The document describes a solar powered smart street light system project. It includes the construction of a prototype solar tracking system to maximize solar energy collection and conversion. The solar energy is then stored in batteries and used to power an automatic street light control system. The street lights are automatically turned on and off in response to detected vehicle movement to conserve energy. The overall goal is to develop a system using solar energy to automatically control street lights as needed.

1. SOLAR POWERED SMART STREET LIGHT SYSTEM
MINOR PROJECT REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
by
ASHUTOSH KUMAR VIVEK KUMAR MOHIT ACHWAN
40196204915 03696204915 35396204915
ABHILASH KHANSALI CHETAN ANAND AGRAHARI
00196207816 00296207816
Under the guidance
of
Ms. Sonam Mittal
Asst. Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
DR. AKHILESH DAS GUPTA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(AFFILIATED TO GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNIVERSITY, DELHI)
NEW DELHI – 110053
NOVEMBER, 2018

2. i
CANDIDATES’ DECLARACTION
__________________________________________________________________________
It is hereby certified that the work which is being presented in the B. Tech Minor Project
Report entitled "SOLAR POWERED SMART STREETLIGHT SYSTEM" in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology and
submitted in the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering of Dr. Akhilesh Das
Gupta Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi (Affiliated to Guru Gobind
Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi) is an authentic record of our own work carried out
during a period from August, 2018 to December, 2018 under the guidance of Ms. Sonam
Mittal, Asst. Professor.
The matter presented in the B. Tech Minor Project Report has not been submitted by us for
the award of any other degree of this or any other Institute.
(Ashutosh Kumar) (Vivek Kumar) (Mohit Achhwan)
(40196204915) (03696204915) (35396204915)
(Abhilash Khansali) (Chetan Anand Agrahari)
(00196207816) (00296207816)
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge. He/She/They are permitted to appear in the External Minor Project Examination
Ms. Sonam Mittal Mr. Ajit Kumar Sharma
Asst. Professor Head, EEED
The B.tech Minor Project Viva-Voce Examination has been held on ………………………. .
Ms. Amruta Pattnaik Ms. Sonam Mittal (Signature of External Examiner)
Project Coordinator Project Coordinator

3. ii
ABSTRACT
_______________________________________________________
Solar energy is rapidly advancing as an important means of renewable energy resource. The
solar tracking enables more energy conversion because the solar panel is able to maintain a
perpendicular profile to the sun’s ray and, the Automatic Street Light Control system will
detect the movement of the vehicle and draw the necessary energy from the batteries
connected with the solar tracking system to turn on the street light for illumination just for
the necessary time and thus, lead to the conservation of the electrical energy by using it for
limited/necessary period.
The main objective of the project is the construction of a prototype for an automatic solar
tracking system which converts the solar energy into electrical energy to store in the batteries
which is connected to the automatic street light control system for the automation of the street
lights (i.e. automatic on and off) in response to the detection of any moving vehicle.

4. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
__________________________________________________________________________
We express our deep gratitude to Ms. Sonam Mittal, Asst. Professor, Department of
Electrical & Electronics Engineering for her valuable guidance and suggestion throughout
our project work. We are thankful to Ms. Amruta Pattnaik and Ms. Sonam Mittal, Project
Coordinators for their valuable guidance.
We would like to extend our sincere thanks to Mr. Ajit Kumar Sharma, Head of the
Department for his time to time suggestions to complete our project work. We are also
thankful to Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar, Director for providing us the facilities to carry out
our project work.
(ASHUTOSH KUMAR) (VIVEK KUMAR) (MOHIT ACHHWAN)
(40196204915) (03696204915) (35396204915)
(ABHILASH KHANSALI) (CHETAN ANAND AGRAHARI)
(00196207816) (00296207816)

5. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATES’ DECLARATION ……… i
ABSTRACT ……… ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……… iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……… iv
LIST OF FIGURES ……… vi
LIST OF TABLES ……… vii
LITERATURE REVIEW ……… viii
1. CHAPTER: INTRODUCTION ……… 1
1.1 About solar tracking system ……… 1
1.2 Solar energy intercepted ……… 3
1.3 Reflective losses ……… 3
1.4 Dual Axis solar tracking system ……… 3
1.4.1 Tip-Tilt ……… 5
1.4.2 Azimuth-altitude ……… 6
1.5 Tracker Type Selection ……… 6
1.6 About Smart Street-Lights ……… 7
1.6.1 Features ……… 7
2. CHAPTER: COMPONENTS ……… 8
2.1 Light Dependent Resistor ……… 8
2.2 IR Sensors ……… 9
2.2.1 Operation ……… 9
2.3 DC Gear Motors ……… 10
2.4 Servomotors ……… 11
2.5 Solar Panel ……… 12
2.6 Battery ……… 13
2.7 Arduino ……… 15

6. v
2.8 Smart Street-Lights ……… 16
2.8.1 Lightning features ……… 16
2.8.2 Battery ……… 17
2.8.3 Pole ……… 17
3. CHAPTER: DESIGN, LAYOUTS AND CODES ……… 19
3.1 Block Diagram ……… 19
3.2 Street Light System Circuitry ……… 20
3.3 Codes ……… 20
4. CHAPTER: EFFICIENCY AND MPPT ……… 25
4.1 Quantum Efficiency ……… 25
4.2 Maximum Power Point ……… 25
4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages ……… 26
4.3.1 Advantages ……… 26
4.3.2 Disadvantages ……… 26
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

7. vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Solar panel ……….2
Figure 2: Variation of reflective by variation frequency ……….3
Figure 3: Dual axis tracker ……….4
Figure 4: Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker ..………5
Figure 5: Suitable location for placing of solar panels ...………7
Figure 6: LDR representation and LDR sensor …………8
Figure 7: IR Sensor Representation …………9
Figure 8: DC Gear Motor …………10
Figure 9: Magnetic field generation …………11
Figure 10: DC Servomotor …………12
Figure 11: Photovoltaic Cell solar panel …………13
Figure 12: Battery and its connector ….….….. 14
Figure 13: Arduino-Uno ……….... 16
Figure 14: Solar street light at bus stop …………17
Figure 15: Block Diagram of System …………19
Figure 16: Block Diagram of Smart Street-Light System …………20

8. vii
LIST OF TABLES
_____________________________________________________________
Table 1: Total Loss all-over the day 2
Table 2: Different types of batteries 15

9. viii
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this firstly the microcontroller is major part of solar tracking system, it controls all operation.
The solar panel is aligned according to algorithm under the control of microcontroller [1]. Two
dc gear motors are used for the movement of solar panel in two
Axes [2]. The speed of dc gear motor is controlled by motor driver circuit. PWM or Pulse
Width
Modulation technique is used to digitally control speed of dc motors. The LDRs are connected
in each side of solar panel which compare intensity of light and give signal accordingly to
Arduino for movement of solar panel[3].
The energy which we obtain from solar panel is stored in the battery bank. Now this power is
used as an input power source for the street light[4]. In street light system, LDR is connected
which automatically turn on street light at night and turn off at day. The IR sensor is placed on
highway as it detects the vehicle movement, it turns on the street light of that particular area
where vehicle is detected by IR sensor & remaining light remains off[5]. So, this whole system
helps to save more energy, which leads to increase in efficiency of the system.

10. ix

11. 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 About Solar tracking system
A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the Sun. Payloads are usually solar
panels, parabolic troughs, Fresnel reflectors, lenses or the mirrors of a heliostat.
For flat-panel photovoltaic systems, trackers are used to minimize the angle of incidence
between the incoming sunlight and a photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount of
energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power generating capacity. In standard
photovoltaic applications, it was predicted in 2008-2009 that trackers could be used in at
least 85% of commercial installations greater than one megawatt from 2009 to 2012.
However, as of April 2014, there is not any data to support these predictions.
In concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) applications,
trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP systems. The optics
in concentrated solar applications accept the direct component of sunlight light and
therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking systems are found in
all concentrator applications because such systems collect the sun's energy with maximum
efficiency when the optical axis is aligned with incident solar radiation[1].
Sunlight has two components, the "direct beam" that carries about 90% of the solar energy,
and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries the remainder – the diffuse portion is the blue sky on
a clear day, and is a larger proportion of the total on cloudy days. As the majority of the
energy is in the direct beam, maximizing collection requires the Sun to be visible to the
panels for as long as possible. However, please note that in more cloudy areas the ratio of
direct vs. diffuse light can be as low as 60%:40% or even lower.
The energy contributed by the direct beam drops off with the cosine of the angle between
the incoming light and the panel. In addition, the reflectance (averaged across all
polarizations) is approximately constant for angles of incidence up to around 50°, beyond
which reflectance degrades rapidly.

