This document discusses key concepts in semantics and the study of meaning in language. It defines semantics as the study of meaning in language and discusses concepts like speaker meaning, sentence meaning, utterances, sentences, propositions, referring expressions, and more. Each concept is defined and an example is provided to illustrate it. The document provides a thorough overview of foundational semantics terms and their meanings.

1. Written by :
SAID NIDHOM
11311054
STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES (STAIN) SALATIGA

2. SEMANTICS is the study of MEANING in
LANGUAGE.
Hopelessly I hope to convince you that by
careful thought about language you speak
and the way it is used, definite conclusions
CAN be arrived at concerning meaning.

3. SPEAKER MEANING is what a speaker means
(i.e. intends to convey) when he uses a piece
of language.
SENTENCE MEANING (orWORD MEANING) is
what a sentence or word means, i.e. what it
counts as the equivalent of in the language
concerned.

4. ATHEORY is a precisely specified coherent and
economical framework of interdependent
statements and definitions, constructed so
that as large a number as possible of
particular basic facts can either be seen to
follow from it or be describable in terms of it.

5. An UTTERANCE is any stretch of talk, by one
person, before and after which there is
silence on the part of that person.
An utterance is the use by a particular speaker,
on a particular occasion, of a piece of
language, such as a sequence of sentences, or
a single word.
To identify where is the utterance in the book is
by using double quotes mark (“…”)

6. A SENTENCE is neither a physical event nor a
physical object. It is conceived abstractly, a
string of words put together by the
grammatical rules of a language. A sentence
can be thought of as the IDEAL string of
words behind various realizations in
utterances and inscriptions.

7. A SENTENCE is a grammatically complete
string of words expressing a complete
thought.
Example :
I would like to buy a hamburger

8. A PROPOSITION is that part of the meaning of
the utterance of a declarative sentence which
describes some state of affairs.
True proposition correspond to facts, in the
ordinary sense of the word fact. False
propositions do not correspond to facts.

9. By means of reference, a speaker indicates
which things in the world (including persons)
are being talked about.
Example :
“My wife is in the barbershop”

10. A SENCE of an expression is its place in a
system of semantics relationships with other
expressions in the language.
Example :
I {almost/ nearly} fell over

11. A REFERRING EXPRESSIONS is any
expression used in an utterance to refer to
something or someone (or a clearly delimited
collection of things or people), i.e. used with a
particular referent in mind.
Example :
The name Nidho in an utterance such as “Nidho
call me” where the speaker has a particular
person in mind when he says “Nidho”, is a
referring expression

12. An OPAQUE CONTEXT is a part of a sentence
which could be made into a complete
sentence by the addition of a referring
expression, but where the addition of
different referring expressions, even though
they refer to the same thing or person, in a
given situation, will yield sentence with
DIFFERENT meanings when uttered in a
given situation.

13. Example :
“Nidho believes that Ello took the flower”
“Nidho believes that the person in the corner
took the flower”
Assume that Nidho does not know that Ello is
the person in the corner.

14. An EQUATIVE SENTENCE is one which is used
to assert the identity of the referents of two
referring expressions, i.e. to assert that two
referring expressions have the same referent.
Example :
Ello is the Leader of the Organization
committee In her boarding school
That women over there is my wife

15. The PREDICATOR of a simple declarative
sentence is the word (sometimes a group of
word) which does not belong to any of the
referring expressions and which of the
remainder, makes the most specific
contribution to the meaning of the sentence.
Example :
Beautiful is the predicator in Ello is Beautiful

16. A PREDICATE is any word or sequence of
words which in a given single sense can
function as the predicator of a sentence.
Example :
Take, in, go, eat, hit, show, house, except
conjunction and article (and, or, but, not).

17. The DEGREE of a predicates is a number
indicating the number of arguments it is
normally understood to have in simple
sentences.
Example :
I’m Hungry (I: argument , hungry: predicator)
Argument only one (I) so it called a one place
predicate.
Nidho take the Gift (Nidho: argument,Take:
predicator, Gift: Argument)
There are two argument, so it called two place
predicate.

