The document discusses various research methodologies and concepts including: 1. It outlines different types of research classifications including exploratory, descriptive, causal/hypothesis testing research and qualitative vs. quantitative approaches. 2. It also discusses different sampling designs such as probability sampling methods like simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling as well as non-probability sampling. 3. The key aspects of developing a sampling design are identified as defining the target population, sampling frame, developing the sample, and ensuring the sample is representative of the population.

1. Research Methodology

2. • Classification # 1
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Causal/ Hypothesis Testing
• Classification # 2
• Basic
• Applied
• Classification # 3
• Qualitative
• Quantitative
Types of Research

3. Exploratory Research
• Exploratory research is conducted where the
problem is not clearly defined
• Market share is decreasing ???

4. Descriptive Research
• Descriptive research describes a single event
or characteristic or relates a few events or
variables through statistical analysis
• Bank officer describing the profile of
defaulters ???

5. Causal/ Hypothesis Testing Research
• Research is conducted to test the hypotheses
• Impact of motivation on job performance ???

6. 6
Basic Research
• Basic Research aims to expand the frontiers of science and
knowledge by verifying or disproving the acceptability of a
given theory or attempting to discover more about a certain
concept (non-specificity)
 Mostly performed by academics
Example: How does motivation affect employee performance?

7. Applied Research
Applied Research focuses on a real-life problem or situation with
a view to helping reach a decision how to deal with it
(Specificity)
• Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of
the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied
scientist is to improve the human condition .
Example: Should a corporation adopt a paperless office
environment?

8. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
Quantitative Qualitative
Objective Subjective
Research questions: How many?
When? Where? Strength of
association?
Research questions: What? Why?
How
"Hard" science "Soft" science
Literature review must be done early
in study
Literature review may be done as
study progresses or afterwards
Test theory Develops theory
One reality: focus is concise and
narrow
Multiple realities: focus is complex and
broad
Facts are value-free and unbiased Facts are value-laden and biased
Reduction, control, precision Discovery, description, understanding,
shared interpretation
Measurable Interpretive

9. Mechanistic: parts equal the whole Organismic: whole is greater than the parts
Report statistical analysis.
Basic element of analysis is numbers
Report rich narrative, individual; interpretation.
Basic element of analysis is words/ideas.
Researcher is separate Researcher is part of process
Subjects Participants
Context free Context dependent
Hypothesis Research questions
Reasoning is deductive Reasoning is inductive
Establishes relationships, causation Describes meaning, discovery
Uses instruments Uses communications and observation
Highly controlled setting: experimental
setting (outcome oriented)
Flexible approach: natural setting (process
oriented)
Sample size: n Sample size not a concern; seeks “informal
rich” sample; carefully selected participants
Uses different instruments Researcher is the instrument

10. Phases of Research
1. Idea-generating phase
2. Problem-definition phase
3. Procedures-design phase
4. Observation phase
5. Data-analysis phase
6. Interpretation phase
7. Communication phase

11. Generating research ideas
Useful Techniques
Rational thinking Creative thinking
Searching the literature Scanning the media
Brainstorming Relevance Trees
Exploring past projects Discussion
Keeping an ideas notebook

12. Research Onion

13. Creswell’s 5 steps to
Conduct a Literature Review
• Step 1: Identify Key Terms or
“Descriptors”
• Extract key words from your title (remember,
you may decide to change the title later)
• Use some of the words other authors
reported in the literature

14. Step 1
• Use the “Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors to
look for terms that match your topic: go to
www.eric.ed.gov and in “Search” select
“Descriptors (from Thesaurus)”
• Scan both electronic and library journals
from the past 10 years and look for key
terms in the articles

15. Step 2
• Locate Literature
• Use academic libraries, do not limit your
search to an electronic search of articles
• Use all sources: primary, and secondary
sources. A “primary source” is research
reported by the researcher that conducted
the study. A “secondary source” is research
that summarizes or reports findings that
come from primary sources

16. Step 2
• It is “best to report mostly primary sources”
(p. 82)
• Search different types of literature:
summaries, encyclopedias, dictionaries and
glossaries of terms, handbooks, statistical
indexes, reviews and syntheses, books,
journals, indexed publications, electronic
sources, abstract series, and databases
• PsychINFO, Emerald, Jstor, Wiley,
ScienceDirect

17. Step 3
• Step 3: Critically Evaluate and Select Literature
• Rely on journal articles published in national
journals
• Prioritize your search: first look for refereed journal
articles, then, non-refereed articles, then books,
then conference papers, dissertations and theses
and then papers posted to websites
• Look for research articles and avoid as much as
possible “opinion” pieces
• Blend qualitative and quantitative research in your
review

18. Step 4
• Step 4: Organize the Literature
• Create a “file” or “abstract” system to keep track
of what you read. Each article you read should be
summarized in one page containing
Title (use APA to type the title so that you can later
copy-paste this into the References section of your
paper)
Source: journal article, book, glossary, etc.