12. 2
Fig. 1: Solar Panel
Direct power lost (%) due to misalignment (angle I) where Lost = 1 - cos(I)
I Lost I hours Lost
0° 0% 15° 1 3.4%
1° 0.015% 30° 2 13.4%
3° 0.14% 45° 3 30%
8° 1% 60° 4 >50%
23.4° 8.3% 75° 5 >75%
Table 1: Loss calculation table
For example, trackers that have accuracies of ± 5° can deliver greater than 99.6% of the
energy delivered by the direct beam plus 100% of the diffuse light. As a result, high
accuracy tracking is not typically used in non-concentrating PV applications.
The purpose of a tracking mechanism is to follow the Sun as it moves across the sky
In the following sections, in which each of the main factors are described in a little more
detail, the complex path of the Sun is simplified by considering its daily east-west motion
separately from its yearly north-south variation with the seasons of the year.
1.2 Solar energy intercepted
The amount of solar energy available for collection from the direct beam is the amount of
light intercepted by the panel. This is given by the area of the panel multiplied by the cosine

13. 3
of the angle of incidence of the direct beam (see illustration above). Or put another way, the
energy intercepted is equivalent to the area of the shadow cast by the panel onto a surface
perpendicular to the direct beam.
This cosine relationship is very closely related to the observation formalized in 1760 by
Lambert's cosine law. This describes that the observed brightness of an object is
proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of the light illuminating it.
1.3 Reflective losses
Fig. 2: variation of reflective by variation of frequency
Not all of the light intercepted is transmitted into the panel - a little is reflected at its surface.
The amount reflected is influenced by both the refractive index of the surface material and
the angle of incidence of the incoming light. The amount reflected also differs depending
on the polarization of the incoming light. Incoming sunlight is a mixture of all polarizations.
Averaged over all polarizations, the reflective losses are approximately constant up to
angles of incidence up to around 50° beyond which it degrades rapidly.
1.4 Dual axis solar tracker system
Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation.
These axes are typically normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the
ground can be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can
be considered a secondary axis. There are several common implementations of dual axis
trackers. They are classified by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the

14. 4
ground. Two common implementations are tip-tilt dual axis trackers (TTDAT) and
azimuthaltitude dual axis trackers (AADAT). The orientation of the module with respect to
the tracker axis is important when modeling performance. Dual axis trackers typically have
modules oriented parallel to the secondary axis of rotation. Dual axis trackers allow for
optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow the Sun vertically and horizontally.
No matter where the Sun is in the sky, dual axis trackers are able to angle themselves to be
in direct contact with the Sun.
ACCORDING TO ROTATION
TWO TYPES OF DUAL AXIS ROTATION OF SOLAR PANEL
➢ TIP-TILT ➢ AZIMUTH ALTITUDE
1.4.1 Tip–Tilt
Fig.3: Dual axis tracker mounted on a pole. Project in Siziwangqi, China
A tip–tilt dual axis tracker (TTDAT) is so-named because the panel array is mounted on the
top of a pole. Normally the east–west movement is driven by rotating the array around the
top of the pole. On top of the rotating bearing is a T- or H-shaped mechanism that provides
vertical rotation of the panels and provides the main mounting points for the array. The
posts at either end of the primary axis of rotation of a tip–tilt dual axis tracker can be shared
between trackers to lower installation costs.
Other such TTDAT trackers have a horizontal primary axis and a dependent orthogonal
axis. The vertical azimuthal axis is fixed. This allows for great flexibility of the payload

