverty,
recurrent droughts, inequitable land distribution and
dependence on rain-fed agriculture” (Ngigi, 2009). The
combined effects of these pressures will mean increasing
numbers of people at risk of food shortage in the future.
Smallholder farmers are using and testing out different
crop diversification strategies, including the use of drought
tolerant indigenous seed varieties and crop rotation,
legume intercropping methods to improve soil fertility
(Gwambene, 2011; Dakishoni, 2013). Achieving food
security for all requires a coordinated effort that
incorporates preventive, promotional, protective and
transformative measures (CARE International, 2011; FAO,
2013; Word Bank, 2013). Preventive measures aim to help
people avoid food insecurity, and include social insurance
systems such as savings groups, as well as risk
management measures such as crop diversification.
Promotional measures aim to reduce vulnerability to food
insecurity by enhancing incomes and capacities.
Protective actions are relief measures, required when
preventive and promotional measures fail. Underpinning
these three with an emphasis on participatory education
through farmer experimentation, farmer-to-farmer
teaching and improving extension services to increase
awareness on climate change and adaptation strategies
are paramount. Such measures would need to enhance
flexibility, resulting in a net benefits for agriculture
production and environmental sustainability (Ngigi, 2009;
Gwambene and Majule, 2010; Government of Kenya,
2013).
There is an urgent need to strengthen smallholder farmers
innovation systems to address food insecurity, promote
resilient livelihoods to ensure adequate food availability
and access; improving utilization with a focus on
enhancing stability through vulnerability and risk reduction
and management. To minimize sensitivity to climate
change, African economies should be more diversified,
and agricultural technology should optimize water usage
through efficient irrigation and crop development (Ngigi,
2009; Tumbo et al., 2008; Gornall et al., 2012). Increasing
agricultural productivity, climate resilience and
sustainability, particularly for smallholder farmers (for
example, by promoting climate smart agricultural practices,
restoration of degraded soils and agricultural biodiversity
is among the important options (Gwambene, 2012; FAO,
2013). Adaptation looms must incorporate actions
targeted at climate-resilient livelihoods and disaster risk
reduction, as well as addressing the underlying causes of
vulnerability. In many contexts, strategies to reduce
vulnerability to climate change also increase food security.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Descriptions of study area
This paper used a survey method undertaken in the
southern highlands of Tanzania between 2010 and 2013.
The study was conducted in three agro-ecological zones
that include the lowland, midland and highland zones in
Rungwe district. The zones have different characteristics
in terms of climate, soil, terrain and biophysical
environment that differentiate agricultural production. The
District is located in the Southern highland of Tanzania
and lies between Latitudes 8
o
30’ and 9
o
30’ South and
Longitudes 33
o
and 34
o
5’ East with an altitude range rising
from 770 to 2,265 meters above sea level (MASL)
(Gwambene, 2011). The district was selected due to its
agricultural potential within its vertical landscape gradient
with diverse characteristics, which allow the production of
a number of crops. For a long time, the district has been a
basket of food supply for the country.
The District also experienced changes in crop yield in the
past 20 years that acknowledged the importance of
climate variability that had effects on crop production
(Gwambene, 2011). . This provides the basis on climate
variability and its implication on livelihood.
The highland zone, which rises to an altitude of 2000 -
2865 MASL, experience high rainfall ranging between
1500 mm to 2700 mm per annum and experience cold
condition throughout the year, its temperature range
between 5
o
c - 18
o
c. The area is suitable for agriculture and
the main crops grown are Irish potatoes, maize, and
pyrethrum. The middle zone lies within altitude of 1400 –
2000 MASL. The zone experiences cold temperature
ranging between 16
o
c - 28
o
c and receive an annual rainfall
between 800 mm to 2200 mm. The soil is good for
agriculture and livestock keeping. The main crops grown
include tea, coffee, cardamom, beans, bananas,
groundnuts, maize and paddy. The lowland zone lies in the
southern part of the district at an altitude of 772 - 1500
3. Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through adaptation strategies in Southern Highlands of Tanzania
J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 106
MASL with an average rainfall ranging between 900 mm
and 1200 mm per annum. The temperature is generally
hot ranging between 20
o
c - 30
o
c. The area is suitable for
cultivation of rice, maize, beans, cocoas, and bananas.
