This document discusses various research methods used to observe behavior, including qualitative research methods like interviews and questionnaires, quantitative research using coded observations and content analysis, and experimental psychology with laboratory and field experiments. It also covers naturalistic observation methods like participant observation, covert/overt observation, and case studies. Specific observation techniques are outlined like using observation guides, indirect measures, content analysis, archival research, and planning considerations.

1. Observing Behavior

2. Qualitative Research
• Non-numerical: typically descriptive data
–Goal: New ideas; preliminary understanding
–No prior hypothesis
–Harder to analyze
–Examples
• Diaries
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Unstructured observations

3. Quantitative Research
• Numerical: data presented in units of
measurement
–Goal: Validation of facts & relationships
–Can be categorical or ranked
–Used to construct graphs & tables
–Examples
• Coded observations
• Statistical records
• Content analysis

4. Experimental Psychology
• Laboratory Experiments: controlled
environment
• Field Experiments: in the real world
– Manipulated IV
COMPARED WITH:
• Natural Observation:
in the real world
– Non-manipulated IV

5. • Observer objectively records behavior in
the real world
–Spontaneous behavior in natural setting
–Field work/study/observation
– vs Systematic Observation
–Participant vs
Non-participant
Naturalistic Observations

6. Participant Observation
• The observer takes part in the situation
being studied while carrying out the
research.

7. Non-Participant Observation
• The observer is not part in the situation
being studied.
–Can be a controlled environment

8. Research
method
Advantages Disadvantages
Naturalistic
observation
 Behavior in the
natural
environment
 Rich detail
 May be obtrusive
Laboratory
observation
 Enables use of
equipment
 Larger samples
 Observed behavior
may not equal
natural behavior

9. Overt Observation
• Means the observed group is aware of the
presence of the researcher and that their
behavior is being observed.

10. Covert Observation
• Means the participants are not aware of the
presence of the researcher and they are that
their behavior is being observed.

11. Methods of participant
observation
• Creating diagrams,
charts and maps
• Numerical data
• Written, audio, photo
and video recordings
• Interviews and
conversations

12. • Questionnaires
– Collect written data
– Open-ended or closed questions
• e.g. Surveys
• Interviews
– Verbal data
– Unstructured
• Informal
– Structured
• Formal
Questionnaires & Interviews

13. Interview Techniques in
Business
Source: Research Industry Trends, 2006 Report, Pioneer Marketing Research, GreenBook, Rockhopper Research, and Dialtech – Marketing Research
(McGraw – Hill International Edition), page 158

14. Sample Observation Guides
Structured observations Unstructured observations

15. Case Studies
Intensive study of a single unit
• Advantages
– Rich detail
– Excellent for theory development
• Disadvantages
– n=1
• Sources of Data may vary
– e.g. Personal records, interviews, observations
– Psychobiography

16. Indirect Measures
To assess the popularity of
different museum exhibits...
...measure the wear of the floor tiles.

17. Content Analysis
KEY STEPS:
• Define unit of analysis.
• Sample the units of analysis.
• Code the sample units.
• Summarize the codings.
• Draw inferences.
• Limited to recorded phenomena
Manifest
or
Latent

18. Archival Research
Using existing data sources:
• Efficient -- the data already collected
• Broad sampling base
– Can be national
– Can encompass large time spans
• Forms include:
– statistical records, survey archives, written & mass
communication records, etc.

19. Archival Research
Content Analysis of Documents:
• Systematic analysis of existing documents
• Requires coding system
– Can address problematic questions
• Limitations include:
– Difficulty obtaining
– Inaccuracies

21. Planning for Observation
• Determine who/what will be observed.
• Determine where and when observations will
be made.
• Develop and pilot the observation guide
• Train the observers and have them practice.
• Conduct the observations
• Analyze and interpret the collected information.