Signal Degradation In Optical Fiber
Losses in an optical fibre:-
The types of losses in a optical fibre are
Attenuation loss
Absorption
Scattering
Bending loss
Dispersion loss
Coupling loss
LEDs are of interest for fibre optics because of five inherent characteristics..
How it works?
Spectrum of an LED
Modulation of LED
LED Vs. Laser diode
disadvantages of LED
This narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the various dispersion mechanisms that are observed in optical fibers. Some fundamental terms and concepts are also discussed. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
LEDs are of interest for fibre optics because of five inherent characteristics..
How it works?
Spectrum of an LED
Modulation of LED
LED Vs. Laser diode
disadvantages of LED
This narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the various dispersion mechanisms that are observed in optical fibers. Some fundamental terms and concepts are also discussed. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
Optical fiber communication Part 1 Optical Fiber FundamentalsMadhumita Tamhane
Optical fiber systems grew from combination of semiconductor technology, which provided necessary light sources and photodetectors and optical waveguide technology. It has significant inherent advantages over conventional copper systems- low transmission loss, wide BW, light weight and size, immunity to interferences, signal security to name a few. One principle characteristic of optical fiber is its attenuation as a function of wavelength. Hence it is operated in two major low attenuation wavelength windows 800-900nm and 1100-1600nm . Light travels inside optical fiber waveguide on principle of total internal reflection. Fiber is available as single mode and multiple mode, step index and graded index depending on applications and expenditures. Principle of fiber can be understood by ray theory or mode theory. ...
The attached narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the methods of computation of total power loss and system rise time in a fiber optic link. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
The attached narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the working principle, types, classifications, merits, demerits, applications,safety and deployment issues related to Raman Amplifiers. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
Unit II- TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTIC OF OPTICAL FIBER tamil arasan
Attenuation - Absorption losses, Scattering losses, Bending Losses, Core and Cladding losses, Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guides-Information Capacity determination -Group Delay-Material Dispersion, Wave guide Dispersion, Signal distortion in SM fibers-Polarization Mode dispersion, Intermodal dispersion, -Design Optimization of SM fibers-RI profile and cut-off wavelength.
Optical fiber communication Part 1 Optical Fiber FundamentalsMadhumita Tamhane
Optical fiber systems grew from combination of semiconductor technology, which provided necessary light sources and photodetectors and optical waveguide technology. It has significant inherent advantages over conventional copper systems- low transmission loss, wide BW, light weight and size, immunity to interferences, signal security to name a few. One principle characteristic of optical fiber is its attenuation as a function of wavelength. Hence it is operated in two major low attenuation wavelength windows 800-900nm and 1100-1600nm . Light travels inside optical fiber waveguide on principle of total internal reflection. Fiber is available as single mode and multiple mode, step index and graded index depending on applications and expenditures. Principle of fiber can be understood by ray theory or mode theory. ...
The attached narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the methods of computation of total power loss and system rise time in a fiber optic link. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
The attached narrated power point presentation attempts to explain the working principle, types, classifications, merits, demerits, applications,safety and deployment issues related to Raman Amplifiers. The material will be useful for KTU final year B Tech students who prepare for the subject EC 405, Optical Communications.
Unit II- TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTIC OF OPTICAL FIBER tamil arasan
Attenuation - Absorption losses, Scattering losses, Bending Losses, Core and Cladding losses, Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guides-Information Capacity determination -Group Delay-Material Dispersion, Wave guide Dispersion, Signal distortion in SM fibers-Polarization Mode dispersion, Intermodal dispersion, -Design Optimization of SM fibers-RI profile and cut-off wavelength.
