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This document describes the discovery and analysis of Stegodon bombifrons fossils from the Pinjor Stage of the Soan Formation in Jari Kas, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Key points: - The fossils include a skull with upper dentition of Stegodon bombifrons dated to 2.6-0.6 million years old. - Stegodon bombifrons is an extinct genus of proboscidean that was a sister group to mammoths and elephants. - Analysis of the teeth and cranium shows characteristics common to Stegodon, such as thick enamel and broad teeth with low ridges. - This discovery adds to the fossil record of Stegodon in Asia
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Order proboscidea Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner Campus
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Proboscidea is an order of mammals that includes elephants. There are two living species: the African elephant (Loxodonta africanus) and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Elephants have a trunk used for feeding, drinking, and manipulating objects. They live long lives in complex social groups led by mature females. Their skeleton and teeth are adapted for their herbivorous diet.Evolution of elephas in paleontology
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The document discusses the evolution of reptiles from amphibians. Key developments included the evolution of the amniotic egg, which allowed for reproduction on land, as well as various anatomical changes like the development of scales and scutes on the skin. Major groups of reptiles evolved, like turtles, lizards, snakes, and the diapsids which were progenitors of birds and mammals. Reptiles diversified during the Mesozoic era but three mass extinction events occurred. Overall the document traces the major transitions that occurred as tetrapods evolved into land-dwelling reptiles.
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3. Transitional fossils like Archaeopteryx provide evidence that birds evolved from reptiles with feathers and wishbones evolving among traits shared with modern avians.
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The document summarizes the evolution and history of reptiles. It states that reptiles arose from amphibians around 350 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. The earliest reptiles were small insect-eating lizards. Reptiles then diversified and became the dominant land vertebrates by the Permian period. During the Mesozoic era, various reptile groups flourished, especially dinosaurs which appeared in a wide variety of forms. However, most dinosaurs went extinct around 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, likely due to an asteroid impact that caused climate change. Despite this mass extinction, modern reptile orders like turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles survived
Evolution_of_elephant.pptx
1. Elephants have evolved over time from small swamp-dwelling ancestors like Moeritherium to their current massive land-dwelling forms.
2. Key evolutionary trends included increases in size, lengthening of limbs to support weight, shortening of the neck, development of the trunk/proboscis, and modification of teeth from rounded bunodont to flat lophodont structures.
3. The main line of elephant evolution led from Moeritherium to Palaeomastodon to various bunomastodons and then to Stegolophodon, Stegodon, mammoths, and modern elephants. Side lines included Phiomia, Deinotherium, Mastodon
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- Parapsid skulls, seen in ichthyosaurs, are similar but with additional bones bordering the single fenestrae.
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The Draco volans, or flying lizard, has a dorso-ventrally compressed body up to 25cm long with a 12cm tail. It has wing-like patagia membranes between its limbs that it uses for gliding. Males have an orange gular pouch and nuchal crest while females have a blue pouch. It is found in Indonesia and feeds on ants and possibly termites.
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The document summarizes dinosaurs and their extinction. It describes how dinosaurs evolved from archosaurs during the Triassic period over 230 million years ago. It classifies dinosaurs into two main orders - Saurischia and Ornithischia - and describes some of the major groups of dinosaurs like theropods, sauropods, ornithopods and ceratopsians. It also discusses how birds evolved from small feathered theropod dinosaurs. Evidence from fossilized nests, eggs and footprints provide clues about dinosaur life histories, ecology and possible parental care behaviors. The document concludes by outlining theories for the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs around 66 million years ago.
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The document discusses characteristics of turtles in the order Chelonia, including their shells, limbs, mating behaviors, and methods for differentiating sex. It describes how the carapace and plastron form the turtle's shell and how the plastron varies between species. Sex can be determined by studying features like eye color, toenail length, cloacal position, and plastron shape depending on the specific turtle species. The document also categorizes turtle limbs as aquatic, semi-aquatic, or terrestrial based on structure and function.
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1) Amphibians first evolved from sarcopterygian fish in the Devonian period and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods before being displaced by reptiles.
