Agricultural sector remains the main source of food and income for most rural communities in
Ethiopia. Being dependent mainly on rainfall, this sector has been affected by climate change. Hence,
employing adaptation strategies within the agricultural sector to climate change is vital to ensure food security
and care for the livelihoods of farmers. Food security and adaptation are among the options to abate the
negative impact of climate changes. This study has analyzed factors influencing the impact of climate change
on food security and adaptation choices by farm households in eastern Ethiopia. The study used data obtained
from 330 household heads randomly and proportionately sampled from two agroecologies in East Hararghe
Zone of Oromiya Region and Dire Dawa Administration, Ethiopia. The study used a univariate profit model
and multinomial logistic regression model to identify factors affecting food security and the choice of
adaptation strategies to climate change. As food security indicator, calorie intake per adult equivalent per day
was considered for adaptation strategies; changing planting date, irrigation water use, soil and water
conservation, and crop variety selection were considered. The result indicated that farmers in the study area are
vulnerable to climate change and the factors determining the choice of climate adaptation options were
determined by sex of household head, family size, education status of household head, Agroecology, distance
to market, cultivated land, credit access, decreasing precipitation and change of temperature. Policy thrust
should focus on linking farmers to fertilizer usage, credit access and social participation as well as in creating
awareness of climate change.
Impact of agro-ecosystem on risk management in agriculture in some selected a...Premier Publishers
This definite study was conducted based on the relationship of agro-ecosystem and the income level to judge the risk in farming among the respondents in the study areas. The reason for the study was to clarify the farmers about the risks and uncertainties in farming. Three Upazilas namely Gouripur, Ishwarganj and Haluaghat from Mymensingh district were selected with a view to analyzing the changes of biodiversity and its impact on income diversification. Several indexes like Shannon, richness, evenness, dominance and income diversity index were calculated for the plants, animals etc. to measure the changes among these species and its contribution on income level. The study was conducted in 2014 and the mean income index was found highest (2.15) in Ishwarganj which means the respondents were earning from more than two sources that helped them to reduce risk in farming. Most of the respondents in Ishwarganj were involved in tree plantation, animal rearing, vegetables cultivation or business that lead the highest richness indexes (2.68) and (0.61) in plant and animal rearing than other two areas. The dominance indexes were also found lowest (0.40) and (0.30) respectively that lead to the diversification of enterprises.
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...Premier Publishers
Climate change is posing serious environmental, economic, and social impacts in the study area where people’s livelihoods depend on agriculture. This study was initiated to identify the existing adaptation strategies persuaded by smallholder farmers, and factors affecting the choices of adaptation strategies against climate change in Ankesha Guagusa district. Primary data were collected from a randomly selected 156 sample households in the district through interview method and focus group discussion whereas secondary data were collected from different organizations and published sources. Descriptive statistics, and econometric model were employed to achieve the stated objectives. The result of multivariate probit model showed that the likelihood of households to adopt irrigation, improved crop varieties, adjusting planting date, use crop diversification, and soil and water conservation practices were 46.79%, 52.26%, 45.51%, 69.68% and 78.20%, respectively. The result also shows that the joint probability of using all adaptation strategies was 11.53% and the joint probability of failure to adopt all of the adaptation strategies was 7.7%. The model result also confirms that sex, educational level, family size, livestock holding, land holding, off/non-farm income, farm income, extension contact, credit used, access to climate information, distance to market, and agro-ecological zone had significant effect on climate change adaptation strategies. Therefore, future policies shall focus on the smallholder farmers’ technical capacity through adult education system, and on updated extension services, improving credit facilities, irrigation facilities, farm and off-farm income earning opportunities, and use of new crop varieties that are more suited to the local environment.
Analysis of adaptation and extent of adaptation to climate variability among ...researchagriculture
The performance of agriculture is influenced by many factors including
climate variability. This factor is gradually being recognized as a key element in
shaping the form, scale, size and time
-
frame of agricultural productivity. Climate
variability is expected to have significant economic, environmental and social impacts
on various sectors of the Kenyan economy. In particular, rural farmers who depend on
major crops like maize and wheat for their livelihoods are likely to bear the brunt of
adverse impacts. The extent to which these impacts are felt depends in large part on
the extent of adaptation in response to climate variability. The key question here is,
“Why are wheat farmers in Rongai district facing continued decline in wheat output
despite evidence from both national and continental perspective that farmers have
adapted to climatic variability”. This study seeks to find out whether wheat farmers in
Rongai District have adapted to climate variability, and if that is the case, to what
extent. The study used multistage sampling procedure to select 150 wheat farmers in
Rongai district informed by both primary and secondary data sources. Data analysis
was done using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that indeed, farmers in the
area were able to recognize that temperatures have increased and there has been a
reduction in the volume of rainfall as well the vegetation cover. They were also able
to note changes in disease occurrence and pest infestation. The percentage of
farmers who perceived the changes was 62% while those who did not were 38%. The
percentage of farmers who perceived changes in temperature, precipitation and
vegetation cover were all equal. This indicates that the farmers were able to relate all
the three indicators of climate variability similarly.
Evaluation of Fertilizer Management on Yield and Yield Components and Product...Premier Publishers
This fertilizer management trial on maize was conducted to offer research evidence to the universal dispute on the economic viability and productivity of divergent fertility management strategies. We compared six treatments including a control or no fertilizer (T1), T2 NPK (15-15-15), T3 chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormone mixed formula 1 (HO-1), T4 formula 2 (HO-2), T5 formula 3 (HO-3), T6 granular organic fertilizer (GOF). The trial was replicated thrice in a Randomized Complete Block Design with a plot size of 6 m x 5 m. The maize cultivar (Pacific 999 Super) and a fertilizer dose of 0.9 kg plot-1 were used. The results revealed that HO-3 produced the highest yield components and a significant (p < 0.05) yield (8,276.69 kg ha-1), representing an increase of (50 %) over the control. Also, HO-2 and NPK treatments recorded equal effects on maize yield (7,420.00- and 7,266.69 kg ha-1, respectively). The production cost, revenue and profit of HO-3 were highest (31,317.37-, 72,896.82- and 41,579.45-baht rai-1, respectively). A significant 17.4 % rise in profit was realized with HO-3 application over NPK treatment. The Benefit: Cost ratio of HO-3 fertilizer was the best (2.33) and suitable for farmers to maximize returns.
Wheat crop responds to climate change in rainfed areas of District Mansehra, ...Innspub Net
Agriculture in many ways is affected by climate change and has impact for productivity of crops particularly in rainfed areas. Climate change related research remained a poorly investigated area in KP and instant study filled that gap by investigating impacts of change in climate on farm productivity. The secondary data, spread over 30 years from 1984 to 2013 pertaining to temperature, precipitation, area under cultivation and yield of crops was collected. Analytical models used are ARDL Model. The results pertaining to impact of temperature and precipitation on wheat yield suggest long run relationship among the variables. Temperature is positively and significantly related in Mansehra. The precipitation is positively and significantly related. Short run relationship implies that around 100% deviations from long-term equilibrium are adjusted every year in case of Mansehra. The results wheat areas suggest long run relationship among the variables based on F Statistics value. Both temperature and precipitation are positively and significantly related to the area under wheat in the long run in case of Mansehra. Based on objectives of the research study and field findings recommendations offered include; farmers awareness drive, policies to promote adaptation measures, enhancing farmers’ adaptive capacity to strengthen local resilience, participation of farming community in formulation of policies, making meteorological information available to farmers, Design research plans to evolve crops varieties addressing changing climatic challenges, construct water harvesting structures for high efficiency irrigation and further research to estimate range of temperature and precipitation within which crops under study perform better.
Dietary diversity through biodiversity in food systems - Bruce Cogill, Programme Leader, Diet Diversity for Nutrition and Health, Bioversity International. This presentation is based on one delivered at the Sackler Institute of Nutrition Science Conference, Academy of Sciences, New York on 26 March 2014.
Read more about Bioversity International's work on Diet Diversity for Nutrition and Health - http://www.bioversityinternational.org/research-portfolio/diet-diversity/
Visit the official conference website here: http://www.nyas.org/Events/Detail.aspx?cid=0bd1adec-c31f-42aa-a09c-3de8d8abd93a
Impact of agro-ecosystem on risk management in agriculture in some selected a...Premier Publishers
This definite study was conducted based on the relationship of agro-ecosystem and the income level to judge the risk in farming among the respondents in the study areas. The reason for the study was to clarify the farmers about the risks and uncertainties in farming. Three Upazilas namely Gouripur, Ishwarganj and Haluaghat from Mymensingh district were selected with a view to analyzing the changes of biodiversity and its impact on income diversification. Several indexes like Shannon, richness, evenness, dominance and income diversity index were calculated for the plants, animals etc. to measure the changes among these species and its contribution on income level. The study was conducted in 2014 and the mean income index was found highest (2.15) in Ishwarganj which means the respondents were earning from more than two sources that helped them to reduce risk in farming. Most of the respondents in Ishwarganj were involved in tree plantation, animal rearing, vegetables cultivation or business that lead the highest richness indexes (2.68) and (0.61) in plant and animal rearing than other two areas. The dominance indexes were also found lowest (0.40) and (0.30) respectively that lead to the diversification of enterprises.
Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change: The Case of Ank...Premier Publishers
Climate change is posing serious environmental, economic, and social impacts in the study area where people’s livelihoods depend on agriculture. This study was initiated to identify the existing adaptation strategies persuaded by smallholder farmers, and factors affecting the choices of adaptation strategies against climate change in Ankesha Guagusa district. Primary data were collected from a randomly selected 156 sample households in the district through interview method and focus group discussion whereas secondary data were collected from different organizations and published sources. Descriptive statistics, and econometric model were employed to achieve the stated objectives. The result of multivariate probit model showed that the likelihood of households to adopt irrigation, improved crop varieties, adjusting planting date, use crop diversification, and soil and water conservation practices were 46.79%, 52.26%, 45.51%, 69.68% and 78.20%, respectively. The result also shows that the joint probability of using all adaptation strategies was 11.53% and the joint probability of failure to adopt all of the adaptation strategies was 7.7%. The model result also confirms that sex, educational level, family size, livestock holding, land holding, off/non-farm income, farm income, extension contact, credit used, access to climate information, distance to market, and agro-ecological zone had significant effect on climate change adaptation strategies. Therefore, future policies shall focus on the smallholder farmers’ technical capacity through adult education system, and on updated extension services, improving credit facilities, irrigation facilities, farm and off-farm income earning opportunities, and use of new crop varieties that are more suited to the local environment.
