Discourse analysis focuses on analyzing both written and spoken communication beyond the sentence level. It examines how people interact and make meaning based on context clues, background knowledge, and social purpose. Some key aspects of discourse analysis include examining cohesion between statements, coherence, speech events, conversational interactions, and Grice's cooperation principle which outlines assumptions speakers make. The goal is to interpret the intended meaning, not just the surface level meaning of words.
Deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances (Yule, 1996, p. 9). It means “pointing via” language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexical.
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Fell free to use this PPt.
Deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances (Yule, 1996, p. 9). It means “pointing via” language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexical.
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Fell free to use this PPt.
Importance of Structure in Learning the English LanguageRanjit Singh Thind
Of all the four skills in a language, which helps an individual the most to express his or her ideas and feelings to others?
The two most important skills are speaking and writing. Speaking and writing are the Transmission Skills. In order for one to transmit one's ideas and feelings to others effectively, a good command in the said language is essential. Of course, listening and reading play an important part in language too. They are the Reception Skills. But speaking and writing help one to accomplish one's purpose.
Clarity in speaking and writing is achieved by dint of effort in language learning. It rewards handsomely if the language is learned in a methodical and logical manner. And it applies even more to a language like English which is the indisputable world language at present.
One may possess all the knowledge pertaining to one's vocation but if one lacks the powers of expression, one is very much handicapped to compete locally and globally. Thus, the powers of expression in the transmission skills in a language are very much enhanced when one has learned a language logically.
This ppt provides summarized ideas of the relation between discourse analysis and language teaching. This ppt was used of the course "Discourse Analysis" at UCSC.
Pragmatics and Discourse , context & speech actsNaeemIqbal88
Pragmatics and Discourse
What is pragmatics?
An approach within DA which concentrates on the way language
acquires meaning in use. It has developed from the tradition of the
philosophy of language known as pragmatics.
Focus: The study of contextualised meaning and is concerned with
describing the principles that underlie how we interpret the meaning
behind words: how we get from what we say to what we mean.
Pragmatic approaches tend to be interested in the 'big picture': trying
to formulate generalisable principles about how people produce and
interpret discourse (eg’ the use of humour in business meetings’).
Context
Context is an important concept in DA. Language does not take place in a vacuum and we
need to consider the context in which it occurs in order to understand it.
However, this seemingly unproblematic statement masks the issues and debates that are
ongoing in discourse analysis around the concept of context and its significance.
Two types of context
The 'intrinsic' or 'linguistic' context which refers to information that can be found
within the text that surrounds the language that is being analysed at a particular
moment. It is generally agreed that this type of context is not only useful but essential.
The more problematic type of context lies outside the actual text: what is sometimes
called 'extrinsic' (Schegloff 1997) or 'experiential' context.
This refers to all sorts of information about setting, situation, social circumstances of the
participants such as age, gender, ethnicity and possibly also about the shared
background knowledge and assumptions of the participants.
So, in the example:
'Later, an item about vasectomy and the results of the do-it-yourself competition'
(from Cameron 2001:12)
 The issue with extrinsic context is moving from description to interpretation in
research. Along with describing 'what' is happening in the discourse , it is also
important to interpret 'why' it is happening.
 Extrinsic contextual evidence can be potentially very useful in discussing why
participants say a particular thing in a particular way at a particular time,
however, there is also a danger of 'reading too much into the text' and of
judging which out of many possible interpretations is the 'right' one.
For instance, if the analyst is aware of gender, age or ethic difference among
discourse participants, these variables may well appear to influence the
discourse but how do we know which of these particular variables are
important to the participants in an particular communicative event.
 This is not to say that we should ignore extrinsic context but to suggest that we
need to be cautious about what we select as significant and rigorous about how
we incorporate it into our analyses. Schegloff (1997) advises that the best
option is to use only what can be shown to be relevant to participants.
 Can you imagine a meaningful context for this text?
a. Which of you was the prawns?
