Smallholder Farmers Vulnerability Level to Climate Change Impacts and Implications to Agricultural Production in Tigray Regional State, Northern Ethiopia
Smallholder farmers in Tigray Regional State, Northern Ethiopia are vulnerable to climate change impacts. A study surveyed 400 households across 4 districts to assess vulnerability levels and how it affects agricultural production. Households reported increased exposure to floods, droughts, and other extreme weather events. Higher vulnerability, as measured by factors like reliance on rain-fed agriculture, distance from services, and asset ownership, correlated with lower agricultural production, income, food consumption and security. The study found households need more support through irrigation, fertilizers, crop varieties, education, and extension services to build resilience against climate change and boost agricultural livelihoods.
Climate Change and Agriculture by Muhammad Qasim & Aroj BashirMuhammad Qasim
Climate change is negatively impacting agriculture in Pakistan in 3 main ways:
1) Changing temperatures and rainfall patterns are decreasing crop yields, especially for wheat which is estimated to decline by 6-9%.
2) Recent floods have destroyed over 2.6 million acres of agricultural land.
3) Glacial melt from the Himalayas due to rising temperatures threatens water availability, which Pakistan's agriculture sector heavily depends on for irrigation.
The document discusses the impacts of climate change including increasing global temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and consequences for agriculture, forests, water resources, coastal areas, and human health. Key points mentioned are that temperatures could rise 1.4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius by 2100, precipitation trends have varied by region from 1900 to 2000, and climate change is exacerbating issues like water scarcity, declining crop yields, reduced forest health, and increased risk of diseases. Specific impacts discussed for India include changing rainfall patterns, more frequent droughts, and effects on rural livelihoods that depend on natural resources. Adaptation strategies proposed include changing cropping patterns, using resilient seeds, and diversifying livelihoods.
Climate change adaptation and livelihoods in AsiaPrabhakar SVRK
The presentation provides a review of literature on the observed and projected impacts of climate change and adaptation options. Presented at Climate Change Symposium: Latest Scientific Knowledge on Climate Change and Actions on Climate Change Impacts in Japan. 26 March 2014, 15:30 – 18:15, Pacifico Yokohama Conference Center, Yokohama, Japan. MOEJ and IGES. Link to the agenda:
http://www.iges.or.jp/files/research/natural-resource/PDF/20140326/programme.pdf
Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review...Premier Publishers
Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of many developing countries, is highly depends on climatic conditions. This paper aimed at reviewing the climate change and its impacts on agricultural production with the specific objectives of reviewing the farmer’s adaptation strategies and barriers to the climate change and the impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food security in sub Saharan Africa countries. Empirical evidence shows that most of the smallholder famers in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced the adaptation strategy of switching from planting high water-requirement to low water-requirement crops, planting diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to the change in the precipitation pattern and mixed cropping. The farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has faced by access to information, extension services and access to credit. The effect of long-term mean climate change has significance impacts on global food production and affects all dimensions of food security in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure which may require ongoing adaptation. Finally, effective institutions on climate change at the global level help to facilitate the policy implementations and to combat the impact of climate change.
Significance of climate change on agriculture and food A series of LecturesB...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
A series of LecturesByMr. Allah Dad Khan former Director General Agriculture Extension Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province and Visiting Professor the University of Agriculture Peshawar Pakistan allahdad52@gmail.com
Climate Change and Agriculture by Muhammad Qasim & Aroj BashirMuhammad Qasim
Climate change is negatively impacting agriculture in Pakistan in 3 main ways:
1) Changing temperatures and rainfall patterns are decreasing crop yields, especially for wheat which is estimated to decline by 6-9%.
2) Recent floods have destroyed over 2.6 million acres of agricultural land.
3) Glacial melt from the Himalayas due to rising temperatures threatens water availability, which Pakistan's agriculture sector heavily depends on for irrigation.
The document discusses the impacts of climate change including increasing global temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and consequences for agriculture, forests, water resources, coastal areas, and human health. Key points mentioned are that temperatures could rise 1.4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius by 2100, precipitation trends have varied by region from 1900 to 2000, and climate change is exacerbating issues like water scarcity, declining crop yields, reduced forest health, and increased risk of diseases. Specific impacts discussed for India include changing rainfall patterns, more frequent droughts, and effects on rural livelihoods that depend on natural resources. Adaptation strategies proposed include changing cropping patterns, using resilient seeds, and diversifying livelihoods.
Climate change adaptation and livelihoods in AsiaPrabhakar SVRK
The presentation provides a review of literature on the observed and projected impacts of climate change and adaptation options. Presented at Climate Change Symposium: Latest Scientific Knowledge on Climate Change and Actions on Climate Change Impacts in Japan. 26 March 2014, 15:30 – 18:15, Pacifico Yokohama Conference Center, Yokohama, Japan. MOEJ and IGES. Link to the agenda:
http://www.iges.or.jp/files/research/natural-resource/PDF/20140326/programme.pdf
Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review...Premier Publishers
Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of many developing countries, is highly depends on climatic conditions. This paper aimed at reviewing the climate change and its impacts on agricultural production with the specific objectives of reviewing the farmer’s adaptation strategies and barriers to the climate change and the impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food security in sub Saharan Africa countries. Empirical evidence shows that most of the smallholder famers in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced the adaptation strategy of switching from planting high water-requirement to low water-requirement crops, planting diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to the change in the precipitation pattern and mixed cropping. The farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has faced by access to information, extension services and access to credit. The effect of long-term mean climate change has significance impacts on global food production and affects all dimensions of food security in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure which may require ongoing adaptation. Finally, effective institutions on climate change at the global level help to facilitate the policy implementations and to combat the impact of climate change.
Significance of climate change on agriculture and food A series of LecturesB...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
A series of LecturesByMr. Allah Dad Khan former Director General Agriculture Extension Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province and Visiting Professor the University of Agriculture Peshawar Pakistan allahdad52@gmail.com
Economic impacts of climate change in the philippine agriculture sectorCIFOR-ICRAF
Presentation by Mark W. Rosegrant, Nicostrato Perez, Angga Pradesha, Timothy S. Thomas and Mercedita A. Sombilla at “Up and down the scales of time and place: Integrating global trends and local decisions to make the world more food-secure by 2050” Discussion Forum on the first day of the Global Landscapes Forum 2015, in Paris, France alongside COP21. For more information go to: www.landscapes.org.
Presentation by Sonja Vermeulen, Head of Research and Vanessa Meadu, Communications and Knowledge Manager, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Delivered to private sector representatives in London on 11 July 2013.
This document discusses redefining Africa's agrarian development policies in the face of climate change. It outlines that agricultural productivity in Africa has not kept pace with population growth, with cereal yields stagnating. Climate change impacts agro-ecosystems through changes to the environment and socioeconomics. The challenges include strengthening rural development and governance, improving productivity, and managing natural resources sustainably. Integrated actions are needed across economic growth, sustainable environments, and social equity to help rural communities weather the effects of climate change.
1. The document discusses the impacts of climate change on Indian agriculture. It is expected to affect agricultural productivity and shift crop patterns due to factors like increasing temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events.
2. Studies have shown that increases in temperature could reduce yields of crops like rice and wheat. Climate change may also lead to a change in suitable areas for growing certain crops. Rain-fed agriculture is expected to be more severely impacted than irrigated agriculture.
3. The impacts of climate change on agriculture could have wide-ranging implications for issues like food security, trade, livelihoods, and water conservation in India given the country's dependence on agriculture. Adaptation and mitigation strategies will
Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food SecurityShenggen Fan
This document discusses the impacts of climate change on agriculture and food security. It notes that climate change will negatively affect crop and livestock yields through higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. This will lower global food production and increase food prices and malnutrition. Agriculture is a key source of greenhouse gas emissions but can also help mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration. The document calls for integrating climate change into strategies to adapt agriculture and ensure food security, such as investing in research, irrigation, drought-resistant crops, and social safety nets.
This document discusses how ecological agriculture can help mitigate and adapt to climate change. Specifically, it argues that shifting to more sustainable farming practices that build up soil carbon and use fewer chemical inputs has significant potential to reduce agriculture's greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sequestration in soils. Practices like crop rotations, cover crops, and agroforestry can both mitigate emissions and help agriculture adapt to climate impacts by improving soil quality, fertility, and resilience. The document estimates that a global conversion to organic agricultural practices could mitigate 40-65% of agriculture's emissions through soil carbon sequestration alone. Overall, the document makes the case that ecological agriculture optimally integrates climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Climate change is occurring now and having significant impacts. Unusual weather patterns are being experienced worldwide. July 2017 was the warmest July on record, and drought recoveries are taking longer. In the Philippines, recent typhoons have been unusually heavy and destructive. Climate change reduces agricultural productivity and economic growth in the Philippines by an estimated PHP 145 billion per year through increased food prices, losses to industry and services, and reduced consumer welfare. Investments in climate-smart agriculture including irrigation, research, and early warning systems can help address these impacts and promote long-term food security and economic growth.
Ghayas Haider Sajid presented on the topic of the effect of climate change on agriculture for the department of soil science at Gomal University. The presentation covered definitions of weather and climate, factors affecting climate change, how agriculture contributes to and is impacted by climate change, and potential adaptations and solutions for agriculture under climate change.
The document discusses the challenges of climate change for agriculture and food security. It argues that resources and research need to focus on helping poor rural communities adapt. International climate agreements could impact food security depending on how agriculture is treated and funds are allocated. The document proposes specific policy actions and Copenhagen agreement language around incentivizing agricultural mitigation, increasing adaptation investment, and establishing a public technology network focused on climate-smart agriculture.
Zewde alemayehu tilahun a review on vulnerability of climate change on liveli...zewde alemayehu
This document reviews the vulnerability of climate change on livelihood systems in Ethiopia. It discusses how Ethiopia's agricultural dependent economy and low adaptive capacity make it highly vulnerable to climate impacts like drought and flooding. The document examines how climate change is affecting temperatures, rainfall patterns, and agricultural production in Ethiopia. It also analyzes the different factors that contribute to Ethiopia's vulnerability, such as heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture and underdeveloped water resources. Key vulnerable sectors are identified as agriculture, water resources, and human health. Smallholder farmers and pastoralists are the most vulnerable groups.
Economic perspectives on the impact of climate change on agricultureharrison manyumwa
The world's climate is changing, and the growing evidence is that the major drivers are anthropogenic, i.e. caused by humans. While humans are contributing to the changing climates the impacts of climate change on other humans range from minor to severe depending on the region one is located. As such, climate change has been viewed as a problem with a negative exernality. The diverse distributionl impacts have resulted in "winners" and "losers". But what is the way forward. I argue that "winners" should support and help the "losers" regain a normal life, by helping them to be resilient. Enjoy.
Agriculture and fisheries are highly dependent on specific climate conditions. Trying to understand the overall effect of climate change on our food supply can be difficult. Increases in temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) can be beneficial for some crops in some places. But to realize these benefits, nutrient levels, soil moisture, water availability, and other conditions must also be met. Changes in the frequency and severity of droughts and floods could pose challenges for farmers and ranchers. Meanwhile, warmer water temperatures are likely to cause the habitat ranges of many fish and shellfish species to shift, which could disrupt ecosystems. Overall, climate change could make it more difficult to grow crops, raise animals, and catch fish in the same ways and same places as we have done in the past. The effects of climate change also need to be considered along with other evolving factors that affect agricultural production, such as changes in farming practices and technology.