Analysis of adaptation and extent of adaptation to climate variability among ...researchagriculture
The performance of agriculture is influenced by many factors including
climate variability. This factor is gradually being recognized as a key element in
shaping the form, scale, size and time
-
frame of agricultural productivity. Climate
variability is expected to have significant economic, environmental and social impacts
on various sectors of the Kenyan economy. In particular, rural farmers who depend on
major crops like maize and wheat for their livelihoods are likely to bear the brunt of
adverse impacts. The extent to which these impacts are felt depends in large part on
the extent of adaptation in response to climate variability. The key question here is,
“Why are wheat farmers in Rongai district facing continued decline in wheat output
despite evidence from both national and continental perspective that farmers have
adapted to climatic variability”. This study seeks to find out whether wheat farmers in
Rongai District have adapted to climate variability, and if that is the case, to what
extent. The study used multistage sampling procedure to select 150 wheat farmers in
Rongai district informed by both primary and secondary data sources. Data analysis
was done using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that indeed, farmers in the
area were able to recognize that temperatures have increased and there has been a
reduction in the volume of rainfall as well the vegetation cover. They were also able
to note changes in disease occurrence and pest infestation. The percentage of
farmers who perceived the changes was 62% while those who did not were 38%. The
percentage of farmers who perceived changes in temperature, precipitation and
vegetation cover were all equal. This indicates that the farmers were able to relate all
the three indicators of climate variability similarly.
Evaluation of Fertilizer Management on Yield and Yield Components and Product...Premier Publishers
This fertilizer management trial on maize was conducted to offer research evidence to the universal dispute on the economic viability and productivity of divergent fertility management strategies. We compared six treatments including a control or no fertilizer (T1), T2 NPK (15-15-15), T3 chemical and granular organic fertilizer with hormone mixed formula 1 (HO-1), T4 formula 2 (HO-2), T5 formula 3 (HO-3), T6 granular organic fertilizer (GOF). The trial was replicated thrice in a Randomized Complete Block Design with a plot size of 6 m x 5 m. The maize cultivar (Pacific 999 Super) and a fertilizer dose of 0.9 kg plot-1 were used. The results revealed that HO-3 produced the highest yield components and a significant (p < 0.05) yield (8,276.69 kg ha-1), representing an increase of (50 %) over the control. Also, HO-2 and NPK treatments recorded equal effects on maize yield (7,420.00- and 7,266.69 kg ha-1, respectively). The production cost, revenue and profit of HO-3 were highest (31,317.37-, 72,896.82- and 41,579.45-baht rai-1, respectively). A significant 17.4 % rise in profit was realized with HO-3 application over NPK treatment. The Benefit: Cost ratio of HO-3 fertilizer was the best (2.33) and suitable for farmers to maximize returns.
Wheat crop responds to climate change in rainfed areas of District Mansehra, ...Innspub Net
Agriculture in many ways is affected by climate change and has impact for productivity of crops particularly in rainfed areas. Climate change related research remained a poorly investigated area in KP and instant study filled that gap by investigating impacts of change in climate on farm productivity. The secondary data, spread over 30 years from 1984 to 2013 pertaining to temperature, precipitation, area under cultivation and yield of crops was collected. Analytical models used are ARDL Model. The results pertaining to impact of temperature and precipitation on wheat yield suggest long run relationship among the variables. Temperature is positively and significantly related in Mansehra. The precipitation is positively and significantly related. Short run relationship implies that around 100% deviations from long-term equilibrium are adjusted every year in case of Mansehra. The results wheat areas suggest long run relationship among the variables based on F Statistics value. Both temperature and precipitation are positively and significantly related to the area under wheat in the long run in case of Mansehra. Based on objectives of the research study and field findings recommendations offered include; farmers awareness drive, policies to promote adaptation measures, enhancing farmers’ adaptive capacity to strengthen local resilience, participation of farming community in formulation of policies, making meteorological information available to farmers, Design research plans to evolve crops varieties addressing changing climatic challenges, construct water harvesting structures for high efficiency irrigation and further research to estimate range of temperature and precipitation within which crops under study perform better.
Dietary diversity through biodiversity in food systems - Bruce Cogill, Programme Leader, Diet Diversity for Nutrition and Health, Bioversity International. This presentation is based on one delivered at the Sackler Institute of Nutrition Science Conference, Academy of Sciences, New York on 26 March 2014.
Read more about Bioversity International's work on Diet Diversity for Nutrition and Health - http://www.bioversityinternational.org/research-portfolio/diet-diversity/
Visit the official conference website here: http://www.nyas.org/Events/Detail.aspx?cid=0bd1adec-c31f-42aa-a09c-3de8d8abd93a
Strategies for managing climate risk: a case study of smallholder farmers in ...Premier Publishers
This study analyses the factors affecting Ethiopian farmers’ choice of ex-ante adaptation and ex-post coping strategies for climate risk. We use multivariate probit models to explain the choice of various adaptation and coping strategies. We find that plot characteristics such as slope, depth, soil type and soil fertility, and farm size are important factors affecting the choice of adaptation strategy. These plot characteristics also significantly affect the choice of particular coping strategies such as selling livestock, reducing meals and borrowing. The results also show that plot management practices such as leaving crop residues, intercropping and use of non-recycled hybrid maize are associated with a reduced likelihood of choosing coping measures such as selling livestock. We advocate increased farmer education on improved farm management practices to reduce household vulnerability to climate change and variability.
Effect of Yam-Based Production on Food Security Status of Farm Households in...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— The study assessed the effect of yam-based production on the food security status of farm households in Edo south, Nigeria. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to examine the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, analyse the contribution of yam-based production to the income profile of the households, estimate their mean per capita daily calorie intake and examine the determinants and the probability of households being food secured.
A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted in selecting 120 farm households from Edo South agro-ecological zone of Edo-State data were collected with the aid of well – structured interview schedule on households socio-economic variables which included sex, age, marital status, level of education, farm size, household size and household income and expenditure profile among others. Data collected were analyzed by appropriate statistical analysis which included frequency counts, percentages, mean, standard deviation, and Logit regression model.
The results showed that 97 males, represented majority of the households with (80.8%) and females 23, represented 19.2%of the house heads. The mean age of household reads was 50 years, of which (92.5%) of them were married, 53% owned houses and 58% had farming experience of 11.20 years the mean household size was estimated as seven persons with a mean farm size of 1.35 hectares. The mean annual household income in the study area was estimated as N 496.850.88 out of which farm income contributed N 62.4307, and off income contributed (37.57%). The mean monthly household expenditure was N 40,934.31 out of which food expenditure accounted for 40 .22%. The results also showed that the area was fairly food -secured with 52.5% being food secured and 47.67 being food insecure with mean per capita calorie intake of 36,okcal and 120.2 kcal respectively.
Finally, the results also revealed that three variables in the logit model were significant in explaining variation in the food security status of the households. These are farm size, form income and off-income. It was recommended that government should provide bigger plot of land for those farmers who are determined to take farming as business.
The abstract should summarize the content of the paper. Try to keep the abstract below 250 words. Do not make references nor display equations in the abstract. The journal will be printed from the same-sized copy prepared by you. Your manuscript should be printed on A4 paper (21.0 cm x 29.7 cm). It is imperative that the margins and style described below be adhered to carefully. This will enable us to keep uniformity in the final printed copies of the Journal. Please keep in mind that the manuscript you prepare will be photographed and printed as it is received. Readability of copy is of paramount importance.
Adoption of Sustainable Agricultural Practices among Farmers in Ohaukwu Local...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study was conducted with the broad objective of determining the level of adoption of sustainable
agricultural practices (SAPs) among farmers in Ohaukwu Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
Multistage, random, and systematic sampling procedures were employed to select 160 respondents for
the study. The collected data were analyzed using relevant descriptive and inferential statistics suitable
for each objective. The result showed that majority of the respondents were females who were married,
having a mean age of 43 years and mean number of years of experience of 17. Majority of them acquired
secondary school education while practicing Christianity and were engaged in the production of both crops
and animals (mixed farming), having mean farm size of 0.8 ha in scattered plots and mean annual income
of N71,400 which was regarded as low income. Most of the farmers were not members to any farmers’
cooperative society. The predominant SAPs adopted included crop rotation, compost manure, and use of
tolerant varieties. Furthermore, socioeconomic characteristics of the rural farmers were observed to have
strong influence on adoption of SAPs by the farmers. The constraints to the adoption of SAPs among farmers
were socioeconomic, political, and institutional. The null hypothesis tested using F-test was rejected at 5%
level of significance. Consequently, it was concluded that socioeconomic characteristics of farmers actually
influenced adoption of SAPs, though there were identified constraints that limited the level of adoption
of such SAPs which if mitigated will improve adoption of the SAPs. Based on the study findings, the
policy recommendations were that relevant agencies should ensure vigorous dissemination of information
to farmers on available windows to low interest rate agricultural credit facilities by the government; reform
in land tenure system should be facilitated to support adoption of SAPs; Nigerian agricultural extension
program should be restructured to reflect sustainable agricultural context and emphasis; and farmers should
be encouraged to seek meteorological information to minimize risks from adverse weather conditions. This
will encourage adoption of SAPs and ensure that maximum result is achieved.
Presentation given at the workshop 'Integrating genetic diversity considerations into national climate change adaptation plans - Development of guidelines', Rome, 8-9 April organized by the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. It was presented by Michael Halewood, Policy Theme Leader at Bioversity International, on behalf of the CGIAR Research Progam on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Nutritious foods from Forests Side Event took place at FAO on 11 October, 2013.
Forests harbour a large number of woody plants, climbers, herbs, insects and wild animals that provide nutritious foods, important for the diets of many people in developing countries.
The International Conference on Forests for Food Security and Nutrition hosted by FAO in May 2013, highlighted the important role of forests, agroforestry systems and trees on farm for food security and nutrition The side event aims at increasing the understanding of the contribution of forests and trees to sustainable diets by sharing lessons from the field.
In this presentation Bioversity International researcher and 'Beyond Timber' project coordinator discusses the traditional management systems of forest-based foods and a case study from the Congo Basin.
Read more about Bioversity's work in forest foods: http://www.bioversityinternational.org/trees-for-food/
Plant protection applications in organic agriculture and farmers’ approaches ...Innspub Net
Plant production is becoming more important day by day with organic agriculture, one of the agricultural production systems. Plant protection applications with the right method are regarded as one of the most important factors to achieve sustainable organic agriculture. This study was conducted to identify the present situation in plant protection practices performed by organic agriculture enterprises on plant production and frequently faced problems such as pests, diseases, weeds and plant physiology in their fields in Kocaeli. A further purpose was to determine farmers’ approaches to these problems as well as organic agriculture in plant production. In this regard, the study was carried out in the middle of 2016 by a face to face close and open ended questionnaire following a full count method in Kocaeli Province in Turkey. The data show that there are various solved and unresolved biotic and abiotic problems in organic plant farming. According to the results weeds, aphids, late blight and downy mildew are as biotic, short time period of vegetation and forest are as abiotic are mostly facing problem in the fields. “Plant Protection problems” is stated as the second most important subject by farmers. In addition farmers’ awareness and expectations were revealed in the organic farming system. According to the results. Kocaeli has farmers who are aware and well educated that applies the main principles of organic agriculture, yet they remain incapable for plant protection in organic agriculture and for some other issues independent of this subject.
Presentation by Pramod Aggarwal at the 3rd Global Science Conference on Climate-Smart Agriculture in Montpellier.