Analysis on The Impact of Reflectance in Optical Fiber Linksijtsrd
An optical fiber link is a part of an optic fiber communication system. Other components of the optic fiber link include the transmitter, connectors, and the receiver. The optical fiber could be single-mode (for long distance transmission) or multi-mode (for short distance transmission). This paper however, majors on the impact of reflectance in the single-mode optical fiber. Reflectance is a hidden threat that increases Bit Error Rate, BER, (rate at which errors occur in transmission system) and reduces system performance if not monitored or controlled. Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) was used to measure the reflectance in single-mode fiber. Events measurements in OTDR heavily depend on good reflectance. The OTDR was able to establish the reflectance in every portion of the fiber under test. An average reflectance level of -14.9275 dB of 1550 nm signal over the span length of 20.422 km was achieved which is within the acceptable standard range. Hence, good quality performance transmissions can be achieved along these routes. J. Ilouno | M. Awoji | J. Sani"Analysis on The Impact of Reflectance in Optical Fiber Links" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd14378.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/physics/other/14378/analysis-on-the-impact-of-reflectance-in-optical-fiber-links/j-ilouno
Bending losses of power in a single mode step index optical fiber due to macro bending has been
investigated for a wavelength of 1550nm. The effects of bending radius (4-15mm, with steps of 1mm), and
wrapping turn (up to 40 turns) on loss have been studied. Twisting the optical fiber and its influence on power
loss also has been investigated. Variations of macro bending loss with these two parameters have been
measured, loss with number of turns and radius of curvature have been measured.
This work founds that the Macro bending and wrapping turn loss increases as the bending radius and wrapping
turn increases.
Presentation on Optical Fiber for UG Physics students by Dr. P D Shirbhate assistant Professor, Department of Physics G S Gawande college, Umarkhed Dist Yavatmal.
Twenty Essential Knowledge of Optical Cable.pdfHYC Co., Ltd
An article about basic knowledge of optical fiber cable, including the wavelength, dispersion of optical fiber, insertion loss, return loss, fiber core diameter, types of optical fiber etc. Including What is the mode field diameter (MFD), What is Numerical Aperture (NA), What is the cutoff wavelength and so on.
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
3. Signal Attenuation & Distortion in
Optical Fibers
“Signal attenuation (fiber loss) largely determines the
maximum repeater-less separation between optical
transmitter & receiver”
“Signal distortion cause that optical pulses to broaden
as they travel along a fiber, the overlap between
neighboring pulses, creating errors in the receiver
output, resulting in the limitation of information-
carrying capacity of a fiber”
4. Attenuation (fiber loss)
Power loss along a fiber:
The parameter is called fiber attenuation coefficient in a units of for
example [1/km] or [nepers/km]. A more common unit is [dB/km] that is
defined by:
Z=0
P(0) mW
Z= l
lp
ePlP
)0()( mW
zp
ePzP
)0()( [3-1]
p
]km/1[343.4
)(
)0(
log
10
]dB/km[ p
lP
P
l
[3-2]
5. Fiber loss in dB/km
Where [dBm] or dB milliwat is 10log(P [mW]).
z=0 Z=l
]dBm)[0(P
]km[]dB/km[]dBm)[0(]dBm)[( lPlP [3-3]
8. Optical fiber attenuation
Basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber:
1. Absorption (Intrinsic & Extrinsic)
2. Scattering ( Linear & Non linear)
3. Bending losses (Micro bending & Macro bending)
Attenuation is wavelength dependent hence proper selection of
operating wavelength is required.
9. Absorption
Absorption: (Material Absorption)
Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the
material composition and fiber fabrication process.
This results in the dissipation of some of the transmitted
optical power as heat in the waveguide.
Absorption is classified into two basic categories:
1.Intrinsic
2.Extrinsic
10. Absorption
Intrinsic Absorption:
It is caused due to the interaction of free electrons within
the fiber material and the light wavelength.
This wavelength spectrum interacts differently with the
atoms of the fiber material.
Extrinsic Absorption:
It is mainly due to the impurities injected into the optical
fiber mix during the fabrication process.
The metal ions are the most undesirable impurity in an
optical fiber mix because the presence of metal ions
influence and alter the transmission properties of the fiber.
This results the loss of optical power.