2) The earliest amphibians, known as Labyrinthodontia, were the first vertebrates to live on land and were ancestral to modern amphibians and a bridge to reptiles.
3) Labyrinthodontia included various groups that lived from the Late Devonian to the Triassic period and could grow up to 4 meters long. They had characteristics intermediate between modern fish and reptiles.
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El documento resume las principales especies de homínidos, incluyendo australopitecos como Australopithecus afarensis y Paranthropus robustus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo neanderthalensis y Homo sapiens. Describe sus características craneales y dentales clave, cronología y distribución geográfica.
Research+proposal
This document discusses the use of mobile learning (m-learning) in undergraduate education. It begins by introducing m-learning and how it allows students to access educational materials anywhere through mobile devices. It then states the purpose is to study the effects of m-learning tools on student academic achievement. Finally, it reviews literature that has found m-learning can enhance the learning process and student performance when used as a supplement to traditional classroom learning.
My research proposal.ppt
This document outlines a research proposal that investigates teachers' perceptions of assessing pupils' oral reading skills in rural primary schools. The study aims to understand teachers' views on reading aloud assessments, and whether their perceptions differ based on years of teaching experience or education level. A mixed methods approach is proposed, using questionnaires to collect quantitative data on 80-120 teachers, and interviews to gather qualitative perspectives from 12 teachers. The research questions focus on teachers' perceptions of reading assessments, factors influencing their views, and potential differences based on experience or education. The significance of the study is to help address issues in oral skills assessment and benefit teachers, students, and the Ministry of Education.
Hominid Evolution
This document summarizes theories of human evolution from early hominids to modern humans. It discusses that:
- Bipedalism first emerged in hominids 4-1 million years ago, allowing use of hands and adaptation to grassland environments. Early tools date to 2.5 million years ago.
- Brain size increased over time, reaching 1000cc in Homo erectus and 1350cc in modern humans. This facilitated tool use, language, and other cognitive abilities.
- Two competing theories for modern human origins are presented - the multiregional hypothesis of evolving in multiple regions from Homo erectus, versus the recent "Out of Africa" hypothesis of descending from a single African
Human Evolution
This document discusses human evolution and the timeline of early hominids. It begins by exploring basic questions about human origins and ancestry. It then examines the earliest hominid fossil sites in Africa dating back 6-7 million years, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis from Chad dated to nearly 7 million years old. While the evolutionary relationships between early hominids is still debated, most evidence suggests humans diverged from chimpanzees around 5-7 million years ago. Upright posture evolved in hominids before large brain size. Later sections explore the classification of primates and traits that distinguish hominids from other groups.
Evolution
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Crossing over
Crossing over occurs during meiosis when homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material, forming recombinant chromosomes. It increases genetic variation in offspring by producing chromosomes with recombined alleles that are different from the parents. Crossing over involves two reciprocal breaks and reunions between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. This leads to offspring that have different combinations of genes and alleles than their parents.
Pakistan teacher education and professional development program
This document provides a summary of a performance gap analysis and training needs assessment conducted of teacher training institutions in Pakistan. Some key findings include:
1. Teacher education in Pakistan is administered at the provincial level, but each province has a unique organizational structure and offers different courses, leading to inconsistencies.
2. There is overlap between the roles of Bureaus of Curriculum and Provincial Institutes of Teacher Education, and their relationship with teacher training institutions is purely administrative with little interaction on academic issues.
3. Teacher training courses like PTC and CT are only one year long but cover too many subjects, and the curriculum is implemented in traditional lecture-based styles rather than encouraging inquiry-based learning.
Causes and effects of dropouts at primary level
Research thesis on the topic of Dropouts at Primary Level submitted for accomplishment of degree requirements of M.Ed at AWKUM
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
This document outlines the introduction chapter of a study on the effectiveness of using multimedia in teaching visual art education to secondary school students. It discusses the problem that visual art education is seen as less important than other subjects and students lack interest in it. The objectives are to determine multimedia's effectiveness, identify suitable teaching methods, and problems in teaching visual art. Research questions focus on these areas. Key terms like visual art education and multimedia are operationally defined. The study is limited to Form 4 students and compares traditional and multimedia teaching methods. The significance is that findings can improve the visual art curriculum's benefits.