Read more: http://ccafs.cgiar.org/3rd-global-science-conference-%E2%80%9Cclimate-smart-agriculture-2015%E2%80%9D#.VRurLUesXX4
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaPremier Publishers
The paper reports results of a study on investigating impacts of climate change on teff (Eragrostis tef) production in three agro-ecological zones (highlands, midlands and lowlands) of Endamehoni and Raya Azebo weredas of Tigray. The impact of climate change on teff farming was estimated taking into account farm households’ characteristics, socio-economic, climate, adaptations, production factors and agro-ecological settings in a low-income developing country. Ricardian model was used to analyze data obtained from teff farming households. From the fourteen predictor variables fitted in the model, six variables e.g. climate factors, adaptation strategies, production factors, weather and climate information, socio-economic factors and agro-ecology were found to have significance influence on net revenues with model coefficients at p=0.05 and less. Climate factors (temperature and rainfall) and adaptation to climate change were found to play key roles on net revenues. Increasing (decreasing) temperature reduces (increases) teff revenues. Therefore, policies of government on adaptation ought to be given enough attention to reduce vulnerability and improve food security among teff farming communities in rural areas.
Strategies for managing climate risk: a case study of smallholder farmers in ...Premier Publishers
This study analyses the factors affecting Ethiopian farmers’ choice of ex-ante adaptation and ex-post coping strategies for climate risk. We use multivariate probit models to explain the choice of various adaptation and coping strategies. We find that plot characteristics such as slope, depth, soil type and soil fertility, and farm size are important factors affecting the choice of adaptation strategy. These plot characteristics also significantly affect the choice of particular coping strategies such as selling livestock, reducing meals and borrowing. The results also show that plot management practices such as leaving crop residues, intercropping and use of non-recycled hybrid maize are associated with a reduced likelihood of choosing coping measures such as selling livestock. We advocate increased farmer education on improved farm management practices to reduce household vulnerability to climate change and variability.
Effect of Yam-Based Production on Food Security Status of Farm Households in...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— The study assessed the effect of yam-based production on the food security status of farm households in Edo south, Nigeria. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to examine the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, analyse the contribution of yam-based production to the income profile of the households, estimate their mean per capita daily calorie intake and examine the determinants and the probability of households being food secured.
A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted in selecting 120 farm households from Edo South agro-ecological zone of Edo-State data were collected with the aid of well – structured interview schedule on households socio-economic variables which included sex, age, marital status, level of education, farm size, household size and household income and expenditure profile among others. Data collected were analyzed by appropriate statistical analysis which included frequency counts, percentages, mean, standard deviation, and Logit regression model.
The results showed that 97 males, represented majority of the households with (80.8%) and females 23, represented 19.2%of the house heads. The mean age of household reads was 50 years, of which (92.5%) of them were married, 53% owned houses and 58% had farming experience of 11.20 years the mean household size was estimated as seven persons with a mean farm size of 1.35 hectares. The mean annual household income in the study area was estimated as N 496.850.88 out of which farm income contributed N 62.4307, and off income contributed (37.57%). The mean monthly household expenditure was N 40,934.31 out of which food expenditure accounted for 40 .22%. The results also showed that the area was fairly food -secured with 52.5% being food secured and 47.67 being food insecure with mean per capita calorie intake of 36,okcal and 120.2 kcal respectively.
Finally, the results also revealed that three variables in the logit model were significant in explaining variation in the food security status of the households. These are farm size, form income and off-income. It was recommended that government should provide bigger plot of land for those farmers who are determined to take farming as business.
The abstract should summarize the content of the paper. Try to keep the abstract below 250 words. Do not make references nor display equations in the abstract. The journal will be printed from the same-sized copy prepared by you. Your manuscript should be printed on A4 paper (21.0 cm x 29.7 cm). It is imperative that the margins and style described below be adhered to carefully. This will enable us to keep uniformity in the final printed copies of the Journal. Please keep in mind that the manuscript you prepare will be photographed and printed as it is received. Readability of copy is of paramount importance.
Adoption of Sustainable Agricultural Practices among Farmers in Ohaukwu Local...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study was conducted with the broad objective of determining the level of adoption of sustainable
agricultural practices (SAPs) among farmers in Ohaukwu Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
Multistage, random, and systematic sampling procedures were employed to select 160 respondents for
the study. The collected data were analyzed using relevant descriptive and inferential statistics suitable
for each objective. The result showed that majority of the respondents were females who were married,
having a mean age of 43 years and mean number of years of experience of 17. Majority of them acquired
secondary school education while practicing Christianity and were engaged in the production of both crops
and animals (mixed farming), having mean farm size of 0.8 ha in scattered plots and mean annual income
of N71,400 which was regarded as low income. Most of the farmers were not members to any farmers’
cooperative society. The predominant SAPs adopted included crop rotation, compost manure, and use of
tolerant varieties. Furthermore, socioeconomic characteristics of the rural farmers were observed to have
strong influence on adoption of SAPs by the farmers. The constraints to the adoption of SAPs among farmers
were socioeconomic, political, and institutional. The null hypothesis tested using F-test was rejected at 5%
level of significance. Consequently, it was concluded that socioeconomic characteristics of farmers actually
influenced adoption of SAPs, though there were identified constraints that limited the level of adoption
of such SAPs which if mitigated will improve adoption of the SAPs. Based on the study findings, the
policy recommendations were that relevant agencies should ensure vigorous dissemination of information
to farmers on available windows to low interest rate agricultural credit facilities by the government; reform
in land tenure system should be facilitated to support adoption of SAPs; Nigerian agricultural extension
program should be restructured to reflect sustainable agricultural context and emphasis; and farmers should
be encouraged to seek meteorological information to minimize risks from adverse weather conditions. This
will encourage adoption of SAPs and ensure that maximum result is achieved.
Presentation given at the workshop 'Integrating genetic diversity considerations into national climate change adaptation plans - Development of guidelines', Rome, 8-9 April organized by the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. It was presented by Michael Halewood, Policy Theme Leader at Bioversity International, on behalf of the CGIAR Research Progam on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Nutritious foods from Forests Side Event took place at FAO on 11 October, 2013.
Forests harbour a large number of woody plants, climbers, herbs, insects and wild animals that provide nutritious foods, important for the diets of many people in developing countries.
The International Conference on Forests for Food Security and Nutrition hosted by FAO in May 2013, highlighted the important role of forests, agroforestry systems and trees on farm for food security and nutrition The side event aims at increasing the understanding of the contribution of forests and trees to sustainable diets by sharing lessons from the field.
In this presentation Bioversity International researcher and 'Beyond Timber' project coordinator discusses the traditional management systems of forest-based foods and a case study from the Congo Basin.
Read more about Bioversity's work in forest foods: http://www.bioversityinternational.org/trees-for-food/
Plant protection applications in organic agriculture and farmers’ approaches ...Innspub Net
Plant production is becoming more important day by day with organic agriculture, one of the agricultural production systems. Plant protection applications with the right method are regarded as one of the most important factors to achieve sustainable organic agriculture. This study was conducted to identify the present situation in plant protection practices performed by organic agriculture enterprises on plant production and frequently faced problems such as pests, diseases, weeds and plant physiology in their fields in Kocaeli. A further purpose was to determine farmers’ approaches to these problems as well as organic agriculture in plant production. In this regard, the study was carried out in the middle of 2016 by a face to face close and open ended questionnaire following a full count method in Kocaeli Province in Turkey. The data show that there are various solved and unresolved biotic and abiotic problems in organic plant farming. According to the results weeds, aphids, late blight and downy mildew are as biotic, short time period of vegetation and forest are as abiotic are mostly facing problem in the fields. “Plant Protection problems” is stated as the second most important subject by farmers. In addition farmers’ awareness and expectations were revealed in the organic farming system. According to the results. Kocaeli has farmers who are aware and well educated that applies the main principles of organic agriculture, yet they remain incapable for plant protection in organic agriculture and for some other issues independent of this subject.
Presentation by Pramod Aggarwal at the 3rd Global Science Conference on Climate-Smart Agriculture in Montpellier.
Read more: http://ccafs.cgiar.org/3rd-global-science-conference-%E2%80%9Cclimate-smart-agriculture-2015%E2%80%9D#.VRurLUesXX4
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaPremier Publishers
The paper reports results of a study on investigating impacts of climate change on teff (Eragrostis tef) production in three agro-ecological zones (highlands, midlands and lowlands) of Endamehoni and Raya Azebo weredas of Tigray. The impact of climate change on teff farming was estimated taking into account farm households’ characteristics, socio-economic, climate, adaptations, production factors and agro-ecological settings in a low-income developing country. Ricardian model was used to analyze data obtained from teff farming households. From the fourteen predictor variables fitted in the model, six variables e.g. climate factors, adaptation strategies, production factors, weather and climate information, socio-economic factors and agro-ecology were found to have significance influence on net revenues with model coefficients at p=0.05 and less. Climate factors (temperature and rainfall) and adaptation to climate change were found to play key roles on net revenues. Increasing (decreasing) temperature reduces (increases) teff revenues. Therefore, policies of government on adaptation ought to be given enough attention to reduce vulnerability and improve food security among teff farming communities in rural areas.
Smallholder farmers pathway to resilience: achieving food security through ad...Premier Publishers
Building smallholder farmers’ resilience is essential to the sustainability of food security interventions. Being food secure alone is not enough, as disasters, including climate related extremes can quickly wipe out hard won development gains. Climate variability is an immediate challenge affecting the economy and poses threats to agriculture production and food security for smallholder farmers in rural communities. The livelihoods of people who depend on climate sensitive agricultural resources are particularly vulnerable. This study used a survey method to envisage adaptation strategies in agricultural production of smallholder farmer so as to increase resilience and create opportunities for increasing food security and environmental sustainability. The results indicated that more frequent and severe extreme climatic events, especially drought and heavy rainfall pose challenges to agricultural production and on ensuring food security in the area. To deal with such climate related extreme events, farmers develop different adaptation measures. Although farmers’ adaptation measures may not succeed completely, they form the basis of solutions to extreme events and disaster preparedness. It suggested that, addressing the threat posed by climate change will require better quantification of the problem, greater attention for prioritizing which production systems are vulnerable, and a redoubling of land and water management efforts. Climate change is occurring within a background of other global challenges, such as population growth, urbanization, land and water use, rural- urban migration, and biodiversity depletion. Thus, efforts to adapt to the impact of climate change should do so in a manner that is consistent with these broader development issues.
Determinants of Food Security Status among Irrigated Vegetable Farmers in Nor...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study examined factors influencing food security status of irrigated vegetable farmers and price trend of vegetables in Northern Agricultural Zone of Bauchi State, Nigeria. Multistage sampling technique was adopted where 360 framers were randomly selected for the study. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics as well as binary logistic model. The result reveals that average quantity produced per hectare of tomato, sweat pepper, and onion was about 227 baskets (6810 kg), 185 bags (7400 kg), and 168 bags (18480 kg), respectively. The net income was N187,245.00 ($520.00), N145,114.00 ($403.00), and N330,761.00 ($919.00) per hectare, for the respective vegetable crops. The result on binary logistic model indicates that the quantity of vegetable produced was found to be positively related with farmers food security status and statistically significant at P = 0.001. Monthly income had a positive odds ratio (2.214) and statistically significant at P = 0.000. The result also reveals that age was significant (P = 0.014) and positively related with a food security status of the farmers with the odds ratio of 0.943. The pseudo R2 was found to be 0.481, implying that about 48% of variation in the dependent variable is explained by independent factors included in the model. The result on price trend analysis indicates that seasonal variations occur in vegetable prices, for several reasons such as demand and supply factors. Thus, the study recommends that farmers should be provided with adequate information concerning prices, supply, and demand, especially at the local level. Farmers should be encouraged to adopt improved technologies and new farming practices to boost output. In addition, farmers should be encouraged to diversify the source of income to have more funds to purchase other foodstuffs that they could not producing.