Sampling techniques and sample size
Given the nature of the study purposive and random
sampling techniques were employed. The combination of
the two sampling techniques was important to assure the
accuracy of the results. In order to have efficient and
representative sample, the study covered three selected
villages of the district covering the highland, middle and
lowland zones. Random and purposeful sampling
techniques were used in the selection of wards and
villages for study. In each agro-ecological zone, one ward
was purposefully selected and in each ward one village
was picked at random. This study was therefore carried
out in three villages; Kapulampunguti village in the lowland
zone, Kikota village in midland zone, and Mbeye I village in
highland zone. Then, the required information was
collected from the elements within each selected village.
The main technique for data collection were review of
relevant literature, focus group discussions, field
observations, household survey with a structured
questionnaire, semi-structured interviews with key
informants within the selected project areas, districts and
in the study wards and villages. A total of 147 households
were randomly selected from the total households of the
study villages to which the structured questionnaire was
administered. In each study village one FGD meeting of 10
to 18 representatives based on gender, age and
socioeconomic situation was carried out. 14 Key
informants representative in all villages, wards and district
were chosen for their knowledge or distinctive point of
views they have in the community. In addition to key
informant interviews, in-depth interviews were conducted
during the household survey. These interviews aimed at
gathering additional information from respondents on
issues of interest regarding the study.
Material and methods
To acquire accurate and detailed information,
combinations of both qualitative and quantitative
approaches were used in the assessment of the
agricultural dynamics and climate variability in Rungwe
district. The qualitative methods established the
knowledge and experience with the Climate variability
implications and related challenges on livelihood; spatial
and temporal changes in agricultural production, food
security and response strategies while the quantitative
method provided the percentages and statistical
information. Based on the nature of the study and its
objectives, quantitative method was employed at a
household level whereby a closed and open-ended
questionnaire administered to sample households, with
face-to-face interview being the main approach used.
Qualitative design involved key Informant Interviews (KII),
and Focus Group Discussions (FGD) coupled with field
observations. KII and FGD were guided by semi-structures
questionnaires. The use of two approaches facilitated the
triangulation and validation of information collected
through various methods.
The choice of research method was based on the type and
quality of information required, socioeconomic setting,
time frame and resources available. Information collected
was biophysical, weather and socioeconomic and cultural.
In order to enhance the smooth running of the study
secondary information were reviewed from various
documents on what others have done and form a
background of the study. The main focus was on the
agricultural production challenges in ensuring food
security and prospects in relation to climate variability,
adaptation measures and other stresses to livelihood and
agricultural production. Moreover, a detailed analysis of
smallholder farmers’ adaptation strategies, options and
mitigation measures were undertaken.
The data collected from different sources and methods
were edited, coded, tabulated, compiled, processed and
analyzed using different techniques. Quantitative data
were compiled and analyzed by using Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 and Microsoft Excel
software. The qualitative data were analyzed during and
after data collection using content analysis, factor
analysis, as well as cluster analysis. The qualitative data
from key informant interviews, focus group discussions,
household interviews and observations were examined
and presented in summary form and the results were
displayed in the form of tables, bar charts and figures,
before descriptions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Climate variability implications and related challenges
Increased occurrence of extreme weather events such as
floods, droughts, and strong wind significantly affects
agricultural production. For farmers, extreme rainfall
events disrupt growth and destroy crops, while changes in
temperature alter cropping patterns and suitability of the
crops and increased the occurrence of diseases and
insect pests. The results revealed that climate variability
and land exhaustion were the main challenge in crop
production reported during focus group discussions and
key informant interviews. Other production challenges
were land shortage, insect pests, the high price of inputs
(fertilizers) that increase production cost, unreliable
market, and lack of product knowledge. Figure 1 indicates
the crop production challenges in southern highland of
Tanzania.