Action research proposal
This action research proposal aims to explore strategies to help primary school students overcome reading problems in English. The researcher plans to implement an English Language Learning and Reading Program (ELLARP) using activities like assemblies, workshops, buddy reading, and a mobile library. Data will be collected through observation and interviews to analyze the types of reading difficulties students face and the effectiveness of different teaching strategies. The goal is to help students develop a more positive attitude towards reading in English and increase their language proficiency over the long term.
Research proposal writing 2013
This document provides an outline and overview for writing a research proposal. It discusses reasons for conducting research such as contributing to knowledge and solving problems. A proposal and research proposal are defined as plans for carrying out a task or study. Guidelines are provided for preparing to write a proposal, including contents. A proposal should have chapters on introduction, literature review, and methodology. The introduction states the problem, purpose, significance and research questions or hypotheses. The literature review establishes the theoretical or conceptual framework and reviews related work. The methodology describes the research design, participants, instruments, and analysis plan. Ethical considerations must also be addressed.
Research proposal sample
The document discusses a research study that aimed to assess the perceived effectiveness of student assistants assigned to selected offices at Holy Cross of Davao College. Specifically, it sought to understand the student assistants' perceived level of job performance, relationships with coworkers and clients, job satisfaction, ability to cope with stress, and overall effectiveness. The study used a descriptive research design and questionnaires to gather data from 37 student assistants in the guidance office, internet laboratory, and library. The findings showed that the student assistants generally felt they performed their tasks well and often maintained good relationships and satisfaction in their roles, though those in the library reported higher performance levels. The researchers recommended the student assistants be responsible in fulfilling their duties and that effective service comes from serving
3. Human Evolution
- The document discusses human evolution from early primates to modern humans. It describes key developments like bipedalism, increasing brain size, use of tools and fire, and cultural evolution.
- Early primates like tarsiers, lemurs, and lorises evolved around 58 million years ago. Monkeys emerged around 35 million years ago and the first hominids around 6 million years ago.
- Adaptations for tree-dwelling included grasping hands and feet, stereoscopic vision, and long limbs. Bipedalism evolved in early hominids like Australopithecus as an adaptation for life on the ground.
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This document discusses elephants and the genus Stegodon. It provides classifications for elephants, noting there are three living species: African bush, African forest, and Asian elephants. It then describes characteristics of African and Asian elephants. The document also discusses the genus Stegodon, an extinct relative of elephants and mammoths. It provides details on the evolution, anatomy, geographic distribution of fossils, and taxonomy of the genus Stegodon. Measurements and characteristics are given for teeth of different Stegodon species.
The reptiles
The document discusses the four main groups of reptiles: crocodiles, lizards, turtles, and snakes. It provides details on their defining characteristics, habitats, behaviors, and evolution. Key points include:
1) Reptiles lay amniotic eggs which enabled their success on land by protecting the embryo and facilitating gas exchange.
2) The four living clades of reptiles are crocodiles, tuataras, lizards and snakes (Squamata), and turtles (Testudines).
3) Traditional and cladistic taxonomic classifications disagree on whether birds and mammals should be considered reptiles.
0_Presentation of A Coelomate & a Non Coelomate Animal 2.pptx
This document is a PowerPoint presentation by Soumyadeep Saha Mondal, a student at Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary College, on the study of two non-chordate animals - the Giant Pacific Octopus and the Cannonball Jellyfish. It provides details on the morphology, locomotion, digestive system, respiratory system, excretory system, reproduction, nervous system of the Giant Pacific Octopus. For the Cannonball Jellyfish, it describes the morphology, locomotion, digestive system and notes that it does not have well-developed digestive, respiratory, nervous or excretory systems. It also mentions that Cannonball Jellyfish stings can cause pain
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The document summarizes information about sponges found in India, including their diversity, distribution, classification, anatomy, and key distinguishing characteristics. It notes that India is home to 519 documented sponge species, representing about 10.1% of the world's total. The Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay region has the highest diversity with 319 species. Sponges are classified in the phylum Porifera and dominated in India by the class Demospongia. Their simple structure lacks tissues and organs, and they feed by filtering water through pores.