Determinants of Food Security Status among Irrigated Vegetable Farmers in Nor...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study examined factors influencing food security status of irrigated vegetable farmers and price
trend of vegetables in Northern Agricultural Zone of Bauchi State, Nigeria. Multistage sampling
technique was adopted where 360 framers were randomly selected for the study. Data were collected
using structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics as well as binary logistic model.
The result reveals that average quantity produced per hectare of tomato, sweat pepper, and onion was
about 227 baskets (6810 kg), 185 bags (7400 kg), and 168 bags (18480 kg), respectively. The net income
was N187,245.00 ($520.00), N145,114.00 ($403.00), and N330,761.00 ($919.00) per hectare, for the
respective vegetable crops. The result on binary logistic model indicates that the quantity of vegetable
produced was found to be positively related with farmers food security status and statistically significant
at P = 0.001. Monthly income had a positive odds ratio (2.214) and statistically significant at P = 0.000.
The result also reveals that age was significant (P = 0.014) and positively related with a food security
status of the farmers with the odds ratio of 0.943. The pseudo R2
was found to be 0.481, implying that
about 48% of variation in the dependent variable is explained by independent factors included in the
model. The result on price trend analysis indicates that seasonal variations occur in vegetable prices, for
several reasons such as demand and supply factors. Thus, the study recommends that farmers should
be provided with adequate information concerning prices, supply, and demand, especially at the local
level. Farmers should be encouraged to adopt improved technologies and new farming practices to boost
output. In addition, farmers should be encouraged to diversify the source of income to have more funds
to purchase other foodstuffs that they could not producing.
Analysis of Rural Households Food Security Status in Dibatie District, Wester...Premier Publishers
This study examines the rural household’s food security status and its determinants in the Dibatie district of Bebishangul Gumuz region. The simple random sampling technique was used to select respondents with proportionate sample size based on the number of households that exists in sampled kebele administrations. The data were collected using structured questionnaires and key informants interviews. Both descriptive statistics and econometric model (binary logit model) were used to analyze this data at household levels. Food Security Index is used to measure the food security status of sample households based on average kcal/day/adult equivalent. The results of this study revealed that households of 59.4% were found food secure and 46.6% food insecure. The mean calorie intake of all sampled households was 2431.68kcal/day/equivalent. Furthermore, estimated a binary logit model results show that the variables such as education level of household head, utilization of formal credit, cultivated land size, access to training, farm experience, household size and distance to nearest market were found significant influence on households’ food security status in the study area. However, the remaining variables were not found significant effect on households’ food security status. Finally, the study suggests that any interventions designed to promote farmers to increase food security status at household level in the study area are welcome.
Journal of The Earth Science and Climate Change is a peer reviewed academic journal that cater to the needs of Earth Scientists, farmers, extensive agents, researchers and students. This Open access journal publishes high quality articles following rigorous and standard review procedure.
Assessment of Experts’ Opinion on Irish Potato Farmers Perceptions about Clim...Premier Publishers
This paper evaluated expert opinions on farmers' perception about climate change, Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices and their effects on Irish potato production in Kenya. The study focused on different coping strategies preferred by experts and currently used by farmers. Delphi approach was used to elicit information from 22 experts from different Irish potato and climate research organizations in Kenya. The study found that, majority of farmers were aware of climate change and perceived it to affect Irish potato production in Kenya. Most experts opined that key climate change effects experienced by the farmers in Kenya included new strains of pest and diseases (91%), low rainfall (68%), instability in production (68%), inability to plan for production (64%) and destruction of crops by floods (59%) causing an overall decline in potato yield (86%). Despite high level of farmers’ awareness (76%) and benefits (91%), the study found low implementation levels(≤ 40%) on most of the CSA practices. Furthermore, the assessment revealed that the top 5 CSA practices preferred by both experts and farmers are the use of improved crop varieties (85%), irrigation (64%), efficient use of agrochemicals (54%), early land preparation (51%), diversified crop production (45%), efficient use of inorganic fertilizer (45%) and changing planting dates (45%). The study revealed that the most preferred CSA practices focused on increased production. The study calls for changes in agricultural policy to appropriately resolve the majority of CSA practices adoption and adaptation concerns in Kenya.
Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review...Premier Publishers
Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of many developing countries, is highly depends on climatic conditions. This paper aimed at reviewing the climate change and its impacts on agricultural production with the specific objectives of reviewing the farmer’s adaptation strategies and barriers to the climate change and the impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food security in sub Saharan Africa countries. Empirical evidence shows that most of the smallholder famers in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced the adaptation strategy of switching from planting high water-requirement to low water-requirement crops, planting diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to the change in the precipitation pattern and mixed cropping. The farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has faced by access to information, extension services and access to credit. The effect of long-term mean climate change has significance impacts on global food production and affects all dimensions of food security in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure which may require ongoing adaptation. Finally, effective institutions on climate change at the global level help to facilitate the policy implementations and to combat the impact of climate change.
Cereal and grain legumes play a vital role in food security and as income sources for millions of people in Ethiopia.
However, poor storage handling and storage pests lead to high postharvest loss. This study therefore assessed
farmers’ storage practices and grain storage hygiene status in selected districts of Jimma, West Shoa, and East
Wollega zones of southwestern Ethiopia. One district was selected from each zone based on their production
potential of selected grain crops such as maize, sorghum, wheat, and fababean. Then, three Peasant Associations
(PAs) were randomly selected from each district. For the survey, 377 households (HHs) were interviewed. The
present study showed that farmers in the study areas stored their grains in different kinds of traditional structures,
such as plastered gombisa (14.1%), unplastered gombisa (25.5%), gumbi (13.8%), polypropylene sacks (41.4%),
and Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags (5.3%) and indicated that most farmers used polypropylene sacks
followed by unplastered gombisa. On the other hand, most of farmer’s grain storage hygiene status was categorised
as poor (50.7%) or very poor (33.3%). The results of this study demonstrate that the farmers use an inefficient
storage facility and adopt poor hygiene practices, which predisposes the stored grains to insects and rodent attacks.
Thus, there is a need to train farmers in storage hygiene and develop and disseminate efficient grain storage
facilities to reduce loss in farmers ‘grain stores
Title: The System of Tef Intensification (STI): Modifying crop management for greater food security in Ethiopia
Poster by: Tareke Berhe, Ayele G. Ayetenfisu,
Zewdie Gebretsadik, and Norman Uphoff
Date: October 13, 2015
[Poster presented at the 2nd International Conference on Global Food Security at Cornell University.]
Similar to Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia (20)
Although performance appraisal is concerned with the evaluation of workers job performance, it at the same time serves to highlight the specific objectives of an organization. As the employee is being evaluated the organization is also evaluating itself by comparing objectives and standards of performance, reviews the whole appraisal framework and design as well as organizational values and culture. Performance appraisal is a veritable tool for organizations to evaluate and increase the quality of education and training of their workforce with a view to developing lifelong learning patterns and strategies to sustain productivity throughout longer working periods. Motivation as it relates to employee productivity is often behind the drive for performance and self-actualization and provides opportunities for higher productivity. Productivity is an important measure of goal achievement because getting more done with less resources increases organizational profitability. Using the exploratory research design and 109 participants the result of the study indicates a strong positive correlation between performance appraisal and employee productivity. It suggests that the issue of performance appraisal in charitable organizations should be addressed. In view of the result of the study, the paper recommends that performance appraisal should carefully review employee’s strengths and weaknesses against requirements for possible future higher responsibilities.
The integration between innovation and business is a key factor in competitiveness between organizations. That is, innovation applied to a business makes no sense if not considered as an integral tool for the processes of the organization. Companies should therefore adopt a policy where innovation plays a strategic role in the design of business models to become lean, effective and competitive entities (Moraleda, 2004). The objective of this paper is to show the importance of innovation within companies, identifying the concept, the various models that different entities might adopt in order to develop better processes of innovation, as well as indicators that represent innovation at global and national levels in order to develop strategies that lead to an increase in competitiveness. For this work the method used was a bibliographical review of relevant articles from a range of authors was conducted.
The practitioners and academicians in the business arena are highly concern about the enhancement of employee performance in this competitive age for achievement of business goals. Considering the issue, this study aimed to measure the influence of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices on the performance of employees. The data of this study have been collected from 392 on-the-job operational level employees using survey method who are working at different garment factories in Bangladesh. The collected data are analyzed through structural equation modeling to partial least square method. The study empirically proves that employee training and development, promotion opportunity, and job security has significant influence on the employees’ performance. Theoretically, this study proves that training and development, job security and promotion opportunity together influence on the performance of employees in the developing economy. The practitioners and policy makers of the organizations are expected to make necessary adjustments in their existing HRM practices based on the findings of this study in the context of Bangladesh for enhancing the employees’ performance level so that their whole-hearted efforts can be gained for the achievement of business goals.
Child labor is one of the issues receiving much attention from researchers and scholars around the world. Child labor still occurs in most countries around the world. Viet Nam is also one of the countries with relatively high child labor and increasing trend. This article is based on critical discourse analysis and data from the General Statistics Office of Vietnam to analyze some fundamental issues of child labor in Vietnam, thereby giving policy suggestions to the Vietnam government in minimizing the current child labor situation.
The rapid trend of changes and social issues in managing the global workforce has forced organizations to look for innovative ways of enhancing the job satisfaction of employees. Among these innovative approaches is the provision of Flexible Working Arrangements (FWAs). The purpose of this exploratory research was to identify the effects of FWAs, i.e., flextime schedule, compressed workweek, and telecommuting on job satisfaction from the perspective of the Ethiopian national employees of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) in Addis Ababa. To achieve this objective both descriptive and inferential statistics were conducted. The total population of the study was 250; out of which, 71% of responses were collected. A primary data collection method was implemented using a structured questionnaire. The analysis showed that there is significant positive effect of flextime schedule (R = .39, R2 = .264, p = .001) and compressed workweek (R = .39, R2 = .159, p = .039). This means that increase in the use of flextime schedules and compressed workweek enhances job satisfaction for employees of the ECA in Addis Ababa. The independent variables reported R = .39 and R2 = .15 which means that 15% of corresponding variations in employee job satisfaction can be explained by flexible working arrangements. Nevertheless, this study found out that there are no significant relationship of telecommuting (R = .39, R2 = .065, p = .398) on job satisfaction. Therefore, since the provision of FWAs is at the nascent stage, further studies on the effect of telecommuting on job satisfaction from Ethiopian employees context are highly recommended.