11. Absorption
Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:
1.Impurities in fiber material: from transition metal ions &
particularly from OH ions with absorption peaks at
wavelengths 2700 nm, 400 nm, 950 nm & 725nm.
2.Intrinsic absorption (fundamental lower limit): electronic
absorption band (UV region) & atomic bond vibration band
(IR region) in basic SiO2.
3.Radiation defects
12. Scattering Loss
Scattering loss is the loss associated with the
interaction of the light with density fluctuations in the
fiber.
Small (compared to wavelength) variation in material
density, chemical composition, and structural
inhomogeneity scatter light in other directions and
absorb energy from guided optical wave.
13. Scattering Loss
Linear scattering:
Here the amount of optical power transferred from a wave
is proportional to the power in the wave. There is no
frequency change in the scattered wave.
Rayleigh scattering:
It results from the interaction of the light with the
inhomogeneties in the medium that are one-tenth of the
wavelength of the light. Rayleigh scattering in a fiber can be
expressed as :
It means that a system operating at longer wavelengths have
lower intrinsic loss.
14. Scattering Loss
Mie Scattering:
If the defects in optical fibers are larger than λ/10 the
scattering mechanism is known as 'Mie scattering'.
These large defect sites are developed by the
inhomogeneities in the fiber and are associated with in
complete mixing of waveguide dopants or defects formed in
the fabrication process.
These defects physically scatter the light out of the fiber
core.
Mie scattering is rarely seen in commercially available
silica-based fibers due to the high level of manufacturing
expertise.
15. Scattering Loss
Non-linear scattering:
High electric fields within the fiber leads to the non-linear
scattering mechanism.
It causes the scattering of significant power in the forward,
backward or sideways depending upon the nature of the
interaction.
This scattering is accomplished by a frequency shift of the
scattered light.
16. Scattering Loss
Raman scattering: (forward light scattering or SRS)
It is caused by molecular vibrations of phonons in the
glass matrix.
This scattering is dependent on the temperature of the
material.
17. Scattering Loss
Brillouin scattering: (backward light scattering or SBS ).
It is induced by acoustic waves as opposed to thermal
phonons.
Brillouin scattering is a backscatter phenomenon.
The importance of SRS and SBS is that they can be the
limiting factor in high-power system designs.
Raman scattering loss is unaffected by spectral source
width but requires at least an order of magnitude more
power for onset.
Brillouin scattering loss can be decreased by using a light
source with a broad spectral width. A broad spectral
width reduces the light-material interaction.
24. Bending Loss (Macro-bending & Micro-bending)
Macro-bending Loss: The curvature of the bend is
much larger than fiber diameter. Lightwave suffers
sever loss due to radiation of the evanescent field in
the cladding region.
As the radius of the curvature decreases, the loss
increases exponentially until it reaches at a certain
critical radius.
For any radius a bit smaller than this point, the
losses suddenly becomes extremely large. Higher
order modes radiate away faster than lower order
modes.
26. Microbending Loss
Micro-bending Loss: microscopic bends of the
fiber axis that can arise when the fibers are
incorporated into cables. The power is dissipated
through the micro-bended fiber, because of the
repetitive coupling of energy between guided modes
& the leaky or radiation modes in the fiber.
27. Dispersion in Optical Fibers
Dispersion: Phenomenon in which the velocity of propagation of any
electromagnetic wave is wavelength dependent.
In communication, dispersion is used to describe any process by which
any electromagnetic signal propagating in a physical medium is degraded
because the various wave characteristics (i.e., frequencies) of the signal
have different propagation velocities within the physical medium.
There are three types of dispersion in the optical fibers :
1. Material Dispersion
2. Waveguide Dispersion
3. Polarization-Mode Dispersion
Material & Waveguide dispersions are main causes of Intra-modal
Dispersion.