Morphology of ostracods
Ostracods are bivalved crustaceans that are commonly used in micropaleontology and paleoecology research. They have a complex morphology and are found in both marine and freshwater environments around the world. Key aspects of ostracod anatomy include their carapace, hinge patterns, and ornamentation, which are important for classifying and interpreting species. Ostracods first appeared in the late Cambrian and have adapted to occupy nearly all aquatic habitats, with over 2000 known living species today. Their fossil record allows them to be used for biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental reconstruction.
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This document provides information about two non-chordate animals in a PowerPoint presentation: the Giant Pacific octopus, a coelomate animal, and the Cannonball jellyfish, a non-coelomate animal. It describes their morphological features, locomotion, digestive and other body systems. Key details provided include the Giant Pacific octopus' large size of up to 30 feet arm span, jet propulsion locomotion, and the female's protective care of her large clutch of 18,000-100,000 eggs for 6 months. For the Cannonball jellyfish, its dome shape up to 25cm wide and movement by pulsating its bell are highlighted.
EVOLUTION OF ELEPHANT.pptx
Elephants have evolved over 55 million years from small fox-sized ancestors like Moeritherium. Key changes along the evolutionary line include an increase in size, lengthening of the jaw and nose to form a trunk, shortening of teeth, and development of tusks. The last common ancestor of modern elephants lived over 20 million years ago. Today there are two surviving genera - Loxodonta, which includes the African bush and forest elephants, and Elephas, which includes the Asian elephant. Hunting and climate change have contributed to the extinction of other proboscidean genera such as mastodons and mammoths.
Pjz, conference
This document describes early evidence of cervids from the Siwaliks of Pakistan. It discusses how cervids are poorly known from the fossil record, especially during the Early/Middle Pliocene in the Siwalik deposits of Indo-Pakistan. The author aims to describe this rare fauna and evaluate cervinae material collected from the Siwaliks. Six to eight cervids species have been described from the Upper Siwaliks previously, but the author describes new fossil remains from the Early Pliocene (Middle Siwaliks), providing an older stratigraphic range than recognized by previous studies. Diagnostic features are discussed to differentiate cervid taxa and species. Materials studied consisting of dental remains are assigned
Whale evolution
The document outlines the evolution of whales from terrestrial mammals. It provides evidence from morphology, molecular biology, geochemistry, and the fossil record to support this. Key transitional fossils discussed include Pakicetus, Ambulocetus, and Basilosaurus, which show adaptations from land to fully marine environments over multiple steps of evolution. The conclusion is that with strong evidence from multiple fields of study, whale evolution from land to sea must be true.
fossil ppt.pptx
This document provides an overview of paleontology and fossils. It defines fossils as remains or traces of ancient organisms preserved in rock. There are several modes of fossil preservation discussed, including entire body preservation, entire skeleton preservation, petrification and replacement, molds and casts, and trace fossils. The importance of studying fossils is also summarized, such as for biostratigraphy, understanding evolution, and reconstructing paleoenvironments.
Hocknull_altri_2009.pdf
This document describes three new dinosaur species discovered in latest Albian-aged sediments in the Winton Formation of central Queensland, Australia. The three new species are: Wintonotitan wattsi, a basal titanosauriform sauropod; Diamantinasaurus matildae, a derived lithostrotian titanosaur sauropod; and Australovenator wintonensis, an allosauroid theropod. The discovery of these new taxa indicates Australia had a more diverse Early Cretaceous sauropod and theropod fauna than previously recognized, including both primitive forms like Wintonotitan as well as more derived forms like Diamantinasaurus.