18. A GENERIC SENTENCE is a sentence in which
some statement is made about a whole
unrestricted class of individuals, as opposed
to any particular individual.
Example :
TheWhale is Mammal (understood by every
people in the universe)

19. The UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE for any
utterances as the particular world real or
imaginary (or part real, part imaginary) that
the speaker assumes he is talking about at
the time.
Example :
Every conversation event it REAL or
FICTIVIOUS world.

20. A DEICTIC word is one study takes some
element of its meaning from the situation
(i.e. the speaker , the addressee the time and
the place) of the utterance in which it is used.
Example :
This book is belong to that man.

21. The CONTEXT of an utterances is a small
subpart of the universe of discourse shared
by speaker and hearer, and includes facts
about the topic of the conversation in which
the utterances occurs, and also facts about
the situation in which the conversation itself
takes place.

22. DEFINITENESS is a feature of a noun phrase
selected by a speaker to convey his assumption
that the hearer will be able to identify the
referent of the noun phrase, usually because it is
the only thing of its kind in the context of the
utterance or because it is unique in the universe
of discourse.
Example :
The Earth is definite. It is the only thing in a normal
universe of discourse known by this name.

23. EXTENSION of a one place predicate is the set of
all individuals to which that predicate can
truthfully be applied. It is the set of things which
can potentially be referred to by using an
expression whose main element is that
predicate.
Example :
The extension of windows is the set of all windows
in the universe
The extension of cat is the set of all cats in the
universe

24. A PROTOTYPE of a predicate is an object which is
held to be very typical of the kind of object
which can be referred to by an expression
containing the predicate.
Example :
A man of medium height and average build,
between 30 and 50 years old, with brownish hair,
with no particularly distinctive characteristics of
defects could be a prototype of the predicate
MAN in certain areas of the world.

25. An ANALYTIC sentence is one that is necessarilyTRUE,
as a result of the sense of the words in it.
An SYNTHETIC sentence is one which is NOT analytic,
but may be either true or false, depending on the way
the world is.
Example :
Analytic : all whale are mammal. (the true of the
sentence follow from the senses of whale and
mammal
Synthetic : Ello is Beautiful. (there is nothing in the
sense of Ello or Beautiful which makes this necessarily
true or false.

26. A CONTRADICTION is a sentence that is
necessarily FALSE, as a an result of the sense
of the words in it.Thus a contradiction is in a
way the opposite of analytic sentence.
Example :
Lailatis is handsome. (this mush be false,
because lailatis is a woman, not handsome
but beautiful)

27. A NECESSARY CONDITION on the sense of a
predicate is a condition which a thing MUST
meet in order to qualify as being correctly
described by that predicate.
A SUFFICIENT SET OF CONDITIONS on the
sense of a predicate is a set of condition
which, if they are met by a thing, are enough
in themselves to GUARANTEE that the
predicate correctly describes that thing

28. The STEREOTYPE of a predicate is a list of the
typical characteristics of things to which the
predicate may be applied.
Example :
The stereotype of cat would be something like :
Quadruped, domesticated, either black, or white,
or grey, or tortoise shell, or marmalade in colour,
or some combination of these colours, adult
speciments about 50 cm long from nose to tip of
tail, furry, with sharp retractable claws, etc.

29. SYNONYMY is the relationship between two
predicates that have the same sense
Example :
The thief tried to CONCEAL/HIDE the evidence

30. HYPONYMY is a sense relation between
predicates (or some longer phrase) such that
the meaning of one predicate (or phrase) is
included in the meaning of the other
Example :
The meaning of RED is included in the meaning
of Scarlet. Red is the super ordinate term;
scarlet is a hyponym of red

31. A proposition X ENTAILS a propositionY if the
truth ofY follows necessarily from the truth
of X.
Example :
Nidho took the ball (X) entails Ball was taken (Y)

32. Two sentences may be said to be PARAPHRASE
of each other if and only if they have exactly the
same set of ENTAILMENTS; or, which comes to
the same thing, if and only if they mutually
entail each other so that whenever one is true
the other must also be true.
Example :
Nidho and Ello are Couples entails Ello and Nidho
are Couples.

33. Thank you