This study evaluates the impacts of urban road investment and operation in China, especially the spillover effect attributable to the investment of urban road projects. Using the synthetic control method and difference-in-differences technique and taking the opening of Jiaozhou Bay Bridge and its Subsea Tunnel in China on 30 June 2011 as a natural experiment, this paper investigates the causal effect between urban road investment and its economic impacts. Results show that the project has a positive externality in terms of its contribution to the output and employment: taken the industrial relative output as outcome variable, no matter whether the covariates are controlled or not, the parameters of the interactive terms are positive; taken the industrial relative employment rate as outcome variable, the gap between the treated unit and its counterpart indicates a direct program effect for the treated city as well as a spillover effect across the cities within the sample province. Furthermore, the permutation test ascertains that the probability of achieving a spillover effect as large as the treated city is around 5.88 per cent. Overall, the investment and operation of urban road transportation infrastructure has a noticeable spillover effect. Our results are robust across a series of placebo tests.
Poor public management defined by corruption and lack of prudence in public life continues to hold Nigeria hostage and makes good governance difficult. Since the 1980s government has been using many methods including the processes of privatization and commercialization as means of re-engineering the public sector for total quality management, and to increase the share of the public sector’s contribution to the gross domestic product. The experiment never achieved the desired level of success partly due to lack of political will on the part of government to wedge a total war against corruption, and also partly because the public sector is a large scale administration that has many entry and revolving doors which government finds difficult to close. These limitations provide the incentives for widespread public corruption that is recognized as one of the greatest challenges of government in carrying out its mandate. 110 respondents participated in this study conducted through the exploratory research design. The participants provided useful data that were triangulated with data from secondary sources for the purpose of the study. To achieve the objective of the investigation, data were analyzed through statistical techniques and the result showed significant positive correlation between good governance and good management. It was recommended that appointments in the public sector should feature a combination of people from private and public sectors of the economy to enhance competence with the aim of reducing public sector corruption. Further study should examine the reasons behind rising budget deficits as a way of reducing cost of governance in Nigeria.
In this article, we analyze in the Malian context the link between the structure of the shareholding and the sustainability of companies based on data from the census of industrial enterprises of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, 2015. The results show that Mali’s economic opening option in the 1980s, strengthened in the 1990s following the implementation of the Structural Adjustment Programs, resulting in the state’s withdrawal from the management of enterprises, have enabled the emergence of private enterprises in almost all sectors of economic activity. However, shareholding in industrial enterprises has suffered from poor governance. It also shows that the number of women entrepreneurs is close to that of men. Between 2010 and 2014, the majority of shareholders are in the agri-food sector. The majority of the investment is in the metal and metallurgical sector.
This paper’s objective is to present the importance of the strategic planning in business management. Speaking of strategic planning is always speaking in general terms and how to fix paths of behavior will necessarily affect deeply and significantly in the future evolution of the company or organization that adopts it. Today we think of the organization as part of an environment and in terms of options or choices based on what you have, of its surroundings and the opportunities or pathways that can lead to achieving the objective, (Garrido, 2009). For this work the method used was a bibliographical review of relevant articles from a range of authors was conducted. The conclusions were that the be properly analyzed and adapted to the precise conditions and characteristics of the small business or, more generally, to any type of business for which the planning is intended. Strategic planning brings multiple benefits (which exceed its disadvantages) if applied in the right way, however, there are inherent risks, which can be overcome with proper monitoring and control.
The study examined the relationship between non-financial incentives and workers’ motivation in Akwa Ibom State Civil Service exploring five key variables of continuing professional development, performance feedback, employee employment, employee participation in decision-making and task autonomy. Survey research design was adopted involving the use of questionnaire to gather data from 392 respondents drawn from a population of 20465 civil servants in state using Taro Yamene Sample Size Determination Table. The sample was drawn across all ministries and departments through stratified and convenience sampling techniques. Data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The five dimensions of non-financial incentives were positively correlated with workers’ motivation from the results of the analysis. Continuing Professional Development (CPD) had the highest correlation value (r = 0.33, P<0.01). Also, the five null hypotheses were rejected implying that the variables of study influence workers’ motivation in Akwa Ibom State Civil Service, Nigeria with beta coefficients and t-values of CPD (0.29;4.313); PF (0.117; 3.500); EE (0.2.141); PDM (0.182; 2.935), and TA (0.231;2.817). It was concluded that since workers’ motivation is a vital tool to organizational effectiveness and growth, employers should explore more of non-financial incentives in formulating and implementing employee benefits related policies.
This literature review is organized in five sections. Firstly, we begin with general ideas and continue with the origin of the fraudulent. Secondly, we discuss the struggle of the phenomena, insisting on the available mechanisms. Finally, we’ll discuss the link between audit and fraud.
Accounting function aims at providing accurate and sufficient accounting information to facilitate proper financial reporting and management performance. Accounting information is usually in the form of periodic or annual financial statements which are products of costing, financial and management accounting prepared for the benefit of a number of external interest groups. Accounting has its roots in the stewardship approach and as a management performance tool to guide the agent and the principal over the exact status of the going concern. Accounting function also involves financial statement analysis, interpreting the accounts by computing and evaluating ratios which relate pairs of financial information or items with one another. This analysis of ratios can be cross-sectional comparing the results of one company with another or trend. In doing so close attention is usually paid to profitability ratio to help keep pace with effective management performance. The exploratory research design was adopted for the study and result showed positive correlation between accounting function and management performance. The study was not exhaustive, therefore, further study should examine the relationship between audit failure and business failure as a matter of finding a solution to the problem. It was recommended that management should always carefully study audit reports to enhance decision making and management performance.
This study examines the effect of the trademark on consumer behavior of consumers of air conditioners in Sudan, in order to know the dimensions of the trademark that affect consumer behavior in Sudan, and provide information to companies on the dimensions of the trademark that affect the purchasing decision of the customer and contribute to customer satisfaction. The study adopted descriptive analytical method using a sample of 230 individuals who consume air conditioners in Sudan. The results showed that there is a positive significant relationship between the trademark of air conditioning and consumer behavior as well as a positive significant relationship between the trademark name of air conditioning and consumer behavior and finally there is a positive significant relationship between the trademark logo and consumer behavior.
In recent years, retired workers eligible for social security receive their emoluments from the appropriate regulatory agency and this provides more realistic evidence on the better living standard of the aged (retirees) under the scheme. Empirically, this paper examines the impact of social security on economic growth in Ghana using time series secondary (monthly) data ranging from 2000 – 2018. The author answers in two questions: 1) how significant are pensioners benefit payments dependent on economic growth and also, 2) how business environmental policy is contributing to economic performance as far as pensioners well-being are concerned. Using STATA analytical software, the findings show a positive significant relationship between social security and economic growth. The study concludes by outlining appropriate policy measures to help strengthen the current social security scheme in Ghana.
This research begins by showing the different meanings attributed to the term cluster by different currents and authors, which suggests definitions that are found around its spatial framework. Next, the factors that intervene in the competitiveness of a region and its growth are shown, for the development of these, Porter’s model of competitiveness which was taken as reference, and the contexts: geographical and economic. Therefore, the methodology was used based on a qualitative design, with descriptive and correlational scope since it will analyze differences of each cluster, with respect to the factors of dimensions, establishments, growth, economic impact and policies. To do this, the information-gathering tool was two semi-structured interviews with cluster leaders in both countries, because the approach is based on data collection methods that are not completely standardized or predetermined. And finally, the results of the comparison of the Mexican Bajío automotive cluster with the German cluster located in Baden-Württemberg are presented.
This research aims at identifying the impact of excellence in drawing up the following four marketing mix strategies (Product, Pricing, Promotion and Distribution) of the small and medium enterprises in Jordan, in terms of their marketing performance in its dimensions (Sales Growth, Profit Growth, Customer Attraction and Customer Retention).In order to reach the results of this study, A total of (187) valid questionnaire surveys were collected from companies belong to the SME Association in Jordan. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) approach was used to analyze the collected data. The empirical results indicated there is a significant relationship between the building of marketing strategies of the marketing mix elements in the Jordanian SME and their marketing performance, by (sales growth, profit growth, customer attraction, and customer retention) dimensions. Consequently, decision makers in small and medium organizations need to choose strategies based on their target market to the positive impact on the mind of the consumer, which in turn could improve modern scientific methods in SME to divide their markets into sub-market sectors.
The study investigates the impact of team building on organisational productivity. The objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of team building among the members of the selected case study and to assess the effect of training and retraining of team members on organisational productivity. The study also x-rayed the absence of team building in a workplace which led to low levels of turnover and productivity. the total population of the study was 750 while researcher employed Yaro Yamane sampling technique to select sample size of 261 because of the large population and hypothesis were tested using Pearson correlation. The finding revealed that if members of the team can work in synergy without considering the differences in the likes of level of educational background and others, the expected productivity will be very high. It was also observed that capabilities of team leader in carrying out the assigned task determined its output especially if the team leader understands the technical knowhow of job and he is friendly with co-team members with a lot of motivation, that this would definitely enhance employees’ efficiencies and productivities. The study recommends that team members should trust, support and respect one another individual differences in order to accomplish group common goals and tasks.
Compared with general commercial reverse logistics operators, the recovery and treatment of expired drugs and medical waste is a complex and highly technically difficult project. The qualifications required by the relevant service providers are also more stringent. For medical institutions, the selection of reverse logistics operators is always a critical issue. On the perspective of sustainability, this paper aims to investigate and explore the critical factors of selecting a medical reverse logistics service provider. Through the process of the Delphi method, the experts’ assessments were collected, and 24 factors affecting the selection of medical reverse logistics service provider were screened and summarized. Then, Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) was employed to calculate the total influence values and net influence values between factors that could be used to draw the visual causal map. Referring the causal map, “Green process operation level” and “Recycling process greening degree” are significantly higher than other factors in terms of total influence value and net influence value. Therefore, they can be regarded as crucial factors. This finding implies that medical reverse logistics providers must have the ability to improve the greening of facilities, as well as equipment, integrating existing processes to make it greener and environmentally friendly.
The major objective of any firm is to maximize the shareholders wealth. This is evidence through dividend yield and payout ratio and this encapsulate into the dividend policy of a company. The research purpose aimed at examining the influence that dividend policy has on the volatility of share prices among the listed insurance corporations in Kenya. Research design, approach and method: Data was collected from listed insurance corporations over a 10-year period with a total of 49 data points. The Pearson correlation and ordinary regression analysis were employed. The results reveal the existence of a positive link among the study variables. The correlations were found to be substantial at ninety-five percent confidence level. It is worth noting that the model summary shows forty-three-point one percent of changes in the volatility of stock price are explicated by dividend yield and payout ratio. ANOVA statistics which examines whether the analytical model as set out in the study explains variations in the dependent variable concluded that the model is analytically substantial. The outcome revealed a statistically significant positive link between stock price variations and the ratio of dividend payout. Research also established a statistically substantial negative interrelation between volatility of stock prices and dividend return. Results therefore recommend that companies should have dividend policies which are mapped to shareholders wealth maximization objective. The study suggests further studies be undertaken to determine whether there exists an analytically substantial difference between the dividend policies of various sectors in the economy.
This study is about the impact of selected macroeconomic variables on economic growth of Bangladesh. Economic growth of Bangladesh is measured in terms of annual nominal GDP growth rate. Least squared regression model has been employed considering exchange rate, export, import and inflation rate as independent variables and gross domestic product as the dependent variable in this study. The results reveal that export and import have significant positive impact on GDP growth rate. The other variables (exchange rate and inflation) are not significant, indicating that there exists no significant relationship among the variables. The findings will help the policy makers to make policies concerning the country’s economic growth to remain robust in the near future.