Vertebrates of Siwalik
The document discusses the vertebrate fossils found in the Siwalik region between 16-5 million years ago. It provides details on the lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy of the Siwalik Group, which is divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Siwalik. During the early Miocene climate was warm and humid, supporting a variety of large mammals. Beginning around 11.5 million years ago, the climate started becoming more arid and open grasslands expanded, attracting different herbivorous and grazing mammals. By the late Miocene/Pliocene between 5-2 million years ago, a savannah environment dominated and fauna included early humans, horses, rhinos, giraffes
Belletal.2015_largetheropodfromAustraliaLightningRidgemegaraptoridorigins.pdf
This document describes new fragmentary fossil remains from Lightning Ridge, Australia that represent a previously unknown megaraptorid theropod from the Lower Cretaceous. Megaraptorids were large-clawed predatory dinosaurs found across Gondwana. The new specimen is only the second theropod from Australia comprised of more than a single element. Analysis of the specimen and rigorous palaeobiogeographic modeling supports an Asian origin of Megaraptorids in the Late Jurassic, with the lineage diverging in Gondwana by the Early Cretaceous and the group's radiation originating in Australia. This suggests Australia played an active role in dinosaur interchange and evolution within Gondw
Descriptions of New Species of the Diverse and Endemic Land Snail Amplirhagad...
This document describes 15 new species of the land snail genus Amplirhagada that are endemic to rainforest patches across the Kimberley region of Western Australia. The species were collected during a 1987 survey but had not been formally described until this work. They are characterized by features of their penial anatomy. Shell and radula features are less useful for distinguishing species. Three provisionally identified species are placed within an already described species, A. carinata, which shows more morphological variation and potentially represents a species complex. In total, over 50 Amplirhagada species are now recognized from the Kimberley based on this and previous work.
10 Incredible Animals That Survived Extinction.pdf
There are many fascinating species in the world. However, a number of species are going extinct as a result of habitat loss and human activity. Then, efforts are made to find the extinct species. The last members of rediscovered species are currently being studied by scientists and conservationists for strategies to conserve them. Here are a few examples of species that were considered to have vanished only to reappear.
Snake animals
This document provides information on various snake animals. It begins with an introduction and lists 10 different snake animals, including their scientific names and conservation statuses. For each snake animal, it describes their distribution, taxonomy, physical characteristics, feeding behavior, and other biological details. It also discusses the economic importance of some snakehead fish and snake catfish. In conclusion, the document comprehensively covers the biology and taxonomy of diverse snake animals from different taxonomic groups.
VERTEBRATES COMPLETE LECTUR E NOTES.pptx
This document discusses the phylogeny and morphology of vertebrates and amphibians. It covers the five classes of vertebrates which are fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. For fishes, it describes the two types of modern fishes and discusses characteristics of cartilaginous fishes. It also covers taxonomy of fishes and adaptations of body forms. For amphibians, it discusses characteristics and challenges of terrestrial life, orders of amphibians, and patterns of reproduction. Finally, it covers characteristics of reptiles, taxonomy of reptiles including orders, and families of snakes.
VERTEBRATES COMPLETE LECTURE NOTES.pptxs
This document discusses the phylogeny and morphology of vertebrates and amphibians. It covers the five classes of vertebrates which are fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. For fishes, it describes the two types of modern fishes and provides characteristics of cartilaginous fishes. It also discusses the classification and characteristics of amphibians and reptiles, including how they evolved and adapted from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Key orders within each group are identified and compared.
Number three australia s amazing animals
This document provides an overview of Australia's unique mammals, which can be divided into monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals. It describes several iconic Australian species in detail, including the platypus, koala, kangaroo, Tasmanian devil, and dingo. The text highlights that monotremes lay eggs, marsupials give birth to underdeveloped young that develop further in the mother's pouch, and the dingo was the only placental mammal native to Australia before European settlement.
BIOL 478 Final Paper
This study examined genetic diversity and gene flow in populations of Ophryotrocha worm species found on whale, cow, and pig bones in the Mediterranean Sea at different depths. DNA analysis of over 600 base pairs of the COI gene from 43 specimens formed two distinct branches - one containing worms from shallow depths under 20m, and one containing worms only from 57m deep. The branches showed 7.33-8.19% genetic distance, suggesting two cryptic species. Shallow samples showed high haplotype diversity with 21 haplotypes across locations, indicating gene flow between shallow populations. Deeper samples had lower diversity, supporting environmental influences on genetic structure.