Climate-smart agriculture aims to achieve two goals: ensuring food security and avoiding dangerous climate change. To meet the increasing food demand by 2050 while adapting to climate change, agriculture must increase productivity sustainably. Practices like conserving and managing water resources efficiently and reducing food losses can help boost food security and mitigate emissions. However, achieving these goals also depends on demographic, economic, and consumption pattern changes. Climate-smart agriculture sustains productivity and resilience increases while reducing greenhouse gases to enhance food security and development, using ecosystem-based landscape approaches. Key actions include investing in research, supporting smallholders' transition, and aligning agriculture, food security, and climate change policies and financing. Agriculture's full mitigation potential lies not
Long Term Trend Analysis of Precipitation and Temperature for Asosa district,...IRJET Journal
The document analyzes temperature and precipitation trends in Asosa District, Benishangul Gumuz Region, Ethiopia from 1993 to 2022 based on data from the local meteorological station. The results show:
1) The average maximum and minimum annual temperatures have generally decreased over time, with maximum temperatures decreasing by a factor of -0.0341 and minimum by -0.0152.
2) Mann-Kendall tests found the decreasing temperature trends to be statistically significant for annual maximum temperatures but not for annual minimum temperatures.
3) Annual precipitation in Asosa District showed a statistically significant increasing trend.
The conclusions recommend development planners account for rising summer precipitation and declining temperatures in
Long Term Trend Analysis of Precipitation and Temperature for Asosa district...tsehayeadamu
The research was designed at addressing the national and local issues of climate change and was done by
investigating time series temperature and precipitation trends in Benishangul Gumuz Regional state of Ethiopia, Asosa District
in particular.
Economic impacts of climate change in the philippine agriculture sectorCIFOR-ICRAF
Presentation by Mark W. Rosegrant, Nicostrato Perez, Angga Pradesha, Timothy S. Thomas and Mercedita A. Sombilla at “Up and down the scales of time and place: Integrating global trends and local decisions to make the world more food-secure by 2050” Discussion Forum on the first day of the Global Landscapes Forum 2015, in Paris, France alongside COP21. For more information go to: www.landscapes.org.
Presentation by Sonja Vermeulen, Head of Research and Vanessa Meadu, Communications and Knowledge Manager, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Delivered to private sector representatives in London on 11 July 2013.
This document discusses redefining Africa's agrarian development policies in the face of climate change. It outlines that agricultural productivity in Africa has not kept pace with population growth, with cereal yields stagnating. Climate change impacts agro-ecosystems through changes to the environment and socioeconomics. The challenges include strengthening rural development and governance, improving productivity, and managing natural resources sustainably. Integrated actions are needed across economic growth, sustainable environments, and social equity to help rural communities weather the effects of climate change.
1. The document discusses the impacts of climate change on Indian agriculture. It is expected to affect agricultural productivity and shift crop patterns due to factors like increasing temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events.
2. Studies have shown that increases in temperature could reduce yields of crops like rice and wheat. Climate change may also lead to a change in suitable areas for growing certain crops. Rain-fed agriculture is expected to be more severely impacted than irrigated agriculture.
3. The impacts of climate change on agriculture could have wide-ranging implications for issues like food security, trade, livelihoods, and water conservation in India given the country's dependence on agriculture. Adaptation and mitigation strategies will
Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food SecurityShenggen Fan
This document discusses the impacts of climate change on agriculture and food security. It notes that climate change will negatively affect crop and livestock yields through higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. This will lower global food production and increase food prices and malnutrition. Agriculture is a key source of greenhouse gas emissions but can also help mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration. The document calls for integrating climate change into strategies to adapt agriculture and ensure food security, such as investing in research, irrigation, drought-resistant crops, and social safety nets.
This document discusses how ecological agriculture can help mitigate and adapt to climate change. Specifically, it argues that shifting to more sustainable farming practices that build up soil carbon and use fewer chemical inputs has significant potential to reduce agriculture's greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon sequestration in soils. Practices like crop rotations, cover crops, and agroforestry can both mitigate emissions and help agriculture adapt to climate impacts by improving soil quality, fertility, and resilience. The document estimates that a global conversion to organic agricultural practices could mitigate 40-65% of agriculture's emissions through soil carbon sequestration alone. Overall, the document makes the case that ecological agriculture optimally integrates climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Climate change is occurring now and having significant impacts. Unusual weather patterns are being experienced worldwide. July 2017 was the warmest July on record, and drought recoveries are taking longer. In the Philippines, recent typhoons have been unusually heavy and destructive. Climate change reduces agricultural productivity and economic growth in the Philippines by an estimated PHP 145 billion per year through increased food prices, losses to industry and services, and reduced consumer welfare. Investments in climate-smart agriculture including irrigation, research, and early warning systems can help address these impacts and promote long-term food security and economic growth.
Ghayas Haider Sajid presented on the topic of the effect of climate change on agriculture for the department of soil science at Gomal University. The presentation covered definitions of weather and climate, factors affecting climate change, how agriculture contributes to and is impacted by climate change, and potential adaptations and solutions for agriculture under climate change.
The document discusses the challenges of climate change for agriculture and food security. It argues that resources and research need to focus on helping poor rural communities adapt. International climate agreements could impact food security depending on how agriculture is treated and funds are allocated. The document proposes specific policy actions and Copenhagen agreement language around incentivizing agricultural mitigation, increasing adaptation investment, and establishing a public technology network focused on climate-smart agriculture.
Zewde alemayehu tilahun a review on vulnerability of climate change on liveli...zewde alemayehu
This document reviews the vulnerability of climate change on livelihood systems in Ethiopia. It discusses how Ethiopia's agricultural dependent economy and low adaptive capacity make it highly vulnerable to climate impacts like drought and flooding. The document examines how climate change is affecting temperatures, rainfall patterns, and agricultural production in Ethiopia. It also analyzes the different factors that contribute to Ethiopia's vulnerability, such as heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture and underdeveloped water resources. Key vulnerable sectors are identified as agriculture, water resources, and human health. Smallholder farmers and pastoralists are the most vulnerable groups.
Economic perspectives on the impact of climate change on agricultureharrison manyumwa
The world's climate is changing, and the growing evidence is that the major drivers are anthropogenic, i.e. caused by humans. While humans are contributing to the changing climates the impacts of climate change on other humans range from minor to severe depending on the region one is located. As such, climate change has been viewed as a problem with a negative exernality. The diverse distributionl impacts have resulted in "winners" and "losers". But what is the way forward. I argue that "winners" should support and help the "losers" regain a normal life, by helping them to be resilient. Enjoy.
Agriculture and fisheries are highly dependent on specific climate conditions. Trying to understand the overall effect of climate change on our food supply can be difficult. Increases in temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) can be beneficial for some crops in some places. But to realize these benefits, nutrient levels, soil moisture, water availability, and other conditions must also be met. Changes in the frequency and severity of droughts and floods could pose challenges for farmers and ranchers. Meanwhile, warmer water temperatures are likely to cause the habitat ranges of many fish and shellfish species to shift, which could disrupt ecosystems. Overall, climate change could make it more difficult to grow crops, raise animals, and catch fish in the same ways and same places as we have done in the past. The effects of climate change also need to be considered along with other evolving factors that affect agricultural production, such as changes in farming practices and technology.
Climate-smart agriculture aims to achieve two goals: ensuring food security and avoiding dangerous climate change. To meet the increasing food demand by 2050 while adapting to climate change, agriculture must increase productivity sustainably. Practices like conserving and managing water resources efficiently and reducing food losses can help boost food security and mitigate emissions. However, achieving these goals also depends on demographic, economic, and consumption pattern changes. Climate-smart agriculture sustains productivity and resilience increases while reducing greenhouse gases to enhance food security and development, using ecosystem-based landscape approaches. Key actions include investing in research, supporting smallholders' transition, and aligning agriculture, food security, and climate change policies and financing. Agriculture's full mitigation potential lies not
Similar to Smallholder Farmers Vulnerability Level to Climate Change Impacts and Implications to Agricultural Production in Tigray Regional State, Northern Ethiopia
Long Term Trend Analysis of Precipitation and Temperature for Asosa district,...IRJET Journal
The document analyzes temperature and precipitation trends in Asosa District, Benishangul Gumuz Region, Ethiopia from 1993 to 2022 based on data from the local meteorological station. The results show:
1) The average maximum and minimum annual temperatures have generally decreased over time, with maximum temperatures decreasing by a factor of -0.0341 and minimum by -0.0152.
2) Mann-Kendall tests found the decreasing temperature trends to be statistically significant for annual maximum temperatures but not for annual minimum temperatures.
3) Annual precipitation in Asosa District showed a statistically significant increasing trend.
The conclusions recommend development planners account for rising summer precipitation and declining temperatures in
Long Term Trend Analysis of Precipitation and Temperature for Asosa district...tsehayeadamu
The research was designed at addressing the national and local issues of climate change and was done by
investigating time series temperature and precipitation trends in Benishangul Gumuz Regional state of Ethiopia, Asosa District
in particular.
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaPremier Publishers
The document discusses a study on the impact of climate change on teff production in Southeast Tigray, Ethiopia. It finds that climate factors, particularly temperature and rainfall, significantly influence net teff revenues. Increasing temperature was found to reduce teff revenues, while increasing rainfall was found to increase teff revenues. Adaptation to climate change was also found to play a key role in net revenues. The study utilized a Ricardian model and data from 210 farming households across three agro-ecological zones to analyze how various factors, including climate, socioeconomic characteristics, and adaptations strategies, influence teff production and revenues.
Smallholder farmers’ perception of the impacts of climate change and variabil...Alexander Decker
- Smallholder farmers in Kenya were interviewed about their perceptions of how climate change has impacted agricultural practices over the past 30 and 10 years.
- Significantly more farmers reported perceiving changes in practices over the past 30 years compared to 10 years, especially in semi-arid regions.
- The two most commonly perceived changes across regions were increased pest/disease control and growing different crops to match changing rainfall patterns.
- Over 80% of farmers perceived changes in productivity over the past 30 years, though the percentage was lower for the past 10 years.
Climate change mitigation and adaptation 2011ver2cenafrica
This document provides an overview of Module Three which focuses on climate change and agriculture. It defines key concepts related to climate change impacts, vulnerability, adaptation, and mitigation. It discusses how climate change negatively impacts agriculture globally and regionally through changes in temperature, precipitation, and increased frequency of extreme weather events. Adaptation and coping strategies for agriculture are discussed. The module also covers agricultural innovations and systems for adapting to and mitigating climate change impacts.
Climate Resilient Agriculture an Approach to Reduce the Ill-Effect of Climate...UditDebangshi
Climate resilient agriculture (CRA) is a sustainable
approach for converting and reorienting agricultural systems to
support food security under the new realities of climate change
through different adaptation and mitigation mechanisms.
Agricultural systems are extremely vulnerable to climate change, given their sensitivity to variations in different threats like temperature, precipitation and incidence of natural events and disasters such as droughts and floods with this on an average the extreme weather patterns can impact farm incomes in the range of 15-18 %. Threats can be reduced by increasing the adaptive capacity of farmers as well as increasing resilience and resource use efficiency in agricultural production systems. CRA promotes synchronized actions by farmers, government, scientist, private sector, and policy-makers through three main action areas: (1) Building the capacity to identify the threats; (2) Curing the threats through adaptation and mitigation process (3) Sustain their adaptive mechanisms over a long time. The vulnerability of existing conditions of poverty, malnutrition and increasing populations puts intense pressure on finite natural resources, especially land, water and energy – all of which are integral to agricultural systems. In this context, it becomes imperative to adopt Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA) measures at cooperative scale to address the impending impact of climate change on agriculture.