More from Business, Management and Economics Research (20)
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Diabetes is a rapidly and serious health problem in Pakistan. This chronic condition is associated with serious long-term complications, including higher risk of heart disease and stroke. Aggressive treatment of hypertension and hyperlipideamia can result in a substantial reduction in cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes 1. Consequently pharmacist-led diabetes cardiovascular risk (DCVR) clinics have been established in both primary and secondary care sites in NHS Lothian during the past five years. An audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery at the clinics was conducted in order to evaluate practice and to standardize the pharmacists’ documentation of outcomes. Pharmaceutical care issues (PCI) and patient details were collected both prospectively and retrospectively from three DCVR clinics. The PCI`s were categorized according to a triangularised system consisting of multiple categories. These were ‘checks’, ‘changes’ (‘change in drug therapy process’ and ‘change in drug therapy’), ‘drug therapy problems’ and ‘quality assurance descriptors’ (‘timer perspective’ and ‘degree of change’). A verified medication assessment tool (MAT) for patients with chronic cardiovascular disease was applied to the patients from one of the clinics. The tool was used to quantify PCI`s and pharmacist actions that were centered on implementing or enforcing clinical guideline standards. A database was developed to be used as an assessment tool and to standardize the documentation of achievement of outcomes. Feedback on the audit of the pharmaceutical care delivery and the database was received from the DCVR clinic pharmacist at a focus group meeting.
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The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
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Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs molecules having approximately 18-25 nucleotides, they are present in both plants and animals genomes. MiRNAs have diverse spatial expression patterns and regulate various developmental metabolisms, stress responses and other physiological processes. The dynamic gene expression playing major roles in phenotypic differences in organisms are believed to be controlled by miRNAs. Mutations in regions of regulatory factors, such as miRNA genes or transcription factors (TF) necessitated by dynamic environmental factors or pathogen infections, have tremendous effects on structure and expression of genes. The resultant novel gene products presents potential explanations for constant evolving desirable traits that have long been bred using conventional means, biotechnology or genetic engineering. Rice grain quality, yield, disease tolerance, climate-resilience and palatability properties are not exceptional to miRN Asmutations effects. There are new insights courtesy of high-throughput sequencing and improved proteomic techniques that organisms’ complexity and adaptations are highly contributed by miRNAs containing regulatory networks. This article aims to expound on how rice miRNAs could be driving evolution of traits and highlight the latest miRNA research progress. Moreover, the review accentuates miRNAs grey areas to be addressed and gives recommendations for further studies.
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in Eastern Ethiopia
1. Business, Management and Economics
Research
ISSN: 2412-1770
Vol. 1, No. 3, pp: 33-43, 2015
URL: http://arpgweb.com/?ic=journal&journal=8&info=aims
*Corresponding Author
33
Academic Research Publishing Group
Food Security and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in
Eastern Ethiopia
Adugna Tafesse* PhD, Dire Dawa University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Gazahgne Ayele Capacity Building Manager USAID-CIAFS, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Mengistu Ketema School of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, P.O. Box: 138, Haramaya University, Ethiopia
Endrias Geta School of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, P.O. Box: 138, Haramaya University, Ethiopia
1. Introduction
The links between food security and climate change are complex, because food security involves food
and its production, trade and nutrition as well as how people and nations maintain access to food over
time in the face of multiple stresses including climate change. The impact of climate change is a global
issue because it affects all countries and sectors.
Climate is an important factor for agricultural productivity. Its change affects all dimensions of food
security (i.e. food availability, food accessibility, food utilization and food systems stability). It has an
impact on human health, livelihood assets, food production and distribution channels, as well as changing
purchasing power and market flows. Climate change effects are already being felt in global food markets,
and are likely to be particularly significant in specific rural locations where crops fail and yields decline.
Its impact is felt in both rural and urban locations where supply chains are disrupted, market prices
increase, assets and livelihood opportunities are lost, purchasing power falls, human health is endangered,
and affected people are unable to cope (FAO, 2007).
People who are already vulnerable and food insecure are likely to be the first affected in climate
change and those agriculture-based livelihood systems that are already vulnerable to food insecurity face
immediate risk of increased crop failure, new patterns of pests and diseases, lack of appropriate seeds,
planting material and loss of livestock (IPCC, 2007; Schipper and Pelling, 2006).
Abstract: Agricultural sector remains the main source of food and income for most rural communities in
Ethiopia. Being dependent mainly on rainfall, this sector has been affected by climate change. Hence,
employing adaptation strategies within the agricultural sector to climate change is vital to ensure food security
and care for the livelihoods of farmers. Food security and adaptation are among the options to abate the
negative impact of climate changes. This study has analyzed factors influencing the impact of climate change
on food security and adaptation choices by farm households in eastern Ethiopia. The study used data obtained
from 330 household heads randomly and proportionately sampled from two agroecologies in East Hararghe
Zone of Oromiya Region and Dire Dawa Administration, Ethiopia. The study used a univariate profit model
and multinomial logistic regression model to identify factors affecting food security and the choice of
adaptation strategies to climate change. As food security indicator, calorie intake per adult equivalent per day
was considered for adaptation strategies; changing planting date, irrigation water use, soil and water
conservation, and crop variety selection were considered. The result indicated that farmers in the study area are
vulnerable to climate change and the factors determining the choice of climate adaptation options were
determined by sex of household head, family size, education status of household head, Agroecology, distance
to market, cultivated land, credit access, decreasing precipitation and change of temperature. Policy thrust
should focus on linking farmers to fertilizer usage, credit access and social participation as well as in creating
awareness of climate change.
Keywords: Food security; Climate change; Adaptation strategies; Univariate probit; Multinomial logit.
2. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
34
Higher temperature and changing precipitation levels caused by climate change depress crop yields.
This is particularly true in low-income countries, where adaptive capacities are perceived to be low.
Hence, many African countries which have economies largely based on weather-sensitive agriculture are
vulnerable to climate change. Ethiopia with its rain-fed dependant agriculture together with low level of
socioeconomic development is highly affected and vulnerable to climate change.
Ethiopia's economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for 46% of GDP and 85% of total
employment. Coffee has been a major export crop. The agricultural sector suffers from poor cultivation
practices and frequent drought, but recent joint efforts by the Government of Ethiopia and donors have
strengthened Ethiopia's agricultural resilience, contributing to a reduction in the number of Ethiopians
threatened with starvation (MoFED, 2012).
Adaptation to climate change includes adjustments in socioeconomic systems to reduce their
vulnerability both to long-term shifts in average climate and to change in the frequency and magnitude of
climatic extremes. These extremes are hazardous now, and often exceed the capacity of a country or
community to cope.
Development of strategies for supporting adaptation and responding to the consequences of climate
change will require collaboration at local, regional and global level, across disciplinary boundaries and
between different sectors of the economy. Enhancing the ability of communities to adapt to climate
change or manage climate change risks requires addressing pertinent locally identified vulnerabilities, to
involve stakeholders and to ensure that adaptation initiatives are compatible with existing decision
processes (Brooks and Kelly, 2005).
This study focused on two Woredas, found in the highland of Eastern Hararghe Zone and the lowland
of Dire Dawa Administration (DDA) which are included under the productive safety net program (PSNP),
to look into the impact of climate change on smallholder farmers and its interaction with food security
situation. Therefore, this study is undertaken with the objective of identifying the food security status and
the widely practiced climate change adaptation strategies at farm level.
2. Research Methodology
2.1. The Study Area
East Hararghe Zone and Dire Dawa Administration (DDA) of Ethiopia were selected for this study
mainly because these are among the areas highly affected by climate change. The specific study areas are
Meta Woreda from the highland of East Hararghe Zone and Dire Dawa Administration from the lowland.
Both of these study areas are under the productive safety net program. East Hararghe and Dire Dawa are
situated in the eastern part of Ethiopia, at 520 and 515 kilometers, respectively, east of Addis Ababa, the
capital city of the country (CSA, 2011).
The land use pattern of Meta Woreda consists 48% arable and 13% pasture and forest, and the rest
39% regarded as degraded (CSA, 2007). Sorghum, maize, barley and wheat are the major crops in the
Woreda and Khat and coffee are the major cash crops. DDA is characterized by relatively high
temperature throughout the year with minor seasonal variations. The farming system of the
Administration consists of crop production (4.1%), livestock production (7.9%) and holders that are
engaged in mixed crop and livestock production (88.0%). The DDA rural Woredas have more or less
homogenous characteristics in terms of agroecology and hence have similar agricultural production
pattern.
2.2. Sampling Technique
In this study, a multi-stage sampling method was used to select respondents. In the first stage eastern
Ethiopia was stratified into two major agroecologies that are highland and lowland areas. Then East
Hararghe Zone and DDA were selected to represent the highlands and lowlands, respectively. In the
second stage, after listing all the Woredas in each study agroecologies, one Woreda from each was
selected using a simple random sampling technique. In the third stage, eight sample Kebeles were selected
using lottery method. Finally sample households were selected from each Kebels by preparing a
comprehensive list of households and systematic randomly sampling method was applied. The sampling
units at each stage of sampling were drawn using the probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling
method.
3. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
35
2.3. Analytical Methods
2.3.1. Measurement of Food Security
The food insecurity was captured by measuring the head count and food insecurity gap which enable
to capture successively more detailed aspects of food insecurity at household level, using the Foster-
Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) decomposable indices (Foster et al., 1984) for computing incidence, depth and
severity of food insecurity.
The FGT measure is given as:
q
i
i
Z
yZ
n
FGT
1
1
(1)
where: FGT is the index; n is the number of sample households; iy is the measure of per adult
equivalent food calorie intake of the ith
household; Z represents the cutoff point between food security and
food insecurity households (expressed here in terms of caloric requirements of 2200kcal); q is the number
of food-insecure households; and is the weight attached to the severity of food insecurity. In FGT
index, iy ≥ Z that the specified household is food secure.
Within this FGT index, we compute the three most commonly employed indices: head count ratio,
food insecurity gap and squared food insecurity gap (Hoddinott, 2001). Head count ratio describes the
percentage of sampled households whose consumption is below the predetermined subsistence level of
energy (2200kcal), means FGT (α=0) = q/n. The food insecurity gap, FGT (α=1), measure how far the
food insecure of households, on average, are below subsistence level of energy. Here, it means that,
giving equal weight to severity of food insecurity among all the food insecure households will be
equivalent to assuming that = 1. This index characterizes the amount of resources that will be required
to bring all the food insecure households to this subsistence level. To put it differently, it will provide the
possibility to estimate resources required to eliminate food insecurity through proper targeting. Finally,
squared food insecurity gap, FGT (α=2), is a measure closely related to severity of food insecurity gap but
giving those further away from the subsistence level a higher weight in aggregation than those closer to
the subsistence level.
2.3.2. Determinants of Food Security
Household and socioeconomic determinants of the household food security status and their likely
effects were estimated by a univariate probit representation. The latent variable was specified by the
structural equation (Cameron and Trivedi, 2009; Greene, 2012; Long, 1997; Maddalla, 1983).
iXY '* (2)
where Y* is binary latent variable for food security status (observed if Y*>0, 0 otherwise); X’ is a
vector of household specific and other socioeconomic factors determining food security status; β is a
vector of parameters of interest, and i is random error.