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Biomolecules: Peptides and Proteins
This document discusses biomolecules, specifically peptides and proteins. It outlines the levels of protein structure from primary to quaternary. Primary structure refers to the amino acid sequence, secondary structure includes alpha helices and beta sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding. Tertiary structure is the overall 3D shape of a protein, and quaternary involves interaction of multiple polypeptide subunits. Techniques for protein analysis include electrophoresis, chromatography, mass spectrometry and X-ray crystallography. Myoglobin and hemoglobin are compared as examples of monomeric and multimeric protein structures and functions.
Biomolecules: Amino Acids and Peptides
This document discusses biomolecules and amino acids. It outlines key topics like the properties of amino acids, their pKa values and titration curves. At physiological pH, both the carboxyl and amino groups of amino acids are charged. Only L-amino acids are found in proteins. Some examples of clinical aminoacidurias caused by metabolic or absorption defects are also provided. The document further discusses post-translational modifications, peptide bonds, and the different conformations and restrictions placed on protein structure by the planar nature of peptide bonds.
Water, pH and Dissociation
This document discusses water, pH, and dissociation. It provides information on homeostasis and how the body maintains water distribution and pH levels. Water comprises 70% of human mass and has polar properties allowing it to hydrate molecules and act as a solvent. Very low dissociation of water leads to a constant ion product and pH of 7 for pure water. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relates pH to concentrations of acids and bases. Physiological buffers like bicarbonate and phosphate systems regulate blood and cellular pH. Deviations from normal pH ranges can indicate acidosis requiring monitoring of acid-base parameters.
Introduction to Medical Biochemistry
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Pentose Phosphate Pathway (Hexose Monophosphate Shunt)
The pentose phosphate pathway generates NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate. It occurs in the cytosol in two phases: an oxidative phase that produces NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate from glucose-6-phosphate, and a non-oxidative reversible phase. NADPH is used to produce fatty acids, amino acids, and reduced glutathione which protects cells from reactive oxygen species. A deficiency in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, which produces the first NADPH, can cause hemolytic anemia due to increased oxidative damage from a lack of protection against reactive oxygen species. The pathway is regulated by NADPH levels, with more NADPH production when NADPH is used in other pathways
Hormonal Regulation: glycolysis/glucogenesis-Glucose homeostasis
The document discusses hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels. It explains that insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine work to keep blood glucose within a narrow range. Insulin is released when glucose is high and signals cells to take up and store glucose. Glucagon is released when glucose is low and signals the liver to produce glucose through gluconeogenesis and glycogen breakdown. Epinephrine prepares the body for activity by stimulating glycogen and fat breakdown. Diabetes results from defects in insulin production or action, leading to high blood glucose and ketone production. Prolonged fasting relies on gluconeogenesis and ketone bodies for fuel. Alcohol excess can cause hypoglycemia by inhibiting gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Glycogen Metabolism and Control
1. Glycogen is the major storage form of carbohydrate in liver and muscle.
2. Glycogen is synthesized and broken down through separate pathways to service tissues via blood glucose or as fuel for muscle.
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Reading: Harper's Biochemistry pp. 130-148 Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry 3rd Ed. pp. 659-690.
Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q, or Q) Electron Carrier
Ubiquinone, also known as coenzyme Q, is a small, hydrophobic and lipid-soluble benzoquinone electron carrier. It exists in a reduced form, ubiquinol, and an oxidized form, ubiquinone. The reduction of ubiquinone to ubiquinol requires two electrons and two protons and occurs in two steps through a semiquinone radical intermediate.
Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation
The document summarizes electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. It describes how:
1) The electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane is made up of four complexes that transfer electrons from nutrients to oxygen, pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
2) As electrons are passed through the complexes, energy is used to transport protons against their concentration gradient, building up a electrochemical proton gradient across the inner membrane.