Adaptation to climate change and variability in eastern ethiopiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on climate change adaptation in eastern Ethiopia. It finds that small-scale agriculture is vulnerable to climate impacts like drought and flooding. While farmers have adapted practices over time, climate change poses new challenges. The study analyzes factors influencing farmers' choices of adaptation strategies like changing planting dates or crops. It finds that education, land size, credit access, and climate factors like decreasing rainfall influence strategy selection. The conclusion calls for policies to improve farmers' access to resources and increase climate change awareness to support better adaptation.
climate change adaptation and mitigation.pptxdrveenasharma2
Climate change poses serious risks to agriculture, food security, and sustainable development goals. Rising greenhouse gases, temperatures, and extreme weather events threaten global food production. While higher temperatures may slightly increase crop yields at higher latitudes initially, prolonged heat will reduce yields. Adaptation strategies like new crop varieties and irrigation and mitigation efforts like improved agricultural practices can help offset impacts. Integrating climate planning into sustainable development is urgently needed.
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...Premier Publishers
Climate change is posing serious environmental, economic, and social impacts in the study area where people’s livelihoods depend on agriculture. This study was initiated to identify the existing adaptation strategies persuaded by smallholder farmers, and factors affecting the choices of adaptation strategies against climate change in Ankesha Guagusa district. Primary data were collected from a randomly selected 156 sample households in the district through interview method and focus group discussion whereas secondary data were collected from different organizations and published sources. Descriptive statistics, and econometric model were employed to achieve the stated objectives. The result of multivariate probit model showed that the likelihood of households to adopt irrigation, improved crop varieties, adjusting planting date, use crop diversification, and soil and water conservation practices were 46.79%, 52.26%, 45.51%, 69.68% and 78.20%, respectively. The result also shows that the joint probability of using all adaptation strategies was 11.53% and the joint probability of failure to adopt all of the adaptation strategies was 7.7%. The model result also confirms that sex, educational level, family size, livestock holding, land holding, off/non-farm income, farm income, extension contact, credit used, access to climate information, distance to market, and agro-ecological zone had significant effect on climate change adaptation strategies. Therefore, future policies shall focus on the smallholder farmers’ technical capacity through adult education system, and on updated extension services, improving credit facilities, irrigation facilities, farm and off-farm income earning opportunities, and use of new crop varieties that are more suited to the local environment.
The document discusses the impacts of climate change on agriculture in Nepal. It notes that global temperatures have increased by 0.8°C over the past century due to human activity. Climate change is predicted to cause rising temperatures, shifting climatic zones, and more extreme weather. This will lead to impacts like changing crop cycles, loss of native species, and decreased agricultural yields from droughts and floods. The document recommends ways for agriculture in Nepal to adapt, such as using resistant crops, water management strategies, and integrating livestock and forestry. It also stresses the need for policies, research, and community engagement to build adaptive capacity.
Analysis of farmers perceptions of the effects of climate change in kenya the...Alexander Decker
This study analyzed farmers' perceptions of climate change in Kyuso District, Kenya. The study found that 94% of farmers surveyed perceived that the climate was changing. A logistic regression model was used to identify factors influencing farmers' perceptions. The model found that characteristics like age, gender, education level, farming experience, household size, distance to markets, access to irrigation, local environment, access to climate information and extension services, off-farm income, and changes in temperature and precipitation had significant impacts on farmers' likelihood of perceiving climate change. The study concluded that since perception of climate change was high, policies should focus on helping farmers adapt to climate change impacts.
This document discusses climate-smart agriculture practices in Peru that can improve productivity, resilience, and reduce emissions. It outlines how investing in irrigation infrastructure, water-efficient crops, and land-use planning can boost efficiency. Livestock and agroforestry methods that sequester carbon while providing adaptation benefits are also described. The document provides context on Peru's agriculture sector and economy, key challenges around climate change impacts, and emissions sources from agriculture.
Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through ad...Premier Publishers
Building smallholder farmers’ resilience is essential to the sustainability of food security interventions. Being food secure alone is not enough, as disasters, including climate related extremes can quickly wipe out hard won development gains. Climate variability is an immediate challenge affecting the economy and poses threats to agriculture production and food security for smallholder farmers in rural communities. The livelihoods of people who depend on climate sensitive agricultural resources are particularly vulnerable. This study used a survey method to envisage adaptation strategies in agricultural production of smallholder farmer so as to increase resilience and create opportunities for increasing food security and environmental sustainability. The results indicated that more frequent and severe extreme climatic events, especially drought and heavy rainfall pose challenges to agricultural production and on ensuring food security in the area. To deal with such climate related extreme events, farmers develop different adaptation measures. Although farmers’ adaptation measures may not succeed completely, they form the basis of solutions to extreme events and disaster preparedness. It suggested that, addressing the threat posed by climate change will require better quantification of the problem, greater attention for prioritizing which production systems are vulnerable, and a redoubling of land and water management efforts. Climate change is occurring within a background of other global challenges, such as population growth, urbanization, land and water use, rural- urban migration, and biodiversity depletion. Thus, efforts to adapt to the impact of climate change should do so in a manner that is consistent with these broader development issues.
Rising to the challenge of establishing a climate smart agriculture - a global context presented as keynote in the Workshop on Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies in Asia workshop, organised by CCAFS, UNEP and IRRI.
Strategies for managing climate risk: a case study of smallholder farmers in ...Premier Publishers
This document summarizes a study on strategies for managing climate risk among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. It finds that plot characteristics like slope, soil type and fertility, and farm size significantly affect farmers' choice of adaptation and coping strategies. Farmers employ ex-ante adaptation strategies like leaving crop residues and intercropping, as well as ex-post coping strategies like selling livestock and borrowing when facing climate impacts. The study advocates for increasing farmer education on improved farm management practices to reduce vulnerability to climate change.
1) Agriculture is an important part of the Indian economy, providing food and livelihoods. Climate change is expected to impact agricultural productivity and patterns through changing temperatures and rainfall.
2) Predicted impacts include reduced wheat and rice yields from higher temperatures. Soybean yields may initially increase with higher carbon dioxide but decrease with rising temperatures.
3) Agriculture influences climate change through greenhouse gas emissions from fertilizer production, livestock digestion, and deforestation. Adaptation strategies include changing crops and planting dates, developing heat-resistant varieties, and improved irrigation.
Climate Change and Vulnerability in Ghana by Justice Ampofo AgyeiJustice Ampofo
Climate change is one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats to the livelihood of forest dependent communities in developing countries. The impacts of climate change on ecosystem services and the livelihood of communities surrounding the SRFR have been identified in this paper. These communities are very vulnerable due to their high dependence on ecosystem services and their low capacity to climate change impacts. Sectors that are adversely affected by climate change include agriculture, biodiversity, and water resources. These impacts are most likely to deepen poverty, food insecurity and the poor livelihoods of the communities. To address these negative impacts, the communities have adapted various adaptation strategies in agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and water resources management to minimize climate change impacts. To improve ecosystem services, adaptation to climate change impacts, the resilience and capacity of the local communities, it is important to put in place appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.
This document examines agroforestry as an adaptation method for African smallholder farmers facing increased weather extremes due to climate change. It discusses how agroforestry can strengthen food system resilience by providing additional crops and income sources while improving soil and water management. However, adoption of agroforestry in sub-Saharan Africa has been low due to various barriers. Overcoming these barriers is important for smallholder farmers to adapt their food production through low-cost agroforestry methods.
This document discusses the effects of climate change on global and Nepalese agriculture and food security. It provides background on climate zones in Nepal and evidence that climate change is negatively impacting agricultural productivity through increased temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events. The document outlines Nepal's efforts to develop climate-resilient crop varieties and adopt other adaptation strategies to address food insecurity exacerbated by climate change. However, it notes that Nepal's contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions is minimal, and the country is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
Similar to Smallholder Farmers Vulnerability Level to Climate Change Impacts and Implications to Agricultural Production in Tigray Regional State, Northern Ethiopia (20)
When breeding diploid potatoes, tetraploid progeny can result from the union of 2n eggs and 2n pollen in 2x-2x crosses. Thirty-three crosses were made to examine tetraploid progeny frequency in 2x-2x crosses. All crosses were between S. tuberosum dihaploids and diploid self-compatible donors, M6 and DRH S6-10-4P17. Using chloroplast counting for ploidy determination, the frequency of tetraploid progeny was as high as 45% in one of the 33 crosses. Based upon single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping, the tetraploid progeny were attributed to bilateral sexual polyploidization (BSP), which is caused by the union of 2n egg and 2n pollen. Dihaploids were identified that produce lower frequencies of 2n eggs. The results of this study suggest that S. tuberosum dihaploids with a high frequency of 2n eggs should be avoided in 2x - 2x crosses for diploid breeding programs.
This study developed a low cost and affordable to small-scale farmers’ indirect air-cooling combined with evaporative cooling (IAC+EC) system for storage of fruit and vegetables under both arid and hot; and humid and hot climatic conditions. Field heat from freshly harvested produce should be immediately removed through cooling to the desired storage temperature. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of IAC+EC system in terms of the cooling time requirement of the fresh tomato fruit. A fresh tomato cooling experiment to remove field heat during the summer month of September in Pietermaritzburg was conducted for 36 hours where the IAC+EC system was compared to storage under ambient conditions. The results showed that 16 hours was required to reduce the flesh temperature of tomatoes to 16.5°C while the flesh temperature for tomatoes under ambient conditions followed the ambient temperature profile with time of storage. The IAC+EC system reduced and maintained the microenvironment air temperature inside the coolers to 16.5°C - 19°C. The ambient temperature varied between 21 and 32°C. The results in this study are evidence that IAC+ EC system can be a choice for farmers, for cooling the fresh by reducing the field temperature after harvest.
Dioscorea rotundata is a staple food crop for millions of people in the tropical and subtropical regions. In vitro germplasm conservation is a very useful tool in yam improvement strategies but very little is known about the genetic integrity and stability of in-vitro conserved yam plants. In this study, 42 accessions from in vitro and field populations were genotyped using 11 microsatellite markers and 23 morphological descriptors to assess variability within and between accessions. Out of the 23 morphological variables used, 13 were identified as most discriminate and were used to cluster the accessions into 4 clusters using the unweighted pair group arithmetic mean average (UPGMA). Accession maintained in field as well as in in-vitro showed high genetic similarity (R2 = 0.91, p-value: 1e-04). Out of the 42 accessions analyzed, nine accessions maintained in the field and in-vitro displayed different genetic profiles. This study provided basic information on the possible somaclonal variation of yam accessions maintained through in-vitro. Further study with advanced tools such as next-generation sequencing is required to elucidate the nature of the observed variation within clones.
A study was carried out on plant density at the experimental field of the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD) Nkolbisson, Yaoundé to determine the appropriate spacing to improve rainfed rice production in the bimodal rainfall forest zone of Cameroon. The experiment was conducted during the main cropping seasons of 2017 and 2018. The planting spacing used were 15cm x 15cm, 20cm x 20cm, 25cm x 25cm and 30cm x 30cm giving the plant populations of 444444, 250000, 160,000 and 111,111 plants / ha respectively using two varieties (Nerica 3 and Nerica 8). The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Significant differences were observed in the growth and yield across the years. Treatments were highly significant concerning the number of days to the appearance of the first flower, the number of days to 50% flowering, and the number of days to 50 % maturity. Plants were taller with more tillers and gave higher yields in 2017 than those of 2018. The spacing significantly affected the plant height, number of tillers, and panicle length for both varieties. The interaction of spacing and variety was significant for the number of tillers per m2 and the number of seeds per panicle, however, it was not for the weight of 1000 grains and the percentage of full bales. The yield components determining yield increase were the number of panicles / m2 and the number of seeds/panicles. Nerica 3 variety gave higher yields compared to the Nerica 8, the closer the spacing, the higher the yield. There were a strong significance and positive correlation between yield, number of panicles, and the number of grain per panicle. The spacing that gives the highest number of panicle per m2 was 15 cm X 15 cm and this spacing gave good yield in the region where the study was carried out.