These equations are identical to those for the linear regression model with the important difference
that the dependent variable is unobserved. The link between the observed binary Y and the latent Y* is
made with a simple measurement equation:
0*0
0'*1
i
ii
i
Yif
XYif
Y
(3)
Assuming the distribution of i to be with mean 0 and variance 1 leads to the binary probit model,
2.3.3. Adaptation Strategies
The analytical approaches that are commonly used in an adoption decision study involving multiple
choices are the multinomial logit (MNL) (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2006). The MNL is important
for analyzing farmer adoption decisions as these are usually made jointly. These approaches are also
appropriate for evaluating alternative combinations of adaptation strategies, including individual strategies
(Hausman and Wise, 1978; Wu and Babcock, 1998).
Considering the multiple adaptation options available to the households, the MNL model was used to
analyze the determinants of household adaptation decisions. This model was similarly applied to analyze
4. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
36
crop choices selection (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2006; Temesgen et al., 2008b) and livestock
choices (Seo and Mendelsohn, 2008) as a method to analyzing the decision to adapt to the negative
impacts of climate change. The advantage of the MNL model is that it permits the analysis of decisions
across more than two categories, allowing the determination of choice probabilities for different
categories (Maddalla, 1983; Wooldridge, 2002). The usefulness of this model in terms of ease in
interpreting estimates is likewise recognized (Greene, 2012).
This model provides a convenient closed form for underlying choice probabilities, with no need of
multivariate integration, making it simple to compute choice situations characterized by many
alternatives. In addition, the computational burden of the MNL specification is made easier by its
likelihood function, which is globally concave (Hausman and McFadden, 1984).
Let Yi be a random variable representing the adaptation measure chosen by any farm household. We
assume that each farmer faces a set of discrete, mutually exclusive choices of adaptation measures. These
measures are assumed to depend on a number of climate attributes, socioeconomic characteristics and
other factors X. The MNL model for adaptation choice specifies the following relationship between the
probability of choosing option Yi and the set of explanatory variables X (Greene, 2012).
jjYi j
k
X
e
e
i
Xk
ij
.....1,0Pr
0
'
'
(4)
where βj is a vector of coefficients on each of the independent variables X. Equation (1) can be
normalized to remove indeterminacy in the model by assuming that β0 = 0 and the probabilities can be
estimated as:
The MNL coefficients are difficult to interpret, and associating the βj with the jth outcome is tempting
and misleading. To interpret the effects of explanatory variables on the probabilities, marginal effects are
usually derived (Greene, 2012):
jj
J
k
kkjj
i
j
PPP
X
P
0
(5)
Where P is the probability, X is socioeconomic characteristics and other factors and β is a vector of
coefficients. The marginal effects measure the expected change in probability of a particular choice being
made with respect to a unit change in an explanatory variable (Greene, 2012; Long, 1997). The signs of
the marginal effects and respective coefficients may be different, as the former depend on the sign and
magnitude of all other coefficients.
Finally, the model was run and tested for the validity of the independence of the irrelevant alternatives
(IIA) assumptions by using both Hausman test for IIA and the seemingly unrelated post estimation preside
(SUEST).
3. Results and Discussion
In this part the results have been interpreted based on the descriptive analyses and econometric
estimation. The results from analyses of climate change impacts and food security measures, and
adaptation strategies are presented and discussed.
3.1. The Socioeconomic and Institutional Characteristic of Households
The rural households in the two agroecologies of the study area basically differed in their major
institutional and socioeconomic characteristics (Table 1). Households in the highland areas were
significantly better off in their food security status, calorie intake and distance to the nearest market and
town. On the other hand, the lowland households were significantly better off in credit access, adapt crop
variety selection, soil and water conservation, and distance to office of agricultural extension agents.
The mean differences of highland and lowland for crop variety selection and soil and water
conservation were 0.04 and 0.52, respectively. The application of this technology is used to protect soil
erosion and increase of productivity of the land and to increase the economic performance and livelihood
as well. Terracing or tree planting is common practice in the study area. In an attempt to improve soil
fertility, organic fertilizer is used in addition to inorganic fertilizer, but the fertility level of the farm is
decreasing from year to year. The rate of such investment varied from household to household depending
on social engagement and wealth statues.
5. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
37
Table 1 also indicated that the results of respondents’ calorie intake per adult equivalent per day.
Households in the highlands and lowlands had on average 2229.02 and 2168.26 kilocalories food intake,
respectively. This indicates that households in the study areas were not better off in calorie intake as
compared to the required average kilocalorie intake for a healthy adult. However, this result cannot tell us
the problem of food insecurity. Farmers in highland were able to practice mixing crop production and
generate off-farm income and also adopt high yielding crop varieties, which might have resulted in better
asset formation.
3.2. Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change
Extensive literature reviews have revealed that a number of different socio-economic and natural
factors have contributed to the increasing perception level of farmers about climate change variables like
temperature, precipitation, etc. However, there were a significant proportion of the respondents who did
not recognize the effect of climate change.
Climate change is expected to influence crop and livestock production and other components of
agricultural systems. In this study, farmers were asked if they had noticed any significant climate changes
from the past ten to twenty years. Results shown in Table 2 indicate that almost more than 50% of the
sample farmers had noticed significant changes in both agroecologies and they ascribed reduction in farm
production. About 71% of the sample households have perceived changes of precipitation, 55%
understood increasing temperature and 63% recognized the occurring of untimely rain. In addition,
farmers perceived that climate change affected direct crop production and livestock health, and resulted in
land degradation and hence had negative impact on livelihoods.
Farmers noticed that over the last ten to twenty years, rainfall variability has been increasing
substantially, as rains fail to come more frequently or come suddenly at abnormal times of the year. All
farmers have also noticed more frequent droughts in the last ten years as compared to twenty years ago.
Flooding had a significant impact on the long-term productivity of their land as well. Much of the
fertile topsoil was washed away and only hard-panned soil remains. The degraded land has hardly been
supplying sufficient soil nutrient which improves farm productivity and requires more time for recovery.
From the farmers perception and supported by the literature, it is the climate-related hazards
that significantly increased household vulnerability to climate change through reduced farm productivity
and household food security. Although farmers have been able to deal with past drought and floods, the
increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related hazards is forcing farmers to engage more frequently
in emergency coping strategies such as consuming seeds reserved for planting and selling farm
implements to smooth their consumption.
Figure-1. Kernel density estimation of daily calorie intake per adult equivalent of the sample households by agroecology.
A. Highland agroecology B. Lowland agroecology
6. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
38
C. Combined highland and lowland agroecologies
Source: Author’s computation
3.3. Food Security Status and its Determinants
Food security at a household level is analyzed and best measured by direct survey of income,
expenditure, and consumption and comparing it with the minimum subsistence requirement (Von Braun
et al., 1992). This study used daily calorie availability per adult equivalent (kilocalorie) as a measurement
for food security. Accordingly, food security status was measured by comparing the level of the daily
calorie availability per adult equivalent with the minimum acceptable weighted average food requirement
per person per day for Ethiopia which has been set at 2200 kcal (Kifle and Yosef, 1999). In the highland
and lowland areas, the estimated calorie intakes are indicated in Figures 1A and 1B. Figure 1B which is
more right-skewed from the mean of the lowland indicates that there is more number of food insecure
households.
The combined highland and lowland calorie availability graph as indicated in Figure 1C also shows
the distribution of the estimated daily calorie availability per adult equivalent for all households which is
right-skewed indicating higher number of food insecure households falling below the mean value of 2200
kcal
The daily calorie availability per adult equivalent was low in the lowland than in the highland. The
two agroecologies had a significant difference in terms of the deviation from the food security threshold.
The mean of households in highland were relatively better-off to escape from the food security threshold
by 250 kcal whereas the lowland rural households had 145 kcal deficits from the minimum daily calorie
requirement of 2200kcal (Table 3).
Agricultural production is the source of rural households’ income in Ethiopia and is mainly generated
from crop production. In this regard, it was found that 63% and 37% of the households in the highland
and lowland, respectively, have income inequality from agricultural production, which is higher than the
national rural income inequality estimated at about 30% percent in the year 2010/2011(FDRE, 2012).
As the head count index measures the incidence of food insecurity, the mean food insecurity gap and
the squared food insecurity gap measure the depth and severity of food insecurity, respectively. The
incidence of the food insecurity in highland was 34.12% compared to the incidence in lowland (43.13%).
Intensity of mean food insecurity gap or calorie measured by calorie adequacy also follows the same
scenario. Also the severity of food insecurity (squared food insecurity gap) was 15% and 19% in highland
and lowland, respectively.
Table 4 indicates that by randomly taking the significant explanatory variables, the predicted
probability of the sample households of being food secure was about 0.374. The predicted probability of
the households in highland agroecology to be food secure was about 0.609 which was higher as compared
to that of predicted probability of the lowland agroecology which was about 0.409. The likelihood of food
security in different parts of rural Ethiopia is different; because the food insecurity prevalence is different.
It is difficult to obtain comparable and representative empirical evidences because there is significant
difference in measurement and estimation biases in food security indicators.
The probability of households to be food secure with social participation was 0.58 which is greater
than that without participation (0.45). The predicted probability of households to be food secure with
irrigation water use was negative and significant (33.7%) compared with the without irrigation situations
(60.8%). Irrigation is generally considered an effective way of increasing agricultural production. It can
supply the water needed for crop growth when rainfall is limited or, in more humid climates, it can bridge
7. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
39
dry spells and reduce agricultural risks. However, the negative sign shows that the mass production of
irrigation products such as perishable vegetables ignoring the infrastructural facilities such as distance to
the nearest market, road, transport, processing industries and information access leads to reduced
profitability of the sector even though there are sufficient resources such as water, labor and land.
Credit is an important factor for food security status. The probability that households are food secure
with credit access in the study area was 63.1% and it was 41.5% for those who do not have access to
credit. Access to credit enables to increase per capita incomes and food security status of households. The
probability of univariate probit estimation output of the food security status is 45% for food secure
household and 55% for food insecure household in the study areas.
3.4. Adaptation Strategies
The adaptation strategies adopted and practiced by farmers in the study area more than ten in number.
From these strategies, the most frequently applicable include choice of crop variety selection, changing
the planting and harvesting dates of different crops, using irrigation, and increasing the use of soil and
water conservation techniques. Table 5 shows these adaptation options and other strategies that serve as
important mechanisms to cope with drought and temperature stress.
As shown in Table 5, 8.1% and 12% of the farmers in the highland and lowland agroecologies used
crop variety selection strategy, and about 10.5% and 7.4% of the farmers in the highland and lowland
areas used changing planting date, respectively. Proportion of households participating in soil and water
conservation in the highland and lowland areas were 12.4% and 13.9%. Irrigation was used by 11% and
7.4% of the sample households of highland and lowland, respectively. The lowlanders were relatively
better off on adoption of crop variety and soil and water conservation, but the highlanders were better in
changing planting date and irrigation water use. However, the adoption of climate change adaptation
strategies in both agroecologies was generally very low (less than 50%). The great majority of households
were not yet using these very common agricultural technologies which have been introduced to the rural
Ethiopian farmers since many years.