15. 5
connection to the ground mounted equipment because there is no twisting of the cabling
around the pole.
Field layouts with tip–tilt dual axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means
that keeping the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for
appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Normally the trackers
would have to be positioned at fairly low density in order to avoid one tracker casting a
shadow on others when the Sun is low in the sky. Tip-tilt trackers can make up for this by
tilting closer to horizontal to minimize up-Sun shading and therefore maximize the total
power being collected.
The axes of rotation of many tip–tilt dual axis trackers are typically aligned either along a
true north meridian or an east–west line of latitude.
Given the unique capabilities of the Tip-Tilt configuration and the appropriated controller
totally automatic tracking is possible for use on portable platforms. The orientation of the
tracker is of no importance and can be placed as needed.
1.4.2 Azimuth-Altitude
An azimuth–altitude (or alt-azimuth) dual axis tracker (AADAT) has its primary axis (the
azimuth axis) vertical to the ground. The secondary axis, often called elevation axis, is then
typically normal to the primary axis. They are similar to tip-tilt systems in operation, but
they differ in the way the array is rotated for daily tracking. Instead of rotating the array
around the top of the pole.
Fig.4: Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker - 2 axis solar tracker in Toledo, Spain.

16. 6
AADAT systems can use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array mounted on a
series of rollers. The main advantage of this arrangement is the weight of the array is
distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to the single loading point of the pole in
the TTDAT. This allows AADAT to support much larger arrays. Unlike the TTDAT,
however, the AADAT system cannot be placed closer together than the diameter of the ring,
which may reduce the system density, especially considering inter-tracker shading.
1.5 Tracker Type Selection
The selection of tracker type is on many factors including installation size, electric rates,
government incentives, land constraints, latitude, and local weather.
Horizontal single axis trackers are typically used for large distributed generation projects
and utility scale projects. The combination of energy improvement and lower product cost
and lower installation complexity results in compelling economics in large deployments. In
addition the strong afternoon performance is particularly desirable for large grid-tied
photovoltaic systems so that production will match the peak demand time. Horizontal single
axis trackers also add a substantial amount of productivity during the spring and summer
seasons when the Sun is high in the sky. The inherent robustness of their supporting
structure and the simplicity of the mechanism also result in high reliability which keeps
maintenance costs low. Since the panels are horizontal, they can be compactly placed on
the axle tube without danger of self-shading and are also readily accessible for cleaning.
A vertical axis tracker pivots only about a vertical axle, with the panels either vertical, at a
fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation angle. Such trackers with fixed or (seasonally)
adjustable angles are suitable for high latitudes, where the apparent solar path is not
especially high, but which leads to long days in summer, with the Sun traveling through a
long arc.
Dual axis trackers are typically used in smaller residential installations and locations with
very high government feed in tariffs.

17. 7
1.6 About Smart Street-Lights
Smart street lights are raised light sources which are powered by solar panels generally
mounted on the lighting structure or integrated in the pole itself.
The solar panels charge a rechargeable battery, which powers a fluorescent or LED lamp
during the night.
1.6.1 Features:
Most solar lights turn on and turn off automatically by sensing outdoor light using solar
panel voltage. Solar streetlights are designed to work throughout the night. Many can stay
lit for more than one night if the sun is not available for a couple of days. Older models
included lamps that were not fluorescent or LED. Solar lights installed in windy regions are
generally equipped with flat panels to better cope with the winds.
Latest designs use wireless technology and fuzzy control theory for battery management.
The street lights using this technology can operate as a network with each light having the
capability of performing on or off the network.
Fig. 5: Suitable location for placing of solar panel

18. 8
CHAPTER 2: COMPONENTS
2.1 Light Dependent Resistor
Fig.6: LDR representation and LDR sensor
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a
function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive devices.
They are also called as photo conductors, photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They
are made up of semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are many different
symbols used to indicate an LDR, one of the most commonly used symbols is shown in the
figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can
have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can
have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds
a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough
energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole
partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and
sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover,
unique photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain
wavelength bands [2].
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has
its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In
intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon
must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices

19. 9
have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the
conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that
is, longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample
of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be
extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.
2.2 IR Sensors
Fig. 7: IR Sensor Representation
A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor that measures infrared (IR)
light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are most often used in PIR-based
motion detectors.
2.2.1 Operation
An individual PIR sensor detects changes in the amount of infrared radiation impinging
upon it, which varies depending on the temperature and surface characteristics of the objects
in front of the sensor.
When an object, such as a human, passes in front of the background, such as a wall, the
temperature at that point in the sensor's field of view will rise from room temperature to
body temperature, and then back again. The sensor converts the resulting change in the
incoming infrared radiation into a change in the output voltage, and this triggers the
detection. Objects of similar temperature but different surface characteristics may also have
a different infrared emission pattern, and thus moving them with respect to the background
may trigger the detector as well.

20. 10
PIRs come in many configurations for a wide variety of applications. The most common
models have numerous Fresnel lenses or mirror segments, an effective range of about ten
meters (thirty feet), and a field of view less than 180 degrees. Models with wider fields of
view, including 360 degrees, are available—typically designed to mount on a ceiling. Some
larger PIRs are made with single segment mirrors and can sense changes in infrared energy
over thirty meters (one hundred feet) away from the PIR. There are also PIRs designed with
reversible orientation mirrors which allow either broad coverage (110° wide) or very narrow
"curtain" coverage, or with individually selectable segments to "shape" the coverage.
2.3 DC Gear motor
Fig. 8: DC Gear Motor
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types realy, on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism,
either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow
in part of the motor.

21. 11
Fig. 9: Magnetic field generation
A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using an internal
mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the stator field. Torque is
produced by the principle that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external
magnetic field experiences a force, known as Lorentz force. In a motor, the magnitude of
this
Lorentz force (a vector represented by the green arrow), and thus the output torque, is a
function for rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque ripple) Since this is a
two-pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the current reverses each
half turn (180)
The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets),
and rotating electromagnets.
2.4 Servomotor
A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular
or linear position, velocity and acceleration.
It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a
relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module designed specifically for use
with servomotors.
Servomotors are not a specific class of motor although the term servomotor is often used to
refer to a motor suitable for use in a closed-loop control system.

22. 12
Servomotors are used in applications such as robotics, CNC machinery or automated
manufacturing.
Fig. 10: DC Servomotor
2.5 Solar Panel
Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity. A
photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic
solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system
that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications.
Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and
typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area
of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice
the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. There are a few commercially available solar
modules that exceed efficiency of 24%.

23. 13
Fig. 11: Photovoltaic cell solar panel
A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations
contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic
modules, an inverter, a battery pack for storage, interconnection wiring, and optionally a
solar tracking mechanism.
The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with latitude
and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel
with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m2
will produce 200 W at Standard Test Conditions,
but it can produce more when the sun is high in the sky and will produce less in cloudy
conditions or when the sun is low in the sky. In central Colorado, which receives annual
insolation of 5.5 kWh/m2
/day (or 230W/m2
),[1]
such a panel can be expected to produce 400
kWh of energy per year. However, in Michigan, which receives only 3.8 kWh/m2
/day,
annual energy yield will drop to 280 kWh for the same panel. At more northerly European
latitudes, yields are significantly lower: 175 kWh annual energy yield in southern England.
2.6 Battery
The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that was introduced for
the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a
polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used in walkie-talkies, clocks
and smoke detectors.

24. 14
The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and alkaline
chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium,
nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once
common, have not been manufactured in many years due to their mercury content.
Designations for this format include NEDA 1604 and IEC 6F22 (for zinc-carbon) or
MN1604 6LR61 (for alkaline). The size, regardless of chemistry, is commonly designated
PP3—a designation originally reserved solely for carbon-zinc, or in some countries, E or E-
block.
Fig. 12: 9v battery and its connector
Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61 cells enclosed
in a wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can be used
in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter. Carbon-zinc types are
made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a moisture-resistant wrapper to prevent
drying. Primary lithium types are made with three cells in series.
In 2007, 9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the United
States. In Switzerland in 2008, 9-volt batteries totaled 2% of primary battery sales and 2%
of secondary battery sales.