Intermolecular interaction is the material basis for cells to achieve their functions, and protein-protein interaction is an important approach to illuminate the regulation network of biological molecules and has important theoretical significance and potential application value for revealing the activity law of life in nature. This paper mainly summarizes and analyzes the new advances and applications of modern biotechnologies in the study of protein-protein interactions, including local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), yeast two-hybrid, GST-Pull-down, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, and coimmunoprecipitation. At the same time, the principles of different research methods for protein-protein interaction and their other applications in the field of life sciences are also discussed, all of these will provide a reference value for the analysis of protein-protein interaction and the molecular regulation mechanism of biomacromolecules.
Field experiment involving five improved onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties and carried out at Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center during the 2018 to 2019 cropping seasons under irrigated condition to identify the best performing variety for seed production to the target areas of Arsi Zone. The onion varieties included in the field experiment were (Nafis, Robaf, Nasic Red, Bombe Red, and Adama Red). The experimental design was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Phenological and growth parameters, seed yield, and yield components were studied. The result showed that Variety had a significant effect on most phonological and growth attributes as well as on yield attributes. The number of days to flowering and vigorously were significantly affected by variety; while plant height, days to boolting and branch number was not significantly influenced by variety. Flower stalks height and diameter, number of umbel per plant, and umbel diameter also significantly affected by variety. Seed yield per umbel and mean seed yield per hectare also showed a significance difference among varieties. The highest seed yield per hectare (1415.89 kg/ha) was recorded from Adama Red and followed by Nafis variety, whereas Nasic rerd, Bombe red and Robaf show no significance difference among each other, Therefore, it can be concluded that use of the improved onion varieties such as Adama red and Nafis is advisable and could be appropriate for onion seed production in the test area even though further testing is required to put the recommendation on a strong basis.
Rubber trees are among the important cultivated crops in Malaysia, and have contributed to the country’s overall economic growth since the 1950s. However, the existing anatomical and morphological studies are relatively insufficient. Currently, Hevea brasiliensis has been cultivated and planted commonly as a commercial planting clone, while Hevea camargoana remains to be a non-cultivated and underutilized rubber species. For many years, there only exists little information both in private plantations and government agencies that have carried out anatomical and morphological assessments on these underutilized species. There is little information about the characteristics of H.camargoana, thus raising the issue among plant breeders on how to best use this underutilized rubber species. This study attempts to investigate the taxonomic values and characteristics of Hevea brasiliensis and Hevea camargoana through anatomical and morphological studies.
Use of distributed electricity generation systems is currently increasing due to their economic and environmental benefits. Agricultural greenhouses require heat and electricity for covering their energy needs while their annual energy requirements vary significantly. Aim of the current work is the investigation of applying various distributed electricity generation systems in greenhouses. A review of different distributed generation systems currently used in various sectors as well as in greenhouses has been implemented. Various technologies are examined utilizing either renewable energies or fossil fuels in very efficient energy systems. Most of them are mature and cost-effective having lower environmental impacts compared with traditional centralized electricity generation technologies. Their use in greenhouses results in many benefits including the creation of an additional income for the farmer, reduction of carbon emissions into the atmosphere and increasing stability of the electric grid. It is suggested that distributed electricity generation systems should be used more in greenhouses when the necessary conditions are favorable.
Grain mold, considered the most important disease of sorghum, is associated with several fungal genera. The disease reduces both yield and quality. In this study, over 300 sorghum seed samples collected from Texas, Florida, and Georgia were evaluated for grain mold severity, seed weight, germination rate, and seed fungal community. Grain mold severity of the seed samples, except for those collected from Cameron, Texas, were rated 3 or higher, indicating that these sorghum lines were moderately susceptible under naturally-infected field conditions during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons. Seed weight across surveyed locations ranged from 1.1 g to 4.0g for samples collected in Texas during the same period. Percent germination rates for samples collected in Texas ranged from 59.6% to 86.7%. Sorghum samples collected from Florida and Georgia exhibited moderately susceptible response to grain mold infection. Mean seed weight was 1.9 g for samples collected from Florida, while in Georgia, mean seed weight was 2.3 g. Germination rate was low for samples collected from Florida and Georgia. Mycological analysis of sorghum seed samples collected from farmers’ fields in Central and South Texas during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons showed Alternaria species as the most frequently isolated fungal genus, accounting for 40% and 42 % in 2016 and 2017, followed by Fusarium incarnatum, F. acuminatum, F. equiseti, & F. semitectum Complex. In Florida and Georgia, Fusarium incarnatum, F. acuminatum, F. equiseti, & F. semitectum Complex was the most frequently recovered fungal species, accounting for 77% and 72% of the total. genera/species isolated from seed samples. Other fungal species, including Curvularia lunata, Bipolaris sp., Colletotrichum sublineola, F. verticillioides, Penicillium sp., Aspergillus flavus, F. thapsinum, F. oxysporum, F. sporotrichioides, F. graminearum, F. proliferatum, and Aspergillus niger were also isolated from sorghum seeds in various frequencies. In conclusion, the presence of large number of fungal genera associated with grain deterioration and their effect on other traits, makes management of this disease complex challenging. To identify grain mold resistant sources in a region, using the most dominant species in that region to screen the sorghum germplasm is recommended.
- The document describes national performance trials of potato varieties conducted in mid-altitude regions of Kenya between 2016 and 2017.
- Twenty-six potato genotypes, including four check varieties, were evaluated across six mid-altitude sites over two seasons. Yield and other agronomic data was collected.
- In the first season, genotypes, environments, and their interaction all significantly affected yield. Trans-Nzoia was the highest yielding site, with all genotypes yielding between 10-25 tons/ha. In the second season, only environments significantly impacted yield, with Trans-Nzoia again the highest.
The tests for the evaluation of seedling establishment, palatability and acceptability were carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Agricultural Technology and the Food Laboratory of the Department of Home and Rural Economics, Adamawa State College of Agriculture, Ganye, Adamawa State. The experimental designs used were Randomized Complete Block Design and the Completely Randomized Design. Some of the parameters measured were percentage seedling establishment, palatability, and acceptability tests. The highest mean percentage seedling establishment was observed in 12.00g levels of H. suaveolens whole powder treated shelled groundnut seeds (97.67, 97.00, and 94.00) at the three periods of storage. Percentage seedling establishment decreased with a decrease in levels of H. suaveolens whole powder. One of the major constraints to the use of plant materials as an alternative to synthetic insecticides is the issue of standardization in dosage of application. This work has suggested that, if groundnut seeds are to be used for sowing, they should be stored with a 12.00g level of H. suaveolens whole powder for every 300.00g for three months. However, if they are to be used for consumption, they could be stored with a 6.00g level of H. suaveolens whole powder for every 300.00g for at most three months. There was no significant difference between treated and untreated shelled groundnut seeds at the three periods of storage on the acceptability and palatability score of cooked groundnut at all dosages of application. All treatments were within the acceptable score rates even though the two rates of the synthetic insecticides, actellic dust were at the lowest acceptable score rate. The finding also showed that acceptability and palatability decreased with an increase in dosage of application. The periods of storage also had a significant impact on the mean percentage seedling establishment. It was observed that there was a higher percentage of seedling establishment when shelled groundnut seeds were stored from November- January. At this period of the year, the temperature and humidity are usually low and this might have necessitated the high state of inactivity and low performance of the bruchids compared to other periods of storage within the year.
1. The study examined the effects of mulching and irrigation on cocoa seedling survival and establishment during the dry season in Ghana.
2. Results showed that irrigation and mulching significantly increased soil moisture content. Cocoa seedlings raised in topsoil, mulched and irrigated had the highest survival rate of 94.5%, while seedlings without irrigation or mulching had the lowest survival rate of 47.1%.
3. Irrigation had a significant positive effect on cocoa seedling survival, plant height, and leaf number. Seedling survival was 89.6% under irrigation versus 65.6% without irrigation. Mulching alone did not significantly affect seedling survival.
Few years ago National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) launched melon sheller to reduce burden of obtaining melon oil and cake, and to enhance rural women’s productivity. This study looked at the productivity of promoted melon shelling technology and preference by rural women in Nigeria. Data were gathered from the NCAM workshop and survey of melon processors in Niger State. In the workshop, it was found that time allowed for soaking melon and covering with piece of clothes contributed to the productivity of the sheller. Results from survey revealed that 95.1% of the respondents’ preferred Internal Combustion technology and 90.2% liked electric-driven melon shellers over the manual one. Also, 69.5% obtained the shellers from local fabricators rather than NCAM. The technology led to increased turnout of melon (378kg/hr) and reduced wastages to 1.26kg out of 75.6kg. The study concluded that the promoted melon sheller is efficient and have positive implication on the rural women’s productivity and revenue. The study recommends that the rural women should put the melon sheller into its maximum capacity use. The NCAM should extend training to the local fabricators so that they can improve on the technology most especially in the areas of winnowing and washing of melon kernels.
Keeping in view of lack of recommended rates of N and NPS fertilizers, a field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of the newly introduced NPS fertilizer and nitrogen on growth, physiology and above ground biomass of garlic. Four NPS (0-0-0, 78.75-69-12.75, 105-92-17 and 131.25-115-21.25 kg N-P-S ha-1) and three nitrogen fertilizer rates (114.13, 228.26 and 278.33 kg N ha-1) were laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Significantly highest plant height (28.02 cm), leaf diameter (1.27 cm), dry and fresh weight (4.71 g and 6.11 g) and leaf length were recorded on garlic plants supplied with 105-92-17 kg N-P-S ha-1 and also the highest plant height (27.75 cm), leaf length (24.02 cm), fresh and dry weight (6.23 g and 5.04 g) were recorded on garlic plants supplied with 278.33 kg N ha-1. The interaction effect also show a significant effect in almost all the growth parameters; the early day to 50% emergence was recorded from a plot which received 228.26 kg N ha-1 and 105-92-17 kg NPS ha-1 and the highest plant height, leaf length, fresh and dry above ground biomass and leaf diameter were 29.62 cm, 25.60 cm, 6.93 g, 5.59 g and 1.4 cm, respectively were observed by the interaction of 278.33 kg N ha-1 and 105-92-17 kg N-P-S ha-1 with no significant difference with 228.26 N and 78.75-69-12.75 kg N-P-S ha−1. From this one season experiment, fertilizer rates 307.01-69-12.75 kg N-P-S ha−1 could be recommended for garlic production.