Adaptation measures help farmers guard against losses due to increasing temperatures, decreasing
precipitation, and frequently happening drought and flood. Therefore, the dependent variable in the
empirical model for this study is the choice of an adaptation option from the set of adaptation measures. In
the study area, more than ten different adaptation strategies to climate change were identified. Such
adaptation strategies were categorized and identified by the works of Bradshaw and Smit (2004),
Maddison (2006), and Nhemachena and Hassan (2007). From different categories of adaptation strategies,
this study focused on those strategies indicated by farmers as most important such as selection of crop
variety, changing crop calendar, adoption of soil and water conservation, irrigation water usage, and no
adaptation.
Farmers have considered the main adaptation choices to mitigate the exposure to climate change.
However, this study has taken those who do not adopt any adaptation strategy as the base category. More
than 17% of respondents did not adopt any adaptation strategies.
The empirical study on factors affecting adaptation strategies to climate change was done using MNL
model. The parameter estimates of the MNL model provide only the direction of the effect of the
independent variables on the dependent variable. Thus, the marginal effects measure the expected change
in probability of a particular choice being made with respect to unit change in an explanatory variable
(Greene, 2012; Long, 1997).
Table 6 presents results of the estimates of the marginal effects for each outcome in the MNL model.
This analysis used the no adaptation strategy as the base category and evaluated the other choices as
alternative options. The general interpretation of a marginal effect of a given estimate shows how the
probability of the outcome changes when the corresponding variable changes by one unit from its mean
while the rest of the variables are held constant at their means.
The result suggested that agroecology promotes switching of crop variety selection and changing of
planting date. The lowland agroecology was related with strongest adaptation measure which results in a
33.8% increase in the probability of crop variety selection and 18.9% decrease in the probability of
changing planting date to adapt to climate change. This means, the highland farmers practiced change of
planting dates as an adaptation strategy more than their lowland counterparts.
Distance to market center is important factor affecting adoption of agricultural technologies (Feder et
al., 1985). Input markets allow farmers to acquire the inputs they need such as improved seed varieties,
fertilizers and irrigation technologies. On the other hand, access to output markets provides farmers with
positive incentives to produce and adopt alternative strategies. The longer the distance to the market, the
8. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
40
lower will be the probability that farmers adopt improved technologies. In this study, distance to markets
positively affected the use of irrigation and negatively and significantly affected soil and water
conservation and crop variety selection. That is, one kilometer increase in distance to market center would
reduce the probability of adoption of soil and water conservation and crop variety selection strategies by
1.3% and 1.9%, respectively; but increase use of irrigation by 1.6%. Therefore, proximity to market is an
important determinant of adaptation, presumably because the market serves as a means of exchanging
information with other farmers (Maddison, 2006).
Family size as a proxy to labor availability may influence the adaptation of new technology positively
as its availability reduces the labor constraints (Legesse et al., 2006). However, in this study it was found
that household’s family size is negatively and significantly related to the probability of crop variety
selection as an adaptation strategy. This could be because households with large families may be forced to
divert part of the labor force to off farm activities in an attempt to earn income in order to ease the
consumption pressure imposed by a large family rather than adopting crop variety selection. On the other
hand, it was inferred from the result that more educated households were more likely to implement soil
and water conservation adaptation strategies than the less educated households.
Cultivated land had significant effect on some of the farmer’s choice of adaptation strategies. The
marginal probability of the multinomial logit model indicates that increasing cultivated land by 1 unit
decreases the probability of adopting soil and water conservation by 48%, but the probability of crop
variety selection as adaptation to climate change increases by 36.3%.
Access to credit service had a strong positive influence on the probability of adopting all adaptation
strategies. Access to affordable credit increases financial resource of farmers and their ability to meet
transaction cost associated with various adaptation options they might want to take Hassan and
Nhemachena (2008). This result implies that access to credit is critical in helping farmers to adapt to
climate change.
Social participation (a proxy of economic independence and organizational membership and
participation in collective action) was found to significantly influence some of the households’ adaptation
decisions. Social participation increases the probability of farmers’ adoption of crop variety selection
strategy by 13.5% while it decreases the probability of irrigation water use by 0.9 percent. Thus, social
participation and social network are increasing awareness and forecasting use of climate change
adaptation options.
In this study a unit increase in precipitation decrease the probability of using crop variety selection by
30.5% while a unit increases in temperature increases the probability of using crop variety selection by
24.7%. This exerts more pressure on the livelihood activities to sustain households’ life.
The predicted probabilities of adaptation strategies suggested that the likelihood of the sample
households to adopt the strategies of changing planting date, irrigation water use, soil and water
conservation and crop variety selection in reference to the base category of no adaptation strategy were
0.9%, 28.4%, 38% and 18.5%, respectively.
4. Conclusions and Recommendation
This study has analyzed factors affecting food security and adaptation strategy to climate change
based on a cross-sectional data collected from 330 farm households in Eastern Ethiopia during the
2011/2012 agricultural production year.
The food security and adaptation strategy options which are believed to mitigate climate change
impacts on agricultural production and implemented by farmers are considered in this study. A Univariate
probit model and MNL model were used to analyze the determinants of farmers’ household food security
and choice of adaption strategies. Results from the model showed that there are different socio-economic
and environmental factors that affect farmers’ food security and adaptation strategies to climate extreme
events. These include the educational status of household head, credit access, social participation, size of
cultivated land, use of chemical fertilizer, access to nearest market, agroecology and awareness of change
in temperature and precipitation.
Farmers in the study area have adopted four types of strategies among from different adaptive strategy
alternatives, namely changing of planting date, use of irrigation, soil and water conservation, and crop
variety selection. The current food insecurity status is 55% and food security is 45% and adopted
changing planting date, irrigation water use, soil and water conservation and crop variety selection were in
0.9%, 28.4%, 38% and 18.5%, respectively, indicating a decrease in negative impact of climate change as
a result of the likelihood of food insecurity and adopting the strategies.
9. Business, Management and Economics Research, 2015, 1(3): 33-43
41
The issue of climate change has gone beyond effort alone. Government policy and investment
strategies should also work to support the provision of access to education, access to credit, and awareness
creation on climate change and adaptation mechanisms. In addition, policy interventions that encourage
social network participation which can promote group and community discussions and enhance better
information flows, ultimately enhances the ability to adapt to climate change. Future policy could also
focus on creating awareness of climate change and facilitating the development and adoption of
adaptation strategies. The intensive awareness on climate change will be best achieved in the study area
through extension agents, agricultural show, symposium and the likes.
Tables
Table-1. Socioeconomic and institutional characteristics of the sample households by agroecology
Variable Highland Lowland Mean
difference
Mean difference
test (t-value)
Kilocalorie intake(Kcal) 2229.02 2168.26 60.76 2.27**
Food secured (proportion) 0.49 0.40 0.09 1.72*
Adapt crop variety selection (proportion) 0.33 0.37 -0.04 0.75*
Adapt soil and water conservation (proportion) 0.19 0.61 -0.52 11.75***
Distance to the nearest market(Km) 5.9 12.59 -6.69 11.36***
Distance to the nearest town(Km) 7.33 15.34 -8.01 -13.37***
Distance to the extension service (Km) 3.96 3.16 0.80 4.35***
Credit (proportion) 0.71 0.84 -0.13 -2.90***
Note: ***, **, and *, signify significance levels of 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.
Source: Author’s computation
Table-2. Farmers' perception of changes in climate indicators and its effects
Variables Frequency Percentage
Reduction in precipitation 234 71
Increase in temperature 182 55
Untimely rain 209 63
Frequent drought 141 43
Flood 151 46
Livestock disease 265 80
Land degradation 144 44
Decreasing crop production 212 64
Source: Author’s computation
Table-3. The households’ food security status and climate change
Variables Highland Lowland All sample
Food insecure households (%) 58 69 64
Head count index (%) 34.12 43.13 37.625
Mean Food insecurity gap (kcal) +250 -145 385
Squared food insecurity gap (%) 0.15 0.19 0.34
Daily calorie availability (kcal) 2229.02 2163.59 2197.297
Gross income inequality (Gini coefficient) (%) 0.63 0.37 0.50
Source: Author’s computation
Table-4. Univariate probit estimation of determinants of household food security status
Variables Coefficient Robust Std. Err. Marginal
Education 0.526* 0.295 0.207*
Social participation 0.329* 0.138 0.131*
Flood incidence -2.792*** 0.331 -0.836***
Family size -0.249*** 0.06 -0.099***
Credit access 0.205* 0.18 0.082
Sex of household head 0.986** 0.501 0.352**
Irrigation water use -0.693** 0.289 -0.27**
Farming experience 0.174*** 0.025 0.07***
Continue
Tropical livestock unit(tlu) 0.116 0.088 0.046
Fertilizer usage 0.04** 0.017 0.016
Off-farm income -0.137 0.299 -0.055
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Agroecologies -0.507* 0.122 -0.2
_cons -2.351*** 0.2711
Predicted probability 0.374
Pr( highland agroecology) 0.609
Pr(lowland Agroecology) 0.409
Pr(with Social participation) 0.583
Pr(without Social participation) 0.453
Log pseudo likelihood -54.078
Wald
2
(12) 124.79
Pseudo R2
0.762
goodness-of-fit test, Pr >
2
(318) 0.983
Note: ***, **, and *, signify significance levels at 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.
Source: Author’s computation
Table-5. Adaptation strategies used by farmers (mean)
Strategies Highland Lowland Total
Selection of crop variety (%) 0.162 0.240 0.201
Changing planting date (%) 0.220 0.148 0.180
Irrigation water use (%) 0.220 0.148 0.184
Soil and water conservation (%) 0.248 0.280 0.263
Combined more than one adaptation strategies (%) 0.006 0.000 0.003
No adaptation strategy (%) 0.160 0.184 0.170
All sample 100.000 100.000 100.000
Source: Author’s computation
Table-6. The marginal effects of explanatory variables from multinomial logit model
Variables Changing
planting date
Irrigation
water use
Soil and water
conservation
Crop variety
selection
Agroecology -0.189*** 0.103 -0.113 0.338***
Awareness of climate change 4.870 0.006 0.016 -0.008
Distance to market -1.440 .016** -0.013** -0.019**
Fertilizer usage -0.006 -0.037 -0.343*** 0.288***
Sex of household head 2.120 0.150 -0.142 0.011
Family size -6.860 -0.023 -0.006 -0.032**
Education of household head 0.007 -0.056 0.187** -0.066
Cultivated land -0.005 0.994 -0.480** 0.363***
Off-farm income 5.260 -0.054 0.944 -0.015
Credit access 0.008* 0.47* 0.038** 0.028***
Social participation 0.009 -0.009* 0.077 0.135***
Farming experience -8.540 -0.002 -0.009 0.009
Untimely rain -5.530 -0.378 -0.039 0.080
Precipitation 0.009 0.002 0.137 -0.305**
Temperature change -0.004 -0.035 -0.126 0.247***
Pr(predicted) 0.009 0.284 0.383 0.185
Note: ***, **, and *, signify significance levels of 1%, 5% and 10%, respectively.
Source: Author’s computation
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