28. Group Velocity
Velocity of light in medium: For a light propagating along z-axis in an
unbounded homogeneous region of refractive index , which is represented
by , the velocity of constant phase plane is:
Phase velocity (Wave Velocity): For a modal wave propagating along z-axis
represented by , the velocity of constant phase plane is:
For transmission system operation the most important & useful type of
velocity is the Group Velocity, .
This is the actual velocity which the signal information & energy is traveling
down the fiber. It is always less than the speed of light in the medium.
The observable delay experiences by the optical signal waveform & energy,
when traveling a length of l along the fiber is commonly referred to as Group
Delay.
1n
)ωexp( 1zjktj
11 n
c
k
v
)ωexp( zjtj
ω
pv
[3-4]
[3-5] (De-Broglie)
gV
29. Group Velocity & Group Delay
The group velocity is given by:
The group delay is given by:
It is important to note that all above quantities depend both on
frequency & the propagation mode.
d
d
Vg
ω
[3-6] (Schrodinger)
ωd
d
l
V
l
g
g
[3-7]
30. Intramodal Dispersion
Input/output signal relationship in optical fiber, the output is
proportional to the delayed version of the input signal, and the delay is
inversely proportional to the group velocity of the wave.
Since the propagation constant, , is frequency dependent over
band width sitting at the center frequency , at each
frequency, we have one propagation constant resulting in a specific
delay time.
As the output signal is collectively represented by group velocity &
group delay this phenomenon is called Intramodal Dispersion or
Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD).
• This phenomenon arises due to a finite bandwidth of the optical
source, dependency of refractive index on the wavelength and the
modal dependency of the group velocity.
In the case of optical pulse propagation down the fiber, GVD causes
pulse broadening, leading to Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
)ω(
ω cω
32. A measure of information capacity of an optical
fiber for digital transmission is usually specified by
the bandwidth distance product in
GHz.km.
For multi-mode step index fiber this quantity is
about 20 MHz.km.
For graded index fiber is about 2.5 GHz.km.
For single mode fibers are higher than 10 GHz.km.
LBW
Dispersion and ISI
33. How to characterize dispersion?
Group delay per unit length can be defined as:
If the spectral width of the optical source is not too wide, then the
delay difference per unit wavelength along the propagation path is
approximately .
For spectral components which are apart, symmetrical around
center wavelength, the total delay difference over a distance L is:
d
d
cdk
d
cd
d
L
g
2
1
ω
2
[3-15]
d
d g
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
d
d
L
V
L
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
c
L
d
d
g
g
[3-16]
34. is called GVD parameter, and shows how much a light
pulse broadens as it travels along an optical fiber.
The more common parameter is called Dispersion, and can be defined
as the delay difference per unit length per unit wavelength as follows:
In the case of optical pulse, if the spectral width of the optical source
is characterized by its rms value of the Gaussian pulse , the
pulse spreading over the length of L, can be well approximated
by:
2
2
2
d
d
22
211
c
Vd
d
d
d
L
D
g
g
[3-17]
g
DL
d
d g
g [3-18]
How to characterize dispersion?
36. Material Dispersion
The refractive index of the material varies as a function of
wavelength, .
Material-induced dispersion for a plane wave propagation in
homogeneous medium of refractive index n:
The pulse spread due to material dispersion is therefore:
)(n
d
dn
n
c
L
n
d
d
L
cd
d
L
cd
d
Lmat )(
2
22ω
22
[3-19]
)(2
2
mat
mat
g DL
d
nd
c
L
d
d
[3-20]
)(matD is material dispersion.
38. Waveguide Dispersion
Waveguide dispersion is due to the dependency of the group velocity
of the fundamental mode as well as other modes on the V number, In
order to calculate waveguide dispersion, we consider that n is not
dependent on wavelength. Defining the normalized propagation
constant b as:
Solving for propagation constant:
Using V number:
21
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
22
//
nn
nk
nn
nk
b
[3-21]
)1(2 bkn
[3-22]
2)( 2
2/12
2
2
1 kannnkaV
[3-23]
39. Waveguide Dispersion
Delay time due to waveguide dispersion can then be expressed as:
dV
Vbd
nn
c
L
wg
)(
22 [3-24]
40. Waveguide dispersion in single mode fibers
For single mode fibers, waveguide dispersion is in the same order of
material dispersion. The pulse spread can be well approximated as:
2
2
2 )(
)(
dV
Vbd
V
c
Ln
DL
d
d
wg
wg
wg
[3-25]
)(wgD
42. Polarization Mode dispersion
The effects of fiber Birefringence on the polarization states of an
optical are another source of pulse broadening.