In the past, conservation effort has primarily focused on establishment of forest reserves for timber production, with minimal or no consideration to how these natural resources will help sustain or improve livelihoods of adjoining communities. This study examined the contribution of Aramoko forest reserve to the livelihoods of the adjoining communities in Ekiti State. One hundred and twenty pre-tested questionnaires were administered among the products collectors in the study area. Data collected were analysed and the result showed that 78.3 % of the respondents are married with 52.3 % of them male, while 50.8 % of the respondents aged between 51-70 years with 64.1 % having at least secondary education. Twenty-five (25) different products were collected by the respondents in the study area. These products include among others; timber with highest frequency of (120) followed by herbal plants (115), Archantina marginata (105), Thaumatococcus danielli (89), Bridelia ferruginea (70) and Irvingia garbonensis (65). The use of motor cycle accounted for 41.4 % of the respondents means of transportation, while 31.3 % of the respondents sell their product in bit at the village market. Picking, digging, plucking, cutting and uprooting were methods used for harvesting by the respondents while illegal felling (24 %) and indiscriminate bush burning (22.4 %) were the major conservation problem in the study area. Specifically, some of the products harvested are used for food, medicine, fuelwood, herbs and cultural purposes. The study recommends that research should be conducted into how these products can be artificially raised in the nursery for plantation establishment.
Cocoa farmer faces increasing challenging environment through exposure to risks factors which have impacted negatively on their production or output. Since farmers are primary producers and often times lack capacity to control risks factor, it is important to manage this factors. This study examines the cocoa farmers’ risk preferences and crop insurance perception and isolates the drivers of decision to uptake crop insurance among cocoa farmers in Ekiti state. The sample for the study consist of 200 cocoa farmers who were household heads selected through multi-stage sampling across four Local government areas of Ekiti State who are predominantly cocoa producers. Data collected on socio-demographic characteristics, perception of crop insurance and risk preferences, were analyzed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic model. Results showed that majority of the cocoa farmers were without crop insurance, with higher enrolment in Membership of cooperative society, owned their land, larger household size and lower educational level but higher level of farm experience when compared to cocoa farmers who are holding crop insurance. Farmers risk preferences showed no significant difference between farmers with or without insurance. Education (β=0.59), Household size (β=0.0029) and Debt use (β=0.02), Membership of cooperative (β=-4.53), Farming Experience (β=-2.51), Owned Land (β=-2.19) and Non-Farm Income (β=-0.65) were among the significant determinants of insurance uptake. Risk mitigating measures such as provision of necessary incentives such as improved varieties of cocoa seedling, as well as provision of fertiliser and approved pesticides, financial assistance, and simple processing technologies that produce standard cocoa bean plus a re-jigged Nigeria Agricultural Insurance Corporation (NAIC) for an improved discharge of its function are recommended.
Mitigation of climate change requires the decrease of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere and the increasing use of renewable energies replacing fossil fuels. Agricultural greenhouses are energy-intensive agricultural systems using mainly fossil fuels. The use of renewable energies during their operation is limited so far. The possibility of using renewable energies for covering their energy needs has been investigated, focused on the Mediterranean region. Various sustainable energy technologies which are reliable, mature, cost-effective and broadly used in various applications are examined. These include solar-PV systems, low enthalpy geothermal energy, solid biomass burning, co-generation systems, high efficiency heat pumps and reuse of rejected industrial heat. Combined use of these systems in greenhouses can cover all their energy requirements in heat, cooling and electricity, reducing or zeroing their net CO2 emissions into the atmosphere due to operational energy use. It is concluded that depending on their local availability in Mediterranean countries, these benign energy technologies can assist greenhouse crop growers in the reduction of their carbon emissions, contributing in the achievement of the universal goal for climate change mitigation.
Field experiment was carried out under rain-fed conditions during the 2013 and 2014 cropping seasons at the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Agricultural Technology, Adamawa State College of Agriculture, Ganye, solely to develop an integrated pest management for the control of groundnut Aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) [Homoptera: Aphididae]. The experimental Design used was the Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Parameters measured were, average number of leaves per plot at 6 weeks after sowing, number of branches at 3 weeks after sowing, number of branches at 6 weeks after sowing, number of pods per plot, weight of harvested seeds per plot. The result obtained shows that, there was significant difference among the treatments in all the parameters measured at 0.05 level of probability using the Least Significant Difference (LSD). According to the results recorded, the highest mean yield of groundnut was obtained on plots treated with the combination of chemical and physical control methods (1444g) followed by plots treated with physical, chemical and cultural control methods combined (1296g). The highest mean number of pods per plant was recorded in the combination of physical, chemical and cultural control methods (18.00) followed by chemical and physical control methods as combined (15.00). The work shows that, the cultivation of groundnut with the control of groundnut Aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) using integrated pest control applied as recommended facilitates better growth and guarantees good crop yield. The use of physical, chemical and cultural control method is profitable in Ganye Area of Adamawa State and is therefore suggested for use to local farmers.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important food crops in the world. Purple rice, as a special rice with important nutritional and health functions, has important scientific significance and application value for genetic improvement of purple rice and breeding of new varieties through in-depth study on its agronomic and related quality traits and products processed, and analysis of its genetic basis. In this paper, the new progress of purple rice in agronomic traits, quality traits, environmental impacts on purple rice and genetic basis of purple rice seed coat in recent years were reviewed and analyzed, and the application prospects of purple rice processing products and purple gene in rice genetic improvement were also prospected. Thus, our results will provide important information and reference for breeding new purple rice varieties with good quality and high yield.
Groundnut is an important oil seed crop, grown throughout the tropics and sub tropics worldwide. It is one of the three economically important oilseed crops grown in Ethiopia. Groundnut is commonly produced by small scale farmers as food and cash crops in the study area. The area has potential to the production of Ground nut for food and nutrition security as well as export commodity. However, scarcity of varieties that fit to the environment is one of the major constraints of production. Therefore, this experiment was conducted to evaluate five Ground nut varieties and select early maturing varieties with considerable yield and agronomic traits. The field experiment was conducted in 2017 and 2018 at Abaya and varieties were planted in Randomized complete block design (RCBD). Data were collected on yield and important agronomic traits. The computed analysis of variance revealed significant variations among varieties for days to maturity, number of primary branches, number of pegs per plants, Grain yield and shelling percentage. The pooled over year mean of varieties indicated , Tole- 1 variety ( Check) is high yielding with mean grain yield of 4174.7kg followed by variety Sedi (3552.5kg/ha) and Babile local (3550.4kg/ha).Variety Sedi has special merit in terms of earliness and therefore recommended for moisture stress areas of Abaya and location with similar agro ecologies while Tole -1 (Standard check) is high yielding varieties and should be used in production until new varieties will be developed through selection/breeding program.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Smallholder Farmers Vulnerability Level to Climate Change Impacts and Implications to Agricultural Production in Tigray Regional State, Northern Ethiopia
1. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
ISSN(e): 2412-6381, ISSN(p): 2413-886X
Vol. 5, Issue. 12, pp: 237-250, 2019
URL: https://arpgweb.com/journal/journal/14
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32861/jac.512.237.250
Academic Research Publishing
Group
*Corresponding Author
237
Original Research Open Access
Smallholder Farmers Vulnerability Level to Climate Change Impacts and
Implications to Agricultural Production in Tigray Regional State, Northern
Ethiopia
Alemu Addisu*
PhD, Mekelle University, Ethiopia
Daniel Olago
Prof., Institutes for Climate Change and Adaptation, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Shem Wandiga
Prof., Institutes for Climate Change and Adaptation, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Silas Oriaso
Sen. Lecturer, Institutes for Climate Change and Adaptation, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Dorothy A. Amwata
Sen. Lecturer South Eastern Kenya University, Kenya
Abstract
Vulnerability to climate change impact is the most pressing issues for less developed countries whose economy
mainly depends on the agricultural sector. The demand for food is growing swiftly whereas impacts of climate
change on the global food production are increasing. More area specific research outputs and evidences-based policy
directions are needed to tackle the ever changing climate and to reduce its impacts on the agricultural production.
The aim of this study was to investigate subsistence farmer household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts
and its associations with household‟s agricultural production. Then primary data was collected from 400 households
from Kolla Temben District, Tigray Regional State, North Ethiopia. Multistage sampling techniques were applied to
select households for interview from the district. In the first stage, 4 Kebelles (Kebelle - administration unit) were
selected randomly out of 27 Kebelles and then400 households were selected for interview through systematic
random sampling techniques (Figure 1). Multiple regressions were used to examine the associations between
household‟s vulnerability to climate change impacts and agricultural production. Grounded theory and content
analysis techniques were use to analyze data from key informant interviews and focus group discussions. For every
single unit increase in household vulnerability to climate change impacts, there was an average agricultural
production decrease between 16.99 and 25.83 (Table 4). For single unit increase in household‟s vulnerability to
climate change impact, there was a decrease of total crop production, Total income, total livestock, total food
consumption and food consumption per adult equivalent. Rainfall decrease, small farmland ownership, steep
topography, frequent flood occurrences and large family size are among the major factors that negatively affect
household‟s agricultural production and total income. The more the vulnerable the households, the less in total
annual crop production, total livestock size, total income from agricultural production and the more dependent on
food aid). There is a negative association between household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts and
agricultural production (crop production, total livestock ownerships and total income from crop production). More
access to irrigation and agricultural fertilizers, improved varieties of crops, small family size, improve farmland
ownership size, more access to education and Agricultural Extension services are an effective areas of intervention
to improve household‟s resilient, reduce households vulnerability level to climate change impacts and increase
household‟s total agricultural production.
Keywords: Farmers vulnerability; Vulnerability calculation methods; Agricultural production and climate resilient.
CC BY: Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
1. Introduction
In the 21st
century, agriculture remains central in tackling the three challenges of improved food security,
adapting to the impacts of climate change and variability, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions at a time when
resources are gradually becoming more limited for global food systems [1].
The impacts of climate change on economic bases, societies and environment is very significant [2]. Change in
climate patterns (temperature and precipitation) and the distribution of the natural base leads to unpredictable and
erratic rainfall pattern, warmer temperature and diminishing of water availability and agricultural production [3].
More investigation is essential to improve the understanding on the possible impacts of the changing climate in the
food system in a 2o
C+ temperature world compare with the pre- industrial level as the international community
2. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
238
agreed in the Paris Accord to limit temperature increase to 1.5-2o
C Thornton, et al. [4] and Masson-Delmotte, et al.
[5].
Crop modelling studies have paid limited attention to adaptation, vulnerability level and other indicators related
to agricultural performance in simulating crop yields and total income [6]. Sub-Saharan Africa will lose 26 million
dollars by 2060 as a result of climate impacts [7]. Agricultural return and total income are likely to decrease [8].
Increasing levels of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere enhances agricultural productivity with minimum nutrient
content [9]. On the other hand, climate change and variability can have positive effects on agriculture production and
income [10]. The impacts of temperature increase on agriculture production and total revenue in rainfed agriculture
is negative but precipitation increase has positive effects [11].Temperature increase in irrigation supported area has
positive impacts on agricultural production [11].
Significant changes may be needed to people‟s livelihood and agricultural production systems if household‟s
food security status and total income is to be enhanced in the ever changing climate of East Africa [12]
.Diversification of the means of livelihood improves household‟s incomes in the current ever changing climate
[13].Although agriculture is the main source of many households‟ income in East Africa, the impacts of climate
change and variability in the sector have not been adequately addressed [14].
According to Schipper [15], reductions of the vulnerability level of the poor through development is a better
approach than reducing vulnerability through adaptation. The applications of climate vulnerability index(CVI) to sub
national and community levels helps in identifying those mostly at risk and to allocate resources towards those in
most need of it Sullivan and Meigh [2].Irrigation can help subsistence farmers to manage climate change impacts
[16].The guidelines available to structure vulnerability assessments that can also be used to compare and to make
generalizations is very little [17].Climate change will have different impacts on vulnerable groups [18]. Several
adaptation measures have been put in place to mitigate climate change namely agro-forestry, diversification of
livelihoods among others. For example, agro-forestry is important in reducing a household‟s vulnerability to climate
change [19]. The trees sequester carbon and often provide other benefits such as food, fruits, firewood and soil and
water conservation [17]. A lot of research remains to be done regarding food production vulnerabilities to climate
change impacts [20]. All sectors and groups of societies are not at the same level of sensitivity and vulnerability
level to climate change impacts.