25. 15
Type IEC
name
ANSI/NEDA
name
Typical
capacity
in mAh
Nominal
voltages
Primary
(disposable)
Alkaline 6LR61 1604A 550 9
6LP3146 1604A 550 9
Zinc–
carbon
6F22 1604D 400 9
Lithium 1604LC 1200 9
Rechargeable Ni-Cd 6KR61 11604 120 7.2, 8.4
NiMH 6HR61 7.2H5 175-300 7.2, 8.4,
9.6
Lithium
polymer
520 7.4
Lithiumion 620 7.4
Table 2: Different types of batteries
2.7 Arduino
Arduino is an open-source hardware and software company, project and user community
that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for
building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and control objects in the
physical and digital world. Its products are licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public
License (LGPL) or the GNU General Public License (GPL),[1]
permitting the manufacture

26. 16
of Arduino boards and software distribution by anyone. Arduino boards are available
commercially in preassembled form or as do-it-yourself (DIY) kits.
Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards are
equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to
various expansion boards or breadboards (shields) and other circuits. The boards feature
serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models,
which are also used for loading programs from personal computers.
Fig. 13: Arduino-Uno
The microcontrollers are typically programmed using a dialect of features from the
programming languages C and C++. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains,
the Arduino project provides an integrated development environment (IDE) based on the
Processing language project.
SPECIFICATION OF ARDUINO:
MEMORY - SRAM (2 KB)
CPU - MICROCHIP AVR (8 BIT)
STORAGE - EEPROM (1 KB)
TYPE - SINGLE BOARD MICROCONTROLLER
OPERATING VOLTAGE - 5V

27. 17
DC CURRENT PER I/O PIN - 20 MA
CLOCK SPEED - 16 MHZ
MICROCONTROLLER -MICROCHIP ATMEGA328P
INPUT VOLTAGE - 5V (BY ADAPTER)
2.8 Smart Street-lights consist of 3 main parts:
➢ LIGHTING FEATURE
➢ BATTERIES
➢ POLE
2.8.1 Lighting Feature:
LED is usually used as lighting source of modern solar street light, as the LED will provide
much higher Lumens with lower energy consumption. The energy consumption of LED
fixture is at least 50% lower than HPS fixture which is widely used as lighting source in
Traditional street lights. LEDs lack of warm up time also allows for use of motion detectors
for additional efficiency gains.
2.8.2 Battery:
Battery will store the electricity from solar panel during the day and provide energy to the
fixture during night. The life cycle of the battery is very important to the lifetime of the light
and the capacity of the battery will affect the backup days of the lights. There are usually 2
types of batteries: Gel Cell Deep Cycle Battery and Lead Acid Battery and many more.
Lithium-ion batteries are also popular these days as they are compact in size and not prone
to theft (cannot be used in other applications like lead acid batteries).

28. 18
2.8.3 Pole:
Strong Poles are necessary to all street lights, especially to solar street lights as there are
often components mounted on the top of the pole: fixtures, panels and sometimes batteries.
However, in some newer designs, the PV panels and all electronics are integrated in the
pole itself. Wind resistance is also a factor.
Also, there are some accessories, like foundation cage and battery box.
Fig. 14: Solar street light at bus stop
Each street light can have its own photo voltaic panel, independent of other street lights.
Alternately, a number of panels can be installed as a central power source on a separate
location and supply power to a number of street lights.
All In One type Solar street lights are also gaining popularity. In this type the Solar panel,
Lithium-ion battery and LED light are fitted together in a compact way. This enhances
battery protection against theft and also the entire unit is weather proof.
City of Las Vegas was the first city in the world that tested new EnGoPlanet Solar
Street lights that are coupled with kinetic tiles that produce electricity when people walk
over them.
The charge and discharge cycles of the battery is also very important considering the overall
cost of the project[3].