3) ATP synthase uses the potential energy in this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Citric Acid Cycle-Anaplerosis
The citric acid cycle provides precursors for biosynthetic pathways and serves catabolic and anabolic processes. It is regulated by substrate availability and product inhibition. Anaplerotic reactions replenish cycle intermediates used for biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA derived from the cycle is used in fatty acid synthesis in the cytoplasm. The glyoxylate cycle allows conversion of acetate to carbohydrates in some organisms.
Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that break down acetyl groups from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide, generating reduced coenzymes used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, then the citric acid cycle oxidizes acetyl-CoA in 8 steps, producing NADH, FADH2, and GTP or ATP while releasing CO2. This cycling of intermediates allows for the efficient breakdown of fuels to generate energy.
Glycolysis
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BioEnergetics
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2) ATP acts as the energy currency of cells, being produced through exergonic reactions and consumed to power endergonic reactions.
3) Standard free energy changes can be added for coupled reactions and actual free energy depends on reactant and product concentrations, driving reactions towards or away from equilibrium.
Zoological congres
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- Threats to the near threatened species were noted as hunting for trade and slow reproduction rate. Conservation strategies were recommended.
Trophy hunting
Trophy hunting provides socioeconomic benefits to communities in Gilgit Baltistan. Through community conservation programs, local communities conserve wildlife habitats and populations in return for sharing revenues from permit fees for hunting large trophy animals like markhor, ibex, and blue sheep. Hunting programs have led to increased populations of endangered species. Communities receive 80% of permit fees, providing a significant source of income. This study found that trophy hunting improved local incomes and incentivized conservation, with wildlife populations and trophy sizes increasing in community-managed areas. The programs have educated communities about conservation while supporting sustainable use of natural resources.
Tick infestation majid m. m.
This study examined the prevalence of tick infestation on livestock in Pothwar, Pakistan. A total of 1804 animals were examined from October 2008 to August 2009, of which 814 (45.1%) were infested with ticks. Cattle had the highest rate of infestation at 58.8% while goats were the lowest at 38.8%. Six tick genera were identified with Haemaphysalis being the most prevalent. Tick infestation rates and burdens were highest in summer months like July and August when humidity and temperatures are higher, and lowest in winter months.
Taq purification
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2) Lysing the E. coli cells and heat-treating the lysate to inactivate endogenous nucleases.
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4) Obtaining a purified Taq polymerase preparation in a single-day procedure yielding 40-60 mg of
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cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
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- 2. STEGODON BOMBIFRONS FROM THE PINJOR STAGE, SOAN FORMATION OF JARI KAS, AZAD KASHMIR, PAKISTAN SADAF ASLAM, ABDUL MAJID KHAN, MUHAMMAD AKBAR KHAN*, ABDUL GHAFFAR**, MUHAMMAD AKHTAR AND KHIZAR SAMIULLAH DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, LAHORE *DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, GC UNIVERSITY, FAISALABAD ** DEPARTMENT OF METEROLOGY, COMSATS ISLAMABAD
- 3. INTRODUCTION Proboscideans were the evolutionary taxa of elephants that are the largest land animals now living. Two genera of the family Elephantidae: Elephas and Loxodonta are living today. All other species and genera of Proboscideans are extinct now. The Asian and African elephants diverged from a common ancestor some 7.6 million years ago.
- 4. EXTANT GENERA OF ELEPHANTS AFRICAN ELEPHANT Single species with two subspecies. AFRICAN SAVANNA / BUSH ELEPHANT(Loxodonta africana africana). AFRICAN FOREST ELEPHANT (Loxodonta africana cyclotis).
- 7. ASIAN ELEPHANT Three subspecies. Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus), only found on the island of Sri Lanka. Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus),found in India. Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus), found only on Sumatra.
- 9. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AFRICAN AND ASIAN ELEPHANT The African elephant is typically larger than the Asian elephant and has a concave back. African elephants have larger ears. In Asian elephants, only males have tusks, but both males and females of African elephants have tusks.
- 10. OBJECTIVES To study stegodon fossils from 2.6-0.6 million years old.