2. Methods and Description of the Study Area
2.1. Description of the Areas
2.1.1. Location
The study area, Kolla Temben District, lies in the central zone administration of the Tigray Region, 95 km west
of Mekelle City, the capital city of the Regional State. The Kolla Temben District is bordered by Naeder Adet
District to the northwest, Wereleke District to the north, Abergele District to the south, Western Zone District to the
west, and Hawzen District to the east part (Figure 1).The road network of the Regional State comprises 4,949 km of
dry weather roads, 2,522km all weather roads, and 497km of paved roads [21].
Figure-1. Location map of Kola Temben District, North Ethiopia
2.1.2. Climate
According to the Regional State Bureau of Agriculture, the Tigray Regional State has three Agro-Ecological
Zones, namely, Lowland (hot area) at 1600 meters above sea level, Mid-Highland at 1600-2300 meter and Highland
3. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
239
(Cold land) at 2300-3000 m above sea level. The climate of the regional state issemi arid ("Kolla") at 39%, warm
temperate ("Woinadega") 49%, and temperate ("Degas") at 12% for each of the three agro-ecological zones,
respectively. The annual rainfall of the regional state is 450-980 mm and the estimated population density is 86.56
people per km2
.The average altitude of the Regional State Capital, Mekelle, is 2100 metres above sea level with
temperatures between 11ºC and 23ºC with annual rainfall range of 900 to1800 mm. The altitude of the Kolla
Temben District (study area) is 1400 to 2300 metres above sea level, and therefore covers the following climatic
zones: Lowland (Kola), „WeyinaDega‟ (midland) and „Dega‟ (highland). The Kolla Temben District annual rainfall
is 500 mm to 800 mm with an annual average temperature of 25-30ºC.
3. Method
3.1. Sampling Techniques
To determine household‟s vulnerability to climate change impacts, data on the farmer households exposure,
sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to climate change impacts were collected from 400 households in Kolla Temben
District, Northern Ethiopia. The sample size was determined as explained below, and the data collection instruments
used in this study were structured and semi structured survey questionnaires.
To calculate the sample size, the total population and the number of households were obtained from the Kolla
Temben District Finance and Economic development office. The formula used to calculate the sample size was from
Yamane [22]:
Where:
n –calculated sample size
N –total number of households in KollaTemben District
e – Level of precision
The total number of households in Kolla Temben District is 28,907 and the required sample size for the survey
study according to the formula is 395 households but the study has used 400 households for the study.
n = 394.54 households
The Multistage sampling technique was applied to select the specific 400 households for the survey. In the first
stage, four Kebelles was selected using simple random sampling techniques out of the given 27 Kebelles in the
District. After this, 400 households were selected from the lists of households in the four Kebelles (Newi,
Awetbekalsi, Atakility and Begasheka) through the systematic random sampling techniques. The sample interval
was calculated using total number of households divided by total sample size for each Kebelle and then selected the
random start between the household listed in number one and the interval number .The sampling interval was
repeatedly added to select the subsequent households up to all the required 400 households in all the 4 Kebelles were
selected for interview. The total number of households in each of the Kebelles was: Newi 1325, Awetbekalsi 1130,
Atakility 1679 and Begasheka 1373. This translated to the following number of household samples per Kebelle-
Newi 96, Awetbekalsi 82, Atakility 122 and Begasheka 100.
Figure-2. Sampling techniques of the study
2
)(1 eN
N
4. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
240
3.2. Data Collection Methods
3.2.1. Survey
To determine household‟s vulnerability to climate change impacts, data on the farmer households exposure,
sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to climate change impacts were collected from 400 households in Kolla Temben
District, Northern Ethiopia. Data was collected in Likert [23] scale (Table 1) to ease the data collection and analysis
and also to accurately examine household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts.
Table-1. Household‟s vulnerability indicators- Hh-households
Categories Cluster Households status towards; Choose one
Household‟s
exposure level to
climate change
impacts
Biophysical
High flood incidents Very low = 1, Low = 2, Medium = 3,
High = 4 , Very high = 5
Landslide incidents Very low = 1, Low = 2, Medium = 3,
High = 4 , Very high = 5
Extreme temperature events Very low = 1, Low = 2, Medium = 3,
High = 4 , Very high = 5
Wind extreme events Very low = 1, Low = 2, Medium = 3,
High = 4 , Very high = 5
House damage by intense
rainfall
Very low = 1, Low = 2, Medium = 3,
High = 4 , Very high = 5
Farmland‟s exposure to flood Very low = 1, Low = 2, Medium = 3,
High = 4 , Very high = 5
Farmland difficult for farming Very low = 5, Low = 4, Medium = 3,
High = 2 , Very high = 1
Soil fertility status Very low = 5, Low = 4, Medium = 3,
High = 2 , Very high = 1
Waterborne diseases because
of contamination by floods
Very low = 1, Low = 2, Medium = 3,
High = 4 , Very high = 5
Household‟s
sensitivity to climate
change impacts
Socio-
economic
Types of Agriculture
practices?
Agriculture without irrigation/fully rain
dependent =2, with same irrigation
supplement = 1,
Agriculture with fully depend on
irrigation = 0
Socio-
economic
Sources of energy for cooking
energy source
Electric or Kerosene = 0, wood fuel or
charcoal = 1,
Exclusively depend on wood fuel = 2
Socio-
economic
Sources of water for domestic
use
Piped water = 0, Spring water = 1, both
= 2
Socio-
economic
Sources of household‟s
livelihood
Fully Agriculture = 3. Agriculture and
safety-net program = 2, Agriculture and
non-farm activities = 1
Household‟s
Adaptive capacity to
climate change
impacts
Socio-
economic
Household assets in Ethiopia
Birr (ETB)
<14,863 = 0, ≥14863- 16,332.20 = 1,
16333-190,300 = 2
Socio-
economic
Household land size hectare in
ha
0ha = 0, <.25 ha = 1, ≥.25-0.5 ha = 2,
>.05ha-1 ha = 3, >1ha-1.5 ha = 4,
>1.5ha = 5
Socio-
economic
How many times hhs getting
Agricultural Extension,
services in year
Not all = 0, 1-2 times a year = 1,
monthly = 2, Weekly = 3, Daily = 4
Socio-
economic
No of family member has
attended or attending school
Three and above = 3,Two family =
2,One family member = 1, None = 0
Health No of family members have
terminal illness?
Three and above = 0 two family = 1
one family member and above , None =
3
Health No of family member has
physical disability
Three and above family member = 0,
two family = 1, one family member = 2
None = 3
Socio-
economic
No of family members under
working age group as local
standard?
Three and above = 0. two family
member = 1 one family member =
2,None = 3
Socio-
economic
Frequencies of hh visited by
development agent and health
extension workers in a year
Not all = 0, 1-2 times a year = 1,
monthly = 2, weekly = 3, Daily = 4.
5. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
241
Socio-
economic
Hh residents distance from
public transport,
<-5 km = 4, 5.-10 km = 3, >10 km <15
= 2, >15 Km = 1
Socio-
economic
Hh residents distance
education
<-5 km = 4, 5.-10 km = 3, >10 km <15
= 2, >15 Km = 1
Socio-
economic
Hh residents distance from
Kebelle centre
<-5 km = 4, 5.-10 km = 3, >10 km <15
= 2, >15 Km = 1
Socio-
economic
Hh residents distance from
health station
<-5 km = 4, 5.-10 km = 3, >10 km <15
= 2, >15 Km = 1
Socio-
economic
Hh residents distance from
URAP road
<-5 km = 4, 5.-10 km = 3, >10 km <15
= 2, >15 Km = 1
Socio-
economic
Hh residents distance from
market centre
<-5 km = 4, 5.-10 km = 3, >10 km <15
= 2, >15 Km = 1
Socio-
economic
Hh residents distance from
agricultural extension station
<-5 km = 4, 5.-10 km = 3, >10 km <15
= 2, >15 Km = 1
3.3. Focus Group Discussion and Key Informants’ Interviews
3.3.1. Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
Focus group discussions (FGD) were held with 40 people, selected with the help of the Kebelle administrators
and development agents, during the period April to September 2016.The data collected from focus group discussion
from all the four Kebelles (Newi 10 households, Awetbekalsi 10 households, Atakility 10 households and Begasheka
10 households) was focused on climate change and variability relation with agricultural production, factor affect
agricultural production, main causes for household‟s high vulnerability to climate change impacts and possible
solutions to address climate change challenges (Table 2).
Table-2. Profiles of focus group discussion (FGD) participants
Attributes FGD1 FGD2 FGD3 FGD4
Name of Kebelle Newi Atakility Begasheka Awetbekalsi
Age 50-65 50-65 50-65 50-65
Education 1-12 grade 1-12 grade 1-12grade 1-12 grade
Farming experiences 30-45 years 30-45 years 30-45 years 30-45 years
No of famers 10 (5 female
and 5 male)
10 (5 female
and 5 male)
10 (5 female and
5 male)
10 (5 female and 5
male)
Kebelle Administrator 1 1 1 1
Development agent 1 1 1 1
Sources: Fieldwork 2016/2017
3.3.2. Key Informants’ Interviews (KII)
Key informant interviews (KII) were conducted with 18 consisting of development agents deployed by the
government to provide agricultural extension services to farmers and community leaders who were believed to be
knowledgeable on climate change and food production issues in the district. They were selected with the help of the
Kebelle administrators and development agents and their level of education, farming experiences and age were taken
into considerations (Table 3). The interviews took place during the period April to September 2016. The key
informant interviews were focused on rainfall and temperature trends, agricultural production and farmer‟s level of
exposures to shocks and capacity to cope.
Table-3. Profiles of Key informant interview (KII) participants
Attributes KII 1 KII 2 KII 3 KII 4
Name of Kebelle Newi Atakility Begasheka Awetbekalsi
Age 50-65 50-65 50-65 50-65
Education 5-12 grade 5-12 grade 5-12 grade 5-12 grade
Farming experiences 30-45 years 30-45 years 30-45 years 30-45 years
No of famers 4(2 male and 2
female)
4(2 male and 2
female)
4(2 male and 2
female)
4(2male and 2
female)
Kebelle administrator 1 1 1 1
Development agent 1 1 1 1
Sources: Fieldwork 2016/2017
3.4. Data Analysis Methods
3.4.1. Survey Data
Data on all the indicators for household vulnerability level were collected and indexed for ease of analysis and
interpretations. All indexed results for household‟s vulnerability level were statistically tested to scrutinize the
associations between household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts and agricultural production and total
income.
6. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
242
The overall household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts was calculated using the IPCC [24]
definition and as applied by Opiyo, et al. [25], Nkondze and Masuku [26] and Bobadoye [27] using the indicators in
Table 1. It can be expressed as follows:
Household vulnerability = Adaptive capacity – (exposure + sensitivity). – Equation (2)
Vi = (A1X1J + A2X2J + … + AnXnj) – (A1Y1j + A2Y2j + ………AnYnj) – Equation (3)
Where:
Vi = vulnerability index
X = indicators for adaptive capacity
Y = indicators for exposure and sensitivity
J = Variables
A = First component score of each variable.