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Introduction to Discourse Analysis is a tool used to analyze and synthesize different types of discourses whether oral or written that can be used in social, governmental and public setting. This will help you to be the best in everything that you do that you do not need any more books to identify a language discourse .
It also gives you an overall and birds eye view of what you should do in order for you to do your best.
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Discourse Analysis
1. Discourse Analysis
A discourse is behavioral unit. It is a set of utterances which constitute a
recognizable speech event e.g. a conversation, a joke, a sermon, an interview etc.
In its historical and etymological perspective the term is used in different
perspectives e.g.
Verbal communication.
All this fine talk.
Direct / indirect speech.
To chat.
In order to narrow down the range of possible meanings, the modern
linguists have given different views or definitions.
Example:
Discourse is written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming the a
speaker and a hearer as discourse.
(Benvenisle, 1971: 208-9)
An individualizable group of statements and sometimes as a regulated
practice that counts for a number of statements.
(Foucault, 1972: 80)
The specification with the term is that ‘discourse must be used with its social
purpose’ this is the main specification of discourse.
The brief difference between discourse and text, I think, will facilitate to
better understand the term Discourse.
2. Difference between Discourse and Text
Discourse Analysis focuses on the structure of naturally spoken language as
found in conversation interviews, commentaries and speeches.
Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as found in such
text as essays, notices, road signs and chapters.
(Crystal. 1987)
Some scholars talk about ‘spoken or written discourse’ other about ‘spoken
or written text’
(Crystal. 1987)
It means discourse and text can be used almost synonymously. But a
distinction is always there and that in discourse has some social purpose while text
fulfills the function of communication of some meaning only. As suggested by
Michel Stubbs (1983) who treats text and discourse as more or less synonymous.
Hawthorn (1992) says text may be non-interactive where as a discourse is
interactive. Means to say text is non-interactive that’s it only fulfils the function of
conveying some meaning. But discourse is always involved in two ways responses
in some formal or informal conversation and dialogues etc.
Hawthorn (1992) further says ‘discourse is a linguistic communication seen
as a transaction between speaker and hearer. While text is also a linguistics
communication (either spoken or written) seen simply as a message coded in its
auditory or visual medium’
3. To conclude we can say discourse and text have something in common as
both use the medium of language whether in sign language. Both have some
meaning that they try to convey.
But text has a limited scope as compare with discourse. In other words we
can say discourse is somewhat broad category in the system of language. And text
deals with the written from of language. Discourse has different form as Discourse
of Advertising, Discourse of Racism, Discourse of Medical etc. But text has no
such forms. Discourse can be found with in text. And not vice versa. Text has its
maximum interpretation in its ownself but discourse has a lot of things above the
language level.
Discourse analysis
Discourse analysis is an attempt to discover linguistic regularities in
discourse using grammatical, phonological and semantic criteria e.g. cohesion,
anaphora, inter sentence connectivity etc. It is an effort to interpreter what the
writer or speaker intended to convey with in a sensitive social context.
Example:
Father: Is that your coat on the floor again?
Son: yes (goes on reading)
Here in the above example Discourse Analysis says that the answer of the
son is not clear one. It shows the exploitation of ambiguity about father’s
command to pick up his coat. Rather the son deals his father’s command as a
simple content question which can be answered in yes /no.
4. Discourse Analysis is a process in which the reader and listener’s mind is
working up on the linguistic features of the utterance to grasp the intended
meaning of the writer or speaker.
Even if the utterances or sentences are ungrammatical the Discourse
Analysis makes us grasp the intended meaning.
Example:
My natal was in a small town, very close to Riyadh capital of Saudi Arabia.
The distance between my town and Riadh 7 miles exactly. The name of this
Almasani that means in English factories. It takes its name from the people carrer.
In childhood I remember the people live. It was very simple most the people was
farmer.
The above paragraph is full of grammatical mistakes since by Discourse
Analysis of this text we can grasp mostly what are the informations the writer
wants to communicate.
Discourse concerns with communication so Discourse Analysis gives us the
interpretation of the communicated commodity.