4. Journal of Agriculture Economics and Rural Development (2014) x-x
Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through adaptation strategies in Southern Highlands of Tanzania
Gwambene and Liwenga 107
Figure 1. The crop production challenges in Southern Highland of Tanzania
Changing in rainfall patterns and higher temperatures
have forced farmers to shorten the growing season and
switch to more expensive hybrid crops. Frequent droughts
and floods are eroding assets and knowledge, leaving
people more vulnerable to climate variability and food
shortage. These changes, with increased fluctuations, are
expected to cause many shifts in food production, as most
crops are sensitive to changes in climate conditions,
which include alterations in temperature, moisture, and
carbon dioxide level. Furthermore, major climate changes
and variability influence populations of beneficial
organisms and pests and alter their effective roles in
agricultural ecosystems. Climate change and variability
(expressed through shortage of rainfall and drought), land
exhaustion (mainly reported in lowland and midland
zones), and use of chemical fertilizer (reported in middle
and highland zones).
Weather and climate are important factors in crop
production. Understanding the effects and impacts of
climate variability on agriculture is critical in formulating
strategies and adaptation options to minimize adverse
consequences. A general shift in the agro climatic zones
and change in the cropping patterns calls for farmers to
adhere to improved agronomic practices and better crop
management. For example less and erratic rainfall
received in lowland and middle land areas, irrigation and
drought resistant varieties is required to substitute
moisture losses due to increased evapo-transpiration. In
addition, fluctuating rainfall in lowland and midlands zones
induces the need for irrigation to buffer the negative
impacts on agricultural production during dry periods. The
major adaptation options need to include diversifying into
multiple crops, intercropping, mixed crop-livestock
systems, switching from rain-fed to irrigation. This will
need to have efficient and effective irrigation systems
including good strategies for rainwater harvesting for
agricultural production.
Agricultural production challenges in ensuring food
security
The results indicated that more frequent and severe
extreme climatic events, especially drought and heavy
rainfall pose challenges to agricultural production and food
security in the area. It was revealed that most farmers in
rural areas are buying food due to changes in productivity
that was reported to being a result of increased climate
variability and land exhaustion in the area (Gwambene,
2011). In general, food security is partly linked with the
incomes of the people that is used for buying food. Further,
it was reported that, the better off in terms of income are
less vulnerable to food shortage. In the context of
changing climate, farmers faced the challenge of
increasing crop productivity and income for purchasing
food and other basic need items. Thus, efforts to increase
the rural non-farm incomes will have a positive effect on
food security and nutrition. Therefore, to raise people's
income to such a level that they can afford to purchase
enough food or produce more food for the whole year is
among the challenges of increasing food security and
resilience for smallholder farmers.
The food shortage in the study area is experienced mainly
between December and March in low land, December and
February in middle land, and January and February in the
highland zone. Unlike in the central zone of Tanzania in
Rungwe district only few farmers experience food
shortage and most of food shortage is in lowland where
there is an increase of drought frequency. It was further
revealed that in most cases food shortage for most
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Continues
land
cultivation
Unreliable
rainfall
Drought Land
exhaustion
Use of
chemical
fertilizer
Burning
weeds and
crop residues
Growing one
type of crop
Percentage
Crop production challenges
5. Journal of Agriculture Economics and Rural Development (2014) x-x
Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through adaptation strategies in Southern Highlands of Tanzania
J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 108
Table 1. The main causes of food shortages
Low land Middle land Highland
N % N % N %
Drought 52 92.9 30 50.0 16 51.6
Low temperature 35 62.5 25 41.7 8 25.8
High temperatures 21 37.5 24 40.0 9 29.0
Shortage of Labour 15 26.8 9 15.0 4 12.9
Strong winds 19 33.9 9 15.0 - -
Lack of social networks 12 21.4 9 15.0 2 6.5
Too much rain 18 32.1 4 6.7 - -
Floods 9 16.1 4 6.7 7 22.6
Low soil fertility 12 21.4 5 8.3 - -
Crop pests and diseases 8 14.3 5 8.3 2 6.5
Low household income / lack of assets 20 35.7 - - - -
Loss of livestock 10 17.9 - - - -
Overselling of crops 9 16.1 1 1.7 - -
Livestock diseases 7 12.5 - - - -
Laziness 13 21.7 - - 3 9.7
household was the lack of main staple food such as maize
in highland and middle zone and rice in the lowland
(Gwambene and Majule, 2010). The main reported cause
of low production and food shortage was climate change
and variability as indicated in Table 1. Climate change and
variability have a cost-implication on inflation through food
price increases and decrease of agricultural production
and other climate dependence resources. The food price
increases have serious food security implications for lower
income groups as food constitutes an especially large
expenditure component.