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is due to slightly different
velocity for each polarization mode because of the lack of perfectly
symmetric & anisotropicity of the fiber.
If the group velocities of two orthogonal polarization modes are
then the differential time delay between these two
polarization over a distance L is
The rms value of the differential group delay can be approximated as:
gygx vv and pol
gygx
pol
v
L
v
L
[3-26]
LDPMDpol [3-27]
43. Chromatic & Total Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion includes the material & waveguide dispersions.
Total dispersion is the sum of chromatic , polarization dispersion and
other dispersion types and the total rms pulse spreading can be
approximately written as:
LD
DDD
chch
wgmatch
)(
)(
[3-28]
LD
DDD
totaltotal
polchtotal
...
[3-29]
44. Total Dispersion, Zero Dispersion
Fact 1) Minimum distortion at wavelength about 1300 nm for single mode silica fiber.
Fact 2) Minimum attenuation is at 1550 nm for sinlge mode silica fiber.
Strategy: shifting the zero-dispersion to longer wavelength for minimum
attenuation and dispersion.
45. Optimum Single Mode Fiber & Distortion/Attenuation
Characteristics
Fact 1) Minimum distortion at wavelength about 1300 nm for single
mode silica fiber.
Fact 2) Minimum attenuation is at 1550 nm for single mode silica fiber.
Strategy: shifting the zero-dispersion to longer wavelength for minimum
attenuation and dispersion by Modifying waveguide dispersion by
changing from a simple step-index core profile to more complicated
profiles. There are four major categories to do that:
1- 1300 nm optimized single mode step-fibers: matched cladding (mode
diameter 9.6 micrometer) and depressed-cladding (mode diameter
about 9 micrometer)
2- Dispersion shifted fibers.
3- Dispersion-flattened fibers.
4- Large-effective area (LEA) fibers (less nonlinearities for fiber optical
amplifier applications, effective cross section areas are typically
greater than 100 ).2
m
49. Single mode Cut-off Wavelength & Dispersion
Fundamental mode is with V=2.405 and
Dispersion:
For non-dispersion-shifted fibers (1270 nm – 1340 nm)
For dispersion shifted fibers (1500 nm- 1600 nm)
0111 LPorHE
2
2
2
1
2
nn
V
a
c
[3-30]
LD
DD
d
d
D wgmat
)(
)()()(
[3-31]
[3-32]
50. Dispersion For Non-dispersion-shifted Fibers
(1270 Nm – 1340 Nm)
• is relative delay minimum at the zero-dispersion wavelength , and
is the value of the dispersion slope in .
2
2
00
0 )(
8
)(
S
0 0 0S
.km)ps/(nm2
0
)( 00
d
dD
SS
[3-33]
[3-34]
400
)(1
4
)(
S
D [3-35]
56. Bending effects on loss vs MFD
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
57. Bend loss versus bend radius
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
07.0;1056.3
m60;m6.3
2
233
n
nn
ba
58. Kerr effect
Innn 20 Kerr nonlinearity in fiber, where I is the intensity of
Optical wave.
Temporal changes in a narrow optical pulse that is subjected to Kerr nonlinearity in
A dispersive medium with positive GVD.
59. First-order Soliton
Temporal changes in a medium with Kerr nonlinearity and negative
GVD. Since dispersion tends to broaden the pulse, Kerr Nonlinearity
tends to squeeze the pulse, resulting in a formation of optical soliton.