The household‟s vulnerability index was then calculated using the indicators (Table 1) for adaptive capacity,
exposure and sensitivity; and quantified through Likert scales [23].This was used to determine household‟s
vulnerability to climate change impacts in the Kolla Temben District.
Finally, a household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts was classified into one of three groups (low
vulnerability, medium vulnerability, high vulnerability, Peris, et al. [28] based on the mean value of Vi (24.7) and its
standard deviation (16.9), respectively. Thus, “low” comprised those whose score was less than the total mean
(24.7), “medium” for those that scored 24.7 to 41.6 (sum of the mean and standard deviation), and “high” for
households which scored greater than the sum of the standard deviation and mean (41.6). These three vulnerability
categories of households were coded in the SPSS software as: 1 = High, 2 = Medium and 3 = Low to ease the
statistical and crosstabs analysis of the data. This categorization was based on the principle that households with
higher adaptive capacity are less vulnerable, and vice versa.
The relationship between household vulnerability level to climate change impacts, agricultural production and
total income was also tested. The vulnerability indicators used in the analysis and their assigned weighted values are
presented in Table 2.
Multiple regression analysis uses to examine a relationship between multiple independent variables with
dependent variable [29]. The study used multiple regression analysis to examine the relationship between
household‟s vulnerability to climate change impacts (continuous scale) with agricultural production and total income
(household‟s total crop production in Kg, household‟s total income in ETB (Ethiopia Birr), household‟s total
livestock ownership in Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) and household‟s food consumption in Ethiopia Birr
(ETB),household‟s annual food consumption in Kg from aid and household‟s total annual crop sales in
Kilograms(Kg). Multi-co linearity test was done before the multiple regression analysis was underway to examine
for multi-co linearity of variables through variance inflation factors (VIF) which could inflate the coefficients. A VIF
values above 10 were taken as a multi-co linearity problem [30]. Accordingly, multi-co linearity problem was not
found that demands removal of any variables from multiple regression analysis. Therefore, all variables were
included in the multiple regressions for analysis. Stata 10 computer software was used to run the VIF for multi-co
linearity test.
3.3.2. Focus Group Discussion and Key Informant Interviews Data Analysis
Grounded theory and content analysis techniques were used to analyze data from key informant interviews and
focus group discussions [31]. In focus group discussion, most of researchers use text to examine what participants
stated in group discussions [32]. In analyzing focus group discussion (FGD), the group is the unit of the analysis
[33]. Content analysis uses to analyze qualitative data from focus group discussion (FGD) and help to determine the
main concepts mentioned in the focus group discussion [34]. Hence, the study has used the content analysis
techniques to analyze data from focus group discussion. The group was the unit of the analysis.
The key informant interview was analyzed using content analysis of the themes grounded theory and some
quotes was also included to represent direct voices by key the informants. In the analysis of the key informant
discussions (KII), three themes were identified; rainfall and temperature trends, factors affect agricultural production
and farmer‟s level of exposures to shocks and capacity to cope.
4. Results
4.1. Farmer Households Vulnerability to Climate Change Impacts
The majority of households in Kolla Temben District (47.5%) fell in the high vulnerability level category to
climate change impacts whereas 39.3 % and 13.3 % households constituted medium and low levels respectively
(Table 4). This shows that the majority of households (47.5%) are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts.
Table-4. Status of Household vulnerability levels
Vulnerability level Freq. %
High 190 47.5
Medium 157 39.3
Low 53 13.3
Total 400 100.0
Sources; fieldwork, 2016/17
7. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
243
4.2. Relationship Between Household Vulnerability Level, Agricultural Production and
Total Income
To determine the relationship on household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impact a multiple linear
regression was carried out. First, a multi-co linearity correlation test of the independent variables was conducted to
ensure variables included in the analysis were not correlated. Households‟ vulnerability levels to climate change
impacts had a negative association with household‟s total crop production in Kilo grams (Kg), household total
income in Ethiopia Birr (ETB), household‟s livestock ownership in tropical livestock unit (TLU), household‟s total
food consumption, household‟s total food consumption per adult equivalent and total crop sales. Household‟s
vulnerability level to climate change impact was found positively related with household‟s total food consumption
from aid. For every single unit increase in household vulnerability to climate change impacts, there was an average
agricultural production decrease between 16.99 and 25.83 (Table 5). For single unit increase in households
vulnerability to climate change impact, there was a decrease of total crop production, total income, total livestock, ,
total food consumption and food consumption per adult equivalent (Table 5).This revealed that climate had negative
impact on household‟s total agricultural production, household‟s food consumption and total crop sales in Kolla
Temben District (Table 5).
Table-5. Multiple regression results of vulnerability to climate change impacts and food production
Multiple regression Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardize
d
Coefficients
T Sig. 95.0%
Confidence
Interval for B
B Std.
Error
Beta Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
(Constant) 21.412 2.247 9.530 .000 16.995 25.830
Household total crop
production in Kg
-.003 .002 -0.091 1.751 .001 .000 .006
Household total income
in ETB
-006 .000 -0.004 .008 .936 .000 .000
Households livestock
ownership in TLU
-.769 .355 0.116 2.164 .031 .070 1.468
Household total food
consumption in Birr
-005 .000 -0.004 .060 .952 -.001 .001
Food consumptions per
adult equivalent
-.001 .002 -0.041 -.589 .556 -.004 .002
Household total annual
crop sales in Kg
-.008 .002 -0.170 -
3.389
.001 -.013 -.003
Household annual food
consumption in kg from
aid
.001 .002 0.024 .462 .645 -.003 .004
Sources: fieldwork, 2016/17
4.3. Most impacted agriculture in Kolla Temben District
4.3.1. Most Impacted Crops by Climate Change and Variability
Majority of farmers (49.5%) listed maize as the most impacted crop and Sorghum was mentioned by (21%)
farmers as the most impacts crop and the other 17.5% ,2.8%,6.8% farmers reported Sorghum, Teff, Millet and Bean
as the most negatively impacted crops by climate change and variability respectively (Table 6). The study shows that
maize was the most negatively impacted crop in Kolla Temben District.
Table-6. The most impacted crops by climate change and variability in Kolla Temben District
Crop types Freq. %
Maize 198 49.5
Teff 70 17.5
Sorghum 84 21.0
Millet 11 2.8
Bean 27 6.8
Total 390 97.5
No response 10 2.5
Total 400 100.0
Sources: fieldwork, 2016/2017
4.3.2. Most Impacted Livestock by Climate Change and Variability in Kollatemben District
Majority of famers (48.3%) reported that milking cows are the most impacted livestock to climate change
impacts in Kolla Temben District. Other 20 percent households reported that climate change and variability had
negatively impacted livestock health in the District. The rest 19.5 households reported that goat and sheep was
8. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
244
negatively was impacted by climate change and variability (Table 7). This shows that the livestock sector in general
and the milking cows in particularly have negatively impacted by climate change and variability in Kolla Temben
District.
Table-7.The most impacted livestock by climate change and variability in Kolla Temben District
List of Livestock Freq. %
Sheep and Goats 78 19.5
Milking Cows 193 48.3
All types of Cows(milking and
none milking)
38 9.5
Poultry (Chicken) 6 1.5
Livestock health 80 20.0
Total 395 98.8
Missing System 5 1.3
Total 400 100.0
Sources: fieldwork, 2016/2017
5. Results from Focus Group Discussion and Key Informant Interview
5.1. Focus Group Discussion Results
The focus group discussions showed that almost all famers in the four Kebelles (Newi, Atakility, Awetbekalsi
and Begasheka) of the Kolla Temben District attributed their vulnerability levels to factors such as rainfall
variability, increase in temperature and low soil fertility which has reduced their agricultural production and total
income (Table 4).This shows that climate variability and low soil fertility has negatively impacted household‟s total
agricultural production and total income in Kolla Temben District.
The focus group discussions participants in all the four Kebelles (Newi, Atakility, Awetbekalsi and Begasheka)
reported that a decrease in rainfall, small landownership and large family size as some of the major factors that affect
agricultural production and total income. On the other hand, in Newi and Atakility Kebelles, other additional factors
that leads to reduction in agricultural production and income to include steep topography and frequent flood in Kolla
Temben District (Table 8).
All focus group discussion (FGD) participants from the four Kebelles (Newi, Atakility, Awetbekalsi and
Begasheka) mentioned that household‟s large family size, small farmland ownership status, less access to education
and agricultural extension services were the major causes of high vulnerability)of households in Kolla Temben
District. The participants suggested more access to irrigation facilities, agricultural fertilizers and improved varieties
of crops as effective measures to improve on household‟s vulnerability level and total agricultural production(Table
8). This shows that vulnerability is context specific and each area requires specific demand driven solutions to
address household‟s vulnerability to climate impacts and improve agricultural production in Kolla Temben District.
.
Table-8.Focus group discussion (FGD) results
Guiding open ended
questions forwarded by
facilitator to the FGD
(focus group discussion)
participants
Concepts stated by the FGD (focus group discussion) participants (40) in
four Kebelles Kolla Temben District, North Ethiopia
Newi
Kebelle (10)
Atakility
Kebelle (10)
Begasheka
Kebelle(10)
Awetbekalsi Kebelle
(10)
How do you see the issues
of climate variability and
change in relation to
agricultural production
and total income in your
Kebelle?
Rainfall
variability,
temperature
increase and low
soil fertility are
affecting
agricultural
production and
total income
Rainfall
variability and
low soil fertility
are affecting
agricultural
production and
income from
livestock
production
Rainfall
variability,
temperature
increase, low
soil fertility
is affecting
agricultural
production
and income
Rainfall variability
and low soil fertility
are affecting
agricultural
production and
income
What are the major
factors affecting the total
production and income of
households in this
Kebelle?
Rainfall decrease,
Small land
ownership, large
family size and
low soil fertility,
steep topography
and flood
Rainfall decrease,
Small
farmland
ownership,
steep topography
and flood
Rainfall
decrease and
small
farmland
ownership
Rainfall decrease and
small
farmland
What are the causes for
(Vulnerability) in this
Kebelle?
Large family size,
small farmland
size, less access to
education and
Agricultural
Large family size,
small farmland
size, less access to
education and
Agricultural
Large family
size, small
farmland size,
less access to
education and
Large family size,
small farmland size,
less access to
education and
Agricultural
9. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
245
Extension) and
rainfall based
agriculture
Extension and
rainfall based
agriculture
Agricultural
Extension
and rainfall
based
agriculture
Extension and rainfall
based agriculture
What solution do you
recommend to solve the
problems of vulnerability
in your Kebelle?
Improve access to
irrigation,
fertilizers and
improved varieties
of crops
More access to
livestock feed,
irrigation,
fertilizers and
improved varieties
of crops
Improve
access to
irrigation,
fertilizers and
improved
varieties of
crops
Improve access to
irrigation, fertilizers
and improved
varieties of crops
Sources: Fieldwork 2016/2017
5.2. Key Informant Interview Results
From the 16 key informants‟ interviews, the three drivers identified to influence vulnerability and agricultural
production are: rainfall and temperature trends; factors affecting agricultural production and farmer‟s level of
exposures to shocks and capacity to cope. The key findings from the KII are discussed below.
5.2.1. Changes in Rainfall and Temperature in Relation to Agricultural Production
All participants of the KII (Key informants‟ interview) said that the decline in rainfall pattern and increase in
temperature has negatively affected their agricultural production. One participant from Begashika Kebelles aid and
quoted „the issue of rainfall is becoming very hard, my life is getting worst as result of rainfall decrease; rainfall start
in July and stopped in the first week of September. Long time ago, rain was started in May and last to September but
this time rainfall duration is getting shorten, lasted only for two months (Jully to August)and making my agricultural
practices difficult. How can I survive in such situation and feed my family‟‟? This shows that the impacts of climate
change in Kolla Temben District are very severe and famers in the district are lacking the capacity to cope with such
impacts.