Lack of purchasing power to ensure adequate nutrition
and pay for essential human need increase vulnerability.
Although everyone in the community is vulnerable to
climate change and variability, the poor are most
vulnerable, because they have very few assets to rely on
and/or livestock to sell and fewer livelihood alternatives.
Among these, the worst are women, children and the aged
due to their inability to migrate and look for alternative
sources of livelihood. A widespread and severe
household food insecurity occurs in many farming systems
in a rural area of developing countries due to their low
adaptive capacity (Gwambene and Majule, 2010; Gornall
et al., 2012). Safe and health use of food deteriorates as
the poor farmers switch to monotonous diets which lack
essential micronutrients.
Ensuring food security at the scene of climate variability
and the increasing environmental changes is among the
greatest adaptation challenges in the developing world.
This will need to focus on increasing food crop production
and distribution and understanding the complex nature of
food security. The academic community is in the position
to spearhead the generation of information and the
development of innovative and improved technologies to
adapt to future situations, and to enhance the climate
resilience of vulnerable communities. Such factors will
need to include crops and livelihood diversification in
addition to the adoption of high yielding crop varieties and
intensive agricultural production for the success of
adaptation strategies, enhancement of the adaptive
capacity and increase climate resilience in farming
communities.
Smallholder farmers’ adaptation strategies and
options
Farmers have various strategies to sustain and maintain
production, which is important for their livelihoods. The
study revealed that people responded differently to
climatic events in their environment based on their
adaptive capacity and environmental resources
availability. The strategies used to deal with current
climate variability and extremes often produce benefits as
well as form a basis for coping with future anticipated
change. Adaptation is critical and of concern among the
smallholder farmers where vulnerability is high because of
low ability to adapt. Adaptation strategies help farmers
achieve their food, income and livelihood security
objectives (Tumbo et al., 2008; Gornall et al., 2012).
Farmers have reduced the potential damage by making
tactical responses to climate variability and changes.
Even though farmers’ adaptation measures may not
succeed completely, they form the basis of solutions to
extreme events and disaster preparedness. The
adaptation strategies use included crop diversification;
using different crop varieties; varying the planting and
harvesting dates; increasing the use of irrigation; increasing
6. Journal of Agriculture Economics and Rural Development (2014) x-x
Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through adaptation strategies in Southern Highlands of Tanzania
Gwambene and Liwenga 109
Figure 2. Measures taken to deal with the impacts of climate variability in agriculture
the use of water and soil conservation techniques,
shading, shortening the length of the growing season; and
diversifying from farming to non–farming activities. Other
adaptation options available to farmers include varying
planting dates; using different crop varieties, fertilizers and
pesticides; practicing soil and water conservation. Also
strategies such as small scale irrigation, use of agriculture
extension services, growing different types of crops on
different land units and water harvesting are used. The
measures used to deal with climate variability impacts is
indicated in Figure 2.
The results indicate that different measures are employed
in dealing with climate changes and variability in
agricultural production. Some of the strategies like crop
diversification serve as an important form of insurance
against climate variability and food shortage.