Devices for Discourse Analysis
We use different tools for Discourse Analysis. Some of them are as under:
(i)Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the ties and connections which exist within texts
that link different parts of sentences or larger unit of discourse.
5. Cohesive Devices
(a)Anaphoric Relation
Interpretation of text from some previously expressed idea entity.
Example:
He did that there.
Every word has some anaphoric reference with which interpretation could not be
made.
(b) Cataphoric Relation
It means referring forward. It refers the identity what is being expressed and
what is to be expressed.
Example:
Here is the 9, O Clock news.
By using these relation and links we can better interpret and
analyzed discourse.
(2)Coherence
The language users try to come to an interpretation in the scenario of
knowledge of the world they posses. Coherence is not something which exists in
the language but something which exists in people. By using coherence the reader
arums semantic unity the paragraph.
Example:
6. Her: That’s the telephone
Him: I’ am in the both.
Her: Ok.
We can interpret the above dialogue with the help of conventional action and by
our background knowledge that someone in the bathroom can not attend the
telephone.
(3) Parallelism
Parallelism means side by side. In some piece of literature some
comparisons or contrasts go side be side with each other. They also help
to interpreter the whole text.
Example:
In Jane Austen’s ‘Pride and Prejudice’, good marriages and bad
marriages are compared and contrasted on parallel levels.
(4) Speech Events
Speech events are mainly concerned what people say in different
environment e.g. Debate, interview, discussions, quiz etc are different Speech
Events. Speakers may have different speech roles as friend, strangers, young or old
of equal or unequal status
This background knowledge about the personality and environment give a better
comprehension for better interpretation of discourse.
(5) Background Knowledge
Background knowledge can be very much helpful in interpreting any text.
7. Schema and script are two terms that comprise the background knowledge.
Schema and script tells us what is actually the real situation and what are the
actions.
Schema is conventional knowledge which exists in memory.
Script is essentially a dynamic schema in which conventional action takes place.
The schema of a supermarket holds the knowledge ‘food displayed on
shelves, checkout counters’ etc.
While in script such actions are involved as going to movies, eating in a
restaurant etc.
Example:
Trying not to be out of the office Suzy went into the nearest place, sat
down and ordered a sandwich.
Here in the above example the background knowledge of the situation and
the action can be traced out through the schema and script as:
Schema tells us:
Suzy may be an office girl
The nearest place is some restaurant.
Script tells us:
About the action she performed as:
Firstly, she unlocked the door.
Secondly, she walked to the nearest restaurant.
8. Thirdly, she opened the door of the restaurant. etc.
Here schema and script tells us what is actually the real situation and what are the
actions.
(6). Conversational Interaction
Conversation is an activity where for the most part thw or more people take
turn at speativn: in these tusns at speaking one has to pick up the completion point
to take his turn to speak. This is conversational interaction.
During the discourse we not only taking part in conversation but we are also
analyzing. The discourse simultaneously. So in the conversation turn taking helps
us to successfully complete the discourse.
(7) The co-operation principle
Grice (1975) set Four Maxims which say that in conversational exchanges
the participants are in fact co-operating with each other.
(i). Maxim of Quantity
Make your contribution as informative as is required but not more or less
than is required.
(ii). Maxim of Quality
Don’t say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence.
(iii). Maxim of Relation
Be relevant
(iv). Maxim of Manner
9. Be clear, brief and orderly.
Example:
Carol : Are your coming to the party tonight?
Lara: I’ve got exam tomorrow.
Apparently this exchange have no relevance but by using these Maxims we can
analyze the discourse as:
1. Maxim of Quantity:- information is that Lara has exams
2. Maxim of Quality: She is describing a fact of her exams.
3. Maxim of Relation: It is the reason why she could not come to the party
4. Maxim of Manner: A clear cut refusal.
The following can be the intended meaning:
Tomorrow : Exam
To night : Study, Preparation
Tonight : No party
Intended meaning : Refusal
The analysis of the above statement shows the use of maxims of co-
cooperation in Discourse Analysis.