- 11. STUDIED SECTION THE SIWALIK SEDIMENTS ALONG THE FOOTHILLS OF HIMALAYAS.
- 12. JARI KAS An approx. 1km thickness of upper Siwalik subgroup rocks in the southern Potwar Plateau and south western Kashmir.
- 13. MATERIALS AND METHODS The specimen was collected from Upper Siwaliks during geological survey. The specimen was thoroughly washed in the laboratory. The specimen was catalogued such as PUPC (Punjab University Palaeontological Collection) 2010/16. The upper figure denotes the collection year, while the lower one is the serial number of the respective year. The measurements of the specimen were made by Metric Vernier Callipers. The specimen is housed in paleontological laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of the Punjab,
- 14. RESULTS SYSTEMATIC PALEONTOLOGY PHYLUM CHORDATA SUB PHYLUM VERTEBRATA CLASS MAMMALIA Linnaeus, 1758 ORDER PROBOSCIDEA Illeger, 1811 SUB-ORDER ELEPHANTIFORMES Tassy, 1988 SUPER FAMILY ELEPHANTOIDEA Osborn, 1921 FAMILY STEGODONTIDAE Osborn, 1918 SUBFAMILY STEGODONTINAE Osborn, 1918 GENUS STEGODON Falconer, 1857 SPECIES STEGODON BOMBIFRONS Falconer and Cautley, 1857.
- 15. STEGODON
- 16. DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES Cranium compressed anteroposteriorly with convex skull vertex. Tusks small. Cement gradually increases in the successive teeth. Enamel very thick. Teeth broad and large. Usually a trace of median longitudinal cleft present in anterior ridges. Inner columns of ridge-plates occasionally show accessory tubercles near the longitudinal cleft. (Sarwar, 1977).
- 17. STUDIED SPECIMENS WITH RELEVANT LOCALITY Taxon Specimen Position Formation/ Locality Co- ordinates Stegodon bombifrons PUPC No. 2010/16 Skull with upper dentition. Pinjor (Jari Kas, Mirpur) 33 06 236 N 73 50 012 E
- 18. DESCRIPTION Most part of the cranium is damaged, only palate is preserved and visible. The teeth are characterized by large size, broad crowned, low ridge. Enamel is thick and rugose. Teeth are in middle wearing stage. Cement gradually increases in the successive teeth. Ridge plates are widely spaced at their summit.
- 19. CRANIUM SHOWING OCCLUSAL VIEW, SCALE BAR 50MM. Cement Palate Conelets Dentine Enamel Ridge plate Anterior side Posterior side
- 20. RIDGE PLATES FORMULA OF STEGODON TEETH DP3 4-4½ DP4 5 - 6 M1 6 M2 6 - 7 M3 7½-9½ 8- 9½ 6 ½-8 7-7½ 5½-7 4-4 ½
- 21. DISCUSSION In the past, stegodonts were believed to be the ancestors of the true elephants and mammoths, but it is currently believed that they have no modern descendants. Stegodon is derived from the genus Stegolophodon, an extinct genus known from the Miocene of Asia. Stegodon is considered to be a sister group of the mammoth, as well as the elephants
- 22. FOSSILS OF STEGODON FROM THE WORLD Uptil now fossils of Stegodon have been recovered from Indonesia, China, Thailand, Japan Africa Pakistan
- 23. DATA SHOWING NUMBER OF RIDGES AND DENTAL MEASUREMENTS IN DIFFERENT SPECIES OF STEGODON (DATA UPDATED FROM VAN DEN BERGH 1999). SPECIES No. of ridge plates L (mm) W (mm) W/L index S. bombifrons 71/2-91/2 253-282 93-108 37-38 S. pinjorens 141/2-1 360 130 36 Stegodon dhokawanensis 61/2 183 93 51 S. insignis 81/2-111/2 233-287 86-106 37
- 24. CONCLUSION Stegodons were present in Jari Kas areas of Azad Jammu and Kashmir during the late Pliocene (about 2.6 mya) along with crown elephant group.