All participants of the key informants interview (KII) stated that new pest infestations was becoming common
on their farms and also they lack access to effective pesticides to control them. As stated by one participants from
Newi Kebelle and quoted „‟Temperature is increasing very rapidly and also we are experiencing very hot days in
May and very cold one in October and November. Our sources of water for livestock and human consumption are
getting dry and we are forced to travel long distance to access water. Our livestock have been affected by new
animal diseases and the milk production is decreasing with some changes in its natural tastes. We need more help
and technical advises from government bodies and experts.”„‟I am not aware why the taste of the milk is changing
and the new insects and pests are coming to my farm‟‟. Another farmer from Awetbekalsi Kebelle said and quoted
“Getting enough food at this time is difficult. „I am now almost dependant on food aid from government and aid
agencies to feed my family‟‟. „‟Rainfall is decreasing and the rainy period is getting too short to produce more food.
Temperature for the months February, March and May are getting hotter than usual and exposing my household to
malaria incidents‟‟. This shows that rainfall has decreased significantly in Kolla Temben District and the
agricultural production in the district has been negatively affected. It also revealed that increase of temperature has
created conducive environment for malaria epidemics in Kolla Temben District. This also shows that famers have
observed a new phenomenon (changes in the taste of their cow‟s milk, infestation of new insects and pests). This
also confirmed that more empirical research is important to know if such phenomenon (changes in the taste of cow‟s
milk, infestation of new insects and pests) observed in Kolla Temben are related with the changing climate in the
study area. These changes might be a mal-adaptation (increased vulnerability or above the genetic limit to adapt
impacts) and more research works is therefore needed in the district to identify the root causes.
5.2.2. Factors that Affect Agricultural Production and Income
All participants of the KII mentioned that low soil fertility, continuous decline of rainfall, steep topography,
small land size ownerships, less access to irrigation and agricultural fertilizers were the major factors that affected
agricultural production and total income. One participant from the Awetbekalsi Kebelles aid and I quote: „The land
size I own is less than a hectare and its fertility is also decreasing continuously but my family is getting bigger. I
have no idea how I could feed this large family‟. One participates from Newi Kebelle similarly also said and I
quote: „Many years ago, the rainfall, soil fertility, weather condition and agricultural production were good. Feeding
a family was not a challenge but nowadays everything has changed. I can‟t even feed my family for more than five
(5) months. My family has fully depended on food aid. The rainfall is not in my side. I have no irrigation facility.
Life becomes too difficult‟. This clearly shows that most of the famers in Kolla Temben District have been adversely
affected by climate change impacts and the agriculture sector is under the stress of climate related impacts.
5.2.3. Farmer’s Level of Exposures to Climate Related Shocks and Capacity to
Cope
The third drivers from the KII (Key informants‟ interview) in Kolla Temben District were farmer‟s level of
exposures to climate related shocks and capacity to cope. All participants from the four Kebelle(Newi, Atakility,
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246
Awetbekalsi and Begasheka)said that farmers were highly exposed to flood, heavy rain, landslides and food
insecurity. They also reported that famers‟ capacity to cope with climate related stocks were very low and all
supports requested from the local and central government have not delivered much. One participant from Atakility
Kebelle said and I quote: „Flood is damaging the farmland I have and as a result productivity is decreasing. Food
insecurity is a big challenge to my family and I have no means to cope with such challenges except to ask the
government for food aid ‟.
This shows that famers in Kolla Temben District are highly vulnerable to impacts of climate change and their
capacity to cope with these impacts is very low. This also shows that climate change and variability have negatively
impacted farmer‟s food security in Kolla Temben District.
6. Discussion
Luxon and Pius [35], reported that extreme climate events in Sub-Saharan Africa will be severe. According to
Nkondze and Masuku [36] who reported that the number of family members in sickness, those with many
dependants, large family sizes and less livestock ownership status adversely influence a household‟s level of
vulnerability to climate change impacts. Opiyo, et al. [25] reported on farmers‟ vulnerability in Kenya that 27% of
them are highly vulnerable, 44% moderately vulnerable, and 29% least vulnerable but in Kolla Temben District
47.5% households was found to be highly vulnerability to climate change impacts and only 13.3% and 39.3% were
found in the low and medium vulnerability categories (Table 4). This study supports the findings of Nkondze and
Masuku [36] who reported that livestock ownership status influence household‟s vulnerability levels. Similarly,
Godber and Wall [37] revealed that climate vulnerability will affect livestock production in sub Saharan Africa.
Findings from Kolla Temben District support the above conclusion that household vulnerability level to climate
change impact has negative relationships with households total crop production, total income, total livestock size
ownership, total annual crop sales (Table 5). This is also in agreement with the views of Moore, et al. [38] and Kotir
[39] that vulnerability to climate change impacts can affect crop yields negatively in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Monirul, et al. [40] reported that income, agricultural activities and agricultural land has impacts on household‟s
vulnerability to climate change; those findings are supported by the outcomes of this study that shows that there is
negative relationship between household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts and household‟s total crop
production and livestock size in Kolla Temben (Table 5). Similar findings have been reported by Hoffmann [41]
who noted that climate change impacts have differential impacts on meat, milk and eggs production.
Majority of households (47.5%) in Kolla Temben District was found with high vulnerability level to climate
change impacts. Only 13.3% of famers in the district were with low vulnerability to climate change impacts. The rest
39.3 % farmer households were with medium level of vulnerability to climate change impacts (Table 4). Opiyo, et
al. [25], reported on farmers‟ vulnerability in Kenya that 27% highlyvulnerable, 44% moderately vulnerable and
29% less vulnerable to climate change impacts. This shows that there is no uniformity in famers‟ vulnerability level
to climate change impacts. This also shows that farmers in Kolla Temben District are the most vulnerable to climate
change impacts.
Household vulnerability level to climate change impact had negative relationships with households total crop
production, total income, total livestock size, total food consumption and annual total crop sales (Table 5). Monirul,
et al. [40], revealed that vulnerability to climate change impacts had direct impacts on meal consumption frequencies
in the marginalized rural households. This result is in agreement with findings of Thornton, et al. [4] that climate
negatively impact agriculture in Sub-Sahara Africa.
There was significant negative relationship between household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts
and household‟s total crop production and total livestock size (Table 5).This result corroborate the findings of
Nkondze and Masuku [26] that livestock ownership status influence household‟s vulnerability level. This is also in
agreement with findings of Nkondze and Masuku [26] that household vulnerability to climate change impact and
livestock production has direct relationship. The more the households are vulnerable to climate change impacts, the
lesser in total crop production and livestock size they had. This supports the findings of Godber and Wall [37] that
climate vulnerability will affect livestock production in sub Saharan Africa. There was a statistically significant
negative relationship between household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts and household‟s total crop
sales. Climate change had negative impacts on the availability of crop products in the markets. This confirms the
results of Moore, et al. [38] that vulnerability to climate change impacts can affect crop yields and market stability
negatively. The availability of crop products in the market were determined by households‟ vulnerability status to
climate change impacts (Table 5). A single unit increase in household‟s vulnerability to climate change cause
significant decrease in crop production. Vulnerability to climate change negatively affect agricultural production and
total food consumption (Table 5).This finding is in support to the projection made by Kotir [39] that climate
vulnerability in Sub-Saharan Africa is expected to affect food production. This shows that vulnerability to climate
change impact has negatively impacted agricultural production. The more areas and the households vulnerable to
climate change, the less in agricultural production and the more unstable markets and agricultural products prices.
The field study in Table 6 reported that 49.5 percent said that Maize was the most negatively impacted crops
types in Kolla Temben District. Millet and Bean were the least impacted crop types by the impacts of climate change
and variability. Only 17.5 percent households ranked „Teff‟ as the most negatively impacted crop (Table 5).This is
in support with the findings of Adu, et al. [42] that maize farming farmers are the most adversely impacted by
climate change. This shows that maize is the most climate sensitive and hardily impacted crop types.
Milking cows were the most climate sensitive and negatively impacted livestock (Table7). Goats and sheep
were found as the most climate sensitive livestock types next to milking cows (Table7). Poultry was found to be the
11. Journal of Agriculture and Crops
247
least impacted livestock by climate change and variability (Table7). Rainfall variability, temperature increase and
low soil fertility status had contributed for the continuous decrease in agricultural production (Table 8). Large family
size, small farmland ownerships, less access to agricultural extension and education and dependency on rainfall
based agriculture had contributions for household‟s high vulnerability to climate change impacts (Table 8). Hot
environment damage livestock growth, meat and milk yield and quality [43]. This shows that climate change impact
have negatively affected livestock size and quality of livestock products (milk and meat).More research works may
need to be done on genotypes to produce milking cows with good phenotypic characteristics that can resist climate
change impacts.
7. Conclusion
The relationship between household‟s vulnerability level to climate change impacts with agricultural production
and total income is negative. Household‟s vulnerability level has significant negative impacts on total crop
production, household‟s food security, total crop sales, total livestock ownership status, total income from crop
production, total income from livestock, total crop sales and total income. The more vulnerable the households, the
lesser in total agricultural production and total income. Household with lower vulnerability level to climate change
has significantly higher total income, livestock ownership status and agricultural productions compare to those with
higher level of vulnerability. The impacts of climate change on subsistence farmers are very stern. The taste of milk
is changing but the causes for the change and its implications on human nutrition and health are not yet studied.
Rainfall decrease has negatively impacted agricultural production and the availability of animal feeds. Farmers
alleged that the frequency of occurrence of heavy rainfall and drought, malaria incidents, and migration trends have
increased in the past three decades.
8. Declarations
8.1. List of Abbreviations
CVI Climate Vulnerability Index
CSA Central Statistics Agency
Km Kilo grams
Km Kilometre
Mm millimetre
Ha hectare
Hh Household
URAP Universal Rural Road Access Program
KII Key Informant Interview
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ETB Ethiopia Birr
TLU Tropical Livestock Unit
VIF Variance Inflation Factors
SRS Simple random sampling
8.2. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
Not applicable since this research did not involved any human and animal subjects.
8.3. Competing Interests
All the authors of the manuscript have declared that they do not have any competing interest.
8.4. Consent for Publication
Not applicable
8.5. Funding
The source of fund for this research project was the Mekelle University of Ethiopia. The funding body has no
role in the design, analysis and interpretation of the study and writing of this manuscript.
8.6. Availability of Data and Materials
Data is available at Mekelle University and shared with especial request.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank to the Mekelle University for its research fund support
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Figure-1. Location map of Kola Temben District, North Ethiopia
This is the location of the study area (KollaTemben District). Kolla Temben District, lies in the central zone
administration of the Tigray Region, 95 km west of Mekelle City, the capital city of the Regional State. The Kolla
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Temben District is bordered by Naeder Adet District to the northwest, Wereleke District to the north, Abergele
District to the south, Western Zone District to the west, and Hawzen District to the east part.
Figure-2. Sampling techniques of the study
This figure shows in the graphically how the researcher has selected smallholder farmers in Kolla Temben
District for interview. In the first stage, four Kebelles was selected using simple random sampling techniques out of
the given 27 Kebelles in the District. After this, 400 households were selected from the lists of households in the four
Kebelles through the systematic random sampling techniques.