Diversification reduces the risk of complete crop failure
since different crops are affected differently and also can
be used to modify the length of the growing season. In
addition, important intervention suggested for improving
crop productivity, which include improvement of access to
input subsidies, knowledge on the use of fertilizer,
extension services, environmental management and
commercialization of farming activities. Other interventions
mentioned are improvement of irrigation farming and
capital and implements.
The study revealed the importance of promoting the
practice of organic agriculture, particularly in areas
vulnerable to extreme weather conditions, such as
drought, flooding, and water logging. Organic agriculture
increases soil organic matter content, and hence higher
water holding capacity and this makes crops more
resistant to drought conditions. Appropriate crop
production technologies and strategies that may include
modifying the cropping system or crop combination, or
crop rotation and adjustment in cropping calendar form
important adaptation option. For successful adaptation it
is important to consider the decision on crop varieties to be
planted, taking into account the seasonal climate forecasts
for the growing season. The reflection should be on
understanding the crops that require less water, that can
make use of available soil moisture and give reasonable
yield.
Adjustment to alternative farming systems was suggested
for improving agricultural productivity. . Such adjustments
include promoting indigenous knowledge, change planting
dates, increasing irrigation to boost crop production in
selected areas, drip irrigation for specific areas and
reducing reliance on maize as a staple food by growing
early maturing and drought tolerant crops such as
cassava, sweet and round potatoes. Other practices
involve crop rotation practices, use of integrated crop and
pest management; make better use of climate and
weather data, weather forecasts, and other management
tools as shown in Figure 3. Such practices will need the
creation of awareness on the negative effects of climate
variability, sustainable water management to boost food
crop production through irrigation, strengthening early
warning system, follow standard agronomic practices and
promoting annual and short term crops.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Percentage
Adaptation measures
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Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through adaptation strategies in Southern Highlands of Tanzania
J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 110
Figure 3. Proposed effective adaptation strategies to enhance crop productivity and livelihood
It was further suggested that, addressing the threat posed
by climate change require better quantification of the
problem, greater attention for prioritizing which production
systems are vulnerable, and a redoubling of land and
water management efforts. At the farm-level adaptation
strategies need to emphasize on the critical role of
improving access to weather information, providing
information through extension services and the means to
implement adaptation measures. Provision of information
that allows individuals and communities to protect their
lives, property and ensure their livelihood and food
security are imperative for proper and effective adaptation
strategies. These require a considerable awareness
raising among actors to capacitate the ability to interpret
and use the results. Such intervention will help to reduce
vulnerability, food insecurity and increase resilience.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In reducing vulnerability there is a need to mainstream
climate variability and adaptation in education, such as the
integration of climate risks in local agriculture and natural
resources development planning and comprehensive land
use plans. This will form the base for addressing other
global challenges, such as population growth,
urbanization, land and water use, rural- urban migration,
and biodiversity depletion. Understanding adaptive
capacity and adaptation strategies at the local or
community level are critical in ensuring sustainability of
agricultural productivity and towards achieving food
security and environmental sustainability. Multiple scale
actions are needed to promote agricultural production
opportunities and adaptation measures with more effort in
turning knowledge into practical applications. These need
to consider the involvement of all key stakeholders for
sustainability and for scaling-up (from farm to the
community) and scaling-out (from one location to another).
More awareness creation on climate variability,
agricultural production, utilization of economic incentives,
development of appropriate and new technologies and
adaptation measures are requisite for increasing
resilience among smallholder farmers. Such measures
include improving access to agricultural inputs and proper
use, increasing investment in yield, market information,
diversification opportunities, improvement technology
such as irrigation, climate smart agriculture and
agroforestry technologies. In addition, provision of
education on record keeping among farmers to remember
necessary information and activities at the household/
farmers level is among the important option. Farmers need
to have specific measurement for their harvest that will
help them to understand and quantify of their productivity,
production trend and production cost and benefits. This
will improve access to adequate food supplies and
production for income generation to alleviate poverty,
improve natural resource management and reduce
vulnerability to environmental stresses and food shortage.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Percentage
Household adaptation strategies
Low land Middle land Highland