29. 19
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN, LAYOUT AND CODES
3.1 Block Diagram
Fig 15: Block Diagram of System
The 4 LDRs (2 for horizontal detection and 2 for vertical detection) detects the intensity of
the light from the Sun and sends a signal to Arduino Uno, and then the Arduino Uno will
send signal proportional from the respective LDR/LDRs to the motors through the motor
driver module for their rotation according to the need. The motor then, drives or rotates the
solar panel either vertically or horizontally [4], accordingly. Solar Panel will then charge
the battery in the battery bank through which the electrical energy will store into the
batteries in the chemical form for the usage of that energy for later times at night for Street
sLight to glow and provide the necessary illumination for the moving vehicles.

30. 20
3.2 Street Light System Circuitry
Fig. 16: Block Diagram of Smart Street-Light System
An LDR sensor is connected to the IR module which will sense the presence of the sunlight
and accordingly change its resistance value and will either activate the IR module or
deactivate it according to the condition. After the condition is checked, the IR sensor set
will send and receive the signal and will detect whether there is any vehicle that is in the
road or not and, will send this signal to the IR module for further instruction to the LEDs
on the Street Lights. If they detect any vehicle on the road then the LEDs will glow and if
they didn’t sense anything then the LEDs will remain off [5].
3.3 Codes
#define LightValue 700
#define m21 8
#define m22 9
#define m11 10
#define m12 11
#define ldr1 A0

31. 21
#define ldr2 A2
#define ldr3 A1
#define ldr4 A3
void left(){
digitalWrite(m11,LOW)
;
digitalWrite(m12,LOW)
; delay(50); stoped();
delay(50); }
void right(){
digitalWrite(m11,HIGH);
digitalWrite(m12,HIGH);
delay(50); stoped();
delay(50); } void up(){
digitalWrite(m21,HIGH);
digitalWrite(m22,LOW);
delay(50);
stoped(); delay(50); }
void down(){
digitalWrite(m21,LOW);
digitalWrite(m22,HIGH);
delay(50); stoped();

32. 22
delay(50); } void
stoped(){
digitalWrite(m11,LOW);
digitalWrite(m12,LOW);
digitalWrite(m21,LOW);
digitalWrite(m22,LOW);
}
void setup() {
pinMode(m11, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m12, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m21, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m22, OUTPUT);
}
int s1,s2,s3,s4; void
loop() { s1 =
analogRead(ldr1); s2 =
analogRead(ldr2); s3 =
analogRead(ldr3); s4 =
analogRead(ldr4);
Serial.print("L1");
Serial.print(s1);
Serial.print(“L2"); Serial.print(s2);
Serial.print(" L3");

33. 23
Serial.print(s3);
Serial.print("L4");
Serial.print(s4);
if (s1 > LightValue && s2 < LightValue) { up();
Serial.print(" up");
delay(800); }
if(s1 < LightValue && s2 > LightValue){ down();
Serial.print(" down");
delay(800); }
if(s3 > LightValue && s4 < LightValue){
left();
Serial.print(" left");
}
if(s3 < LightValue && s4 > LightValue) {
right ();
Serial.print(" right");
} Serial.println(" ");
delay(100);
// stoped();
}

34. 24
CHAPTER 4: EFFICIENCY AND MPPT
4.1 Quantum Efficiency
Quantum efficiency refers to the percentage of photons that are converted to electric current
(i.e., collected carriers) when the cell is operated under short circuit conditions. The
"external" quantum efficiency of a silicon solar cell includes the effect of optical losses such
as transmission and reflection.
In particular, some measures can be taken to reduce these losses. The reflection losses,
which can account for up to 10% of the total incident energy, can be dramatically decreased
using a technique called texturization, a light trapping method that modifies the average
light path.
Quantum efficiency is most usefully expressed as a spectral measurement (that is, as a
function of photon wavelength or energy). Since some wavelengths are absorbed more
effectively than others, spectral measurements of quantum efficiency can yield valuable
information about the quality of the semiconductor bulk and surfaces. Quantum efficiency
alone is not the same as overall energy conversion efficiency, as it does not convey
information about the fraction of power that is converted by the solar cell [6].
4.2 Maximum Power Point
A solar cell may operate over a wide range of voltages (V) and currents (I). By increasing
the resistive load on an irradiated cell continuously from zero (a short circuit) to a very high
value (an open circuit) one can determine the maximum power point, the point that
maximizes V×I; that is, the load for which the cell can deliver maximum electrical power
at that level of irradiation. (The output power is zero in both the short circuit and open circuit
extremes).
A high quality, monocrystalline silicon solar cell, at 25 °C cell temperature, may produce
0.60 V open-circuit (VOC). The cell temperature in full sunlight, even with 25 °C air
temperature, will probably be close to 45 °C, reducing the open-circuit voltage to 0.55 V
per cell. The voltage drops modestly, with this type of cell, until the short-circuit current is