19. Step 4
Research problem: one or two lines will suffice
Research Questions or Hypotheses
Data collection procedure (a description of sample
characteristics can be very handy as well)
Results or findings of the study
• Sort these abstracts into groups of related topics
or areas which can then become the different
sections of your review

20. Step 5
• Step 5: Write a Literature Review
• Types of Reviews:
Thematic Review: a theme is identified and studies
found under this theme are described. Major ideas and
findings are reported rather than details.
Study-by-study Review: a detailed summary of each
study under a broad theme is provided. Link summaries
(or abstracts) using transitional sentences. Must be
organized and flow coherently under various
subheadings. Avoid string quotations (i.e., lengthy
chunks of text directly quoted from a source)

21. Literature sources available

37. Sampling Design

38. Population, Element, Sampling Frame,
Sample and Subject
• Population (or target population)
• entire group of people, events or things of interest that
the researcher wishes to investigate
• Element
• a single member of the population
• Sampling Frame
• a listing of all the elements in the population from which
the sample is drawn
• Sample
• a subset of the population
• Subject
• a single member of the sample

39. Relationship between Population,
Sampling Frame and Sample

40. Relationship between Sample Statistics and
Population Parameters

41. Advantages of Sampling
• Less costs
– cheaper than studying whole population
• Less errors due to less fatigue
– better results
• Less time
– quicker
• Destruction of elements avoided
– eg bulbs

42. Normal Distibution in a Population
As the sample size n increases, the means of the
random samples taken from practically any
population approach a normal distribution with mean
μ and standard deviation 

43. Representativeness of Samples
• If the sample mean is much > than the
population mean μ then the sample would
overestimate the true population mean
• If the sample mean is much < than the
population mean μ then the sample would
underestimate the true population mean
• The more representative the sample is of the
population, the more generalisable are the
findings of the research.

44. Preparing a Sampling Design

45. Probability & Non-probability Sampling
• Probability Sampling
– the elements in the population have some known
chance or probability of being selected as sample
subjects
• Non-probability Sampling
– the elements do not have a known or predetermined
chance of being selected as subjects

46. Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling
– every element in the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected as a subject
• Complex (or restricted) probability sampling
– procedures to ensure practical viable alternatives to
simple random sampling, at lower costs, and greater
statistical efficiency

47. Simple Random Sampling
• Is the most representative of the population for
most purposes
• Disadvantages are:
– Most cumbersome and tedious
– The entire listing of elements in population frequently
unavailable
– Very expensive
– Not the most efficient design

48. Complex Probability Sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Area sampling
• Double sampling

49. Systematic Sampling
• Every nth element in the population starting
with a randomly chosen element
• Example:
– Want a sample of 35 households from a total of 260
houses. Could sample every 7th house starting from
a randomly chosen number from 1 to 10. If that
random number is 7, sample 35 houses starting with
7th house (14th house, 21st house, etc)
– Possible problem is that there could be systematic
bias. eg every 7th house could be a corner house,
with different characteristics of both house and
dwellers.

50. Stratified Random Sampling
• Comprises sampling from populations
segregated into a number of mutually exclusive
sub-populations or strata. Eg
– University students divided into juniors, seniors, etc
– Employees stratified into clerks, supervisors,
managers, etc
• Homogeneity within stratum and heterogeneity
between strata
• Statistical efficiency greater in stratified samples
• Sub-groups can be analysed
• Different methods of analysis can be used for
different sub-groups.

51. Stratified Random Sampling Example
Stratum Motivation Level
Clerks Low
Middle Managers Very high
Top Managers Medium
Combined X would not discrimate among
groups
• Stratified Sampling
– Proportionate sampling
– Disproportionate sampling

52. Proportionate & Disproportionate Stratified
Random Sampling

53. Cluster Sampling
• Take clusters or chunks of elements for study
– Eg, sample all students in MGMT 303 and MGMT
304 to study the characteristics of Management
Science majors
• Advantage of cluster sampling is lower costs
• Statistically it is less efficient than other
probability sampling procedures discussed so
far
Area Sampling:
• Cluster sampling confined to a particular area
– Eg, sampling residents of a particular locality,
county, etc

54. Double Sampling
• Collect preliminary data from a sample,
and choose a sub-sample of that sample
for more detailed investigation.
• Example:
– Conduct unstructured interviews with a
sample of 50.
– Repeat a structured interview with 30 from the
50 originally sampled.

55. Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience sampling
– Survey whoever is easily available
– Used for quick diagnosis of situations
• Simplest and cheapest
• Least reliable
• Purposive sampling
– Judgement sampling
– Snowball sampling
– Quota sampling

56. Judgement Sampling
• Involves the choice of subjects who are in
the best position to provide the information
required
• Experts’ opinions could be sought
– Eg, Doctors surveyed for cancer causes

57. Snowball Sampling
• Used when elements in population have specific
characteristics or knowledge, but are very
difficult to locate and contact.
• Initial sample group can be selected by
probability or non-probability methods, but new
subjects are selected based on information
provided by initial subjects.
– Eg, used to locate members of different stakeholder
groups regarding their opinions of a new public works
project.

58. Quota Sampling
• Quotas for numbers or proportion of
people to be sampled, established.
• Examples:
1) survey for research on dual career families:
50% working men and 50% working women
surveyed.
2) Women in management survey: 70%
women surveyed and 30% men surveyed.

59. 1.Title
2.Introduction
3.Research objective
4.Justification
5.Research design
6.Research schedule
7.Approvals
8.Resources
9.Budget
10.Report preparation and distribution
Contents of the Research Proposal

60. 1.Title page
2.Table of contents
3.Authorisation letter
4.Executive Summary (Synopsis or Abstract)
5.Introductory section
6.Method section
7.Analysis and Results (incl. tables, graphs, charts)
8.Discussion and Implications
9.Conclusions and Recommendations
10.Acknowledgements
11.References (or Bibliography)
12.Appendices
Contents of the Research Report