35. 25
approached (ISC). Maximum power (with 45 °C cell temperature) is typically produced with
75% to 80% of the open-circuit voltage (0.43 V in this case) and 90% of the short-circuit
current. This output can be up to 70% of the VOC x ISC product. The short-circuit current
(ISC) from a cell is nearly proportional to the illumination, while the open-circuit voltage
(VOC) may drop only 10% with an 80% drop in illumination. Lower-quality cells have a
more rapid drop in voltage with increasing current and could produce only 1/2 VOC at 1/2
ISC. The usable power output could thus drop from 70% of the VOC x ISC product to 50% or
even as little as 25%. Vendors who rate their solar cell "power" only as VOC x ISC, without
giving load curves, can be seriously distorting their actual performance.
The maximum power point of a photovoltaic varies with incident illumination.
For example, accumulation of dust on photovoltaic panels reduces the maximum power
point.
For systems large enough to justify the extra expense, a maximum power point tracker tracks the
instantaneous power by continually measuring the voltage and current (and hence, power
transfer), and uses this information to dynamically adjust the load so the maximum power is always
transferred, regardless of the variation in lighting [7].
Fig.17 MPPT graph according to intensity of sun

36. 26
4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
4.3.1 Advantages:
• Solar street lights are independent of the utility grid. Hence, the operation costs are
minimized.
• Solar street lights require much less maintenance compared to conventional street lights.
• Since external wires are eliminated, risk of accidents is minimized.
• This is a non-polluting source of electricity
• Separate parts of solar system can be easily carried to the remote areas It allows the saving
of energy and also cost.
4.3.2 Disadvantage:
• Initial investment is higher compared to conventional street lights.
• Risk of theft is higher as equipment costs are comparatively higher.
• Snow or dust, combined with moisture can accumulate on horizontal PV-panels and reduce
or even stop energy production.
• Rechargeable batteries will need to be replaced several times over the lifetime of the fixtures
adding to the total lifetime cost of the light.

37. CONCLUSION
This work will provides a competent method for lighting systems and makes the whole
process of energy saving AUTOMATIC, EASIER and EFFICIENT. This model is
implemented with few modifications as a source of revenue; as charging station for battery
from the Solar Panels Moving with the new & renewable energy sources, this system can be
upgraded by replacing ordinary LED modules with the solar based LED modules. With
utilizing the latest technology and advance sensors, we could serve the same purpose of
automatically controlling the street lights much more effectively both by cost and manpower.

38. REFERENCE
[1] Tar lochan Kaur, Suraiya Mahajan, Shilpa Verma, Priyanka, Jamila Gambhir, “Arduino
Based Low Cost Dual Axis Solar Tracker”, IEEE International conference on Power
Electronics, Intelligent control and Energy Systems, pp. 1-5, 2016.
[2] W. Xiao, N. Ozog, and W. G. Dunford, “Topology study of photovoltaic interface for
maximum power point tracking,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 1696–1704,
Jun. 2007.
[3] J. H. R. Enslin, M. S. Wolf, D. B. Snyman, and W. Swingers, “Integrated photovoltaic
maximum power point tracking converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 44, no. 6, pp.
769– 773, Dec. 1997.
[4] R. J. Wai, W. H. Wang, and C. Y. Lin, “High-performance stand-alone photovoltaic
generation system,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 240–250, Jan. 2008.
[5] Megha J. K1, Pallavi K.S2, Ramya N. B3, Varsha G.N4, Shruti B.M5 ''Arduino based
dual axis solar tracking system' 'International Research Journal of Engineering and
Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 05 Issue:05 ,May-2018.