Radiation safety p6
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Radiation therapy uses high-energy particles like x-rays, gamma rays, or electron beams to destroy or damage cancer cells. It works by damaging the DNA of cells, causing cancer cells to die more quickly than healthy cells which can recover. There are three main types of radiation therapy: internal radiation uses radioactive sources implanted near cancer cells, external radiation uses equipment like linear accelerators to deliver radiation beams to cancerous areas from outside the body, and systemic radiation injects radiopharmaceuticals into the body.
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Cognitive load theory
Cognitive load theory describes the different types of cognitive load on working memory: intrinsic load from the difficulty of the material, extraneous load from poor instructional design, and germane load that aids learning. Various instructional design techniques can manage cognitive load, such as worked examples, completion problems, integrating rather than splitting sources of information, presenting words and pictures together rather than separately, and eliminating redundant information. The effectiveness of techniques depends on learner expertise and the complexity of the material.
Blockbusters #soccd
This document provides instructions for playing a game called "Player Key". The game is played in pairs, with one player making a chain from side to side and the other from top to bottom on a grid. Players take turns answering trivia questions, coloring in a block if they answer correctly. Players can also block their opponent's chain by choosing a question. The first player to complete their chain across or down wins.
Blockbusters template
Players work in pairs to build chains across or down the game board by answering questions correctly. Each player uses a different color to mark their chain, and can choose questions to block their partner's chain. The first player to complete a chain from side to side or top to bottom wins.
Blockbusters #socfam
Work in pairs to create chains by colouring in blocks when answering questions correctly. One player makes a chain from side to side, the other from top to bottom. Players use different colours and can block their partner's chain by choosing questions. The first to complete their chain across or down wins.
2.6 acids bases and salts
This document discusses acids, bases, and salts. It defines pH and the pH scale, explaining that acids have a pH below 7 while bases have a pH above 7. Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. Acids contain H+ ions while bases contain OH- ions. When an acid and base react, they form a salt and water through neutralization. Common acids and bases are given along with examples of acid-base reactions and properties. Methods for making soluble salts by reacting acids with metals or insoluble bases are also described.
C2.5 exothermic and endothermic reactions
This document discusses exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions. It provides examples of common exothermic reactions like combustion and oxidation, which release energy to their surroundings. Endothermic reactions like the decomposition of calcium carbonate absorb energy from their surroundings. The document uses examples like hand warmers and sports injury cold packs to illustrate exothermic and endothermic processes. It also contains questions to test the reader's understanding of whether specific reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
C2.3.3 quantitative chemistry
Farmer Giles wants to determine which fertilizer contains more nitrogen. To do this, he needs to calculate the percentage of nitrogen by mass in each fertilizer. KNO3 has a higher percentage of nitrogen than NaNO3 because KNO3 has a lower molar mass and therefore more of its mass is made up of nitrogen. Calculating percentage by mass involves using relative atomic masses and molar masses. For example, the percentage of nitrogen in ammonia is calculated by taking the mass of nitrogen atoms, dividing by the molar mass of ammonia, and multiplying by 100.
C2.2 how structure influences
Substances with simple molecular, giant ionic and giant covalent structures have very different properties. Ionic, covalent and metallic bonds are strong, while forces between molecules are weaker. Nanomaterials have new properties due to their small size on the scale of 10 atoms. The structures of substances influence their properties and uses.
C2.1 structure and bonding
1. The document discusses different types of chemical bonding including ionic bonding, covalent bonding, and metallic bonding.
2. Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons between atoms to form ions with opposite charges that are attracted in a giant lattice structure.
3. Covalent bonding can form either simple molecules held together by shared electron pairs or giant covalent structures with thousands of atoms bonded together.
C2.1 structure and bonding
Ionic compounds form giant lattice structures when oppositely charged ions bond via electrostatic forces. This ionic bonding results in high melting points and the ability to conduct electricity when molten or dissolved. Covalent bonds involve electron sharing and can form either simple molecules with weak intermolecular forces or giant covalent structures with very high melting points due to numerous strong covalent bonds. Metallic bonding involves delocalized electrons that act as glue between positive metal ions, allowing them to slide past one another.
B2.8 speciation
Speciation is the formation of new biological species. The document provides three key points about speciation and its relationship to natural selection:
1. Speciation can occur when a single population becomes separated into two isolated groups. Over time, each group evolves differently through genetic variation and natural selection, resulting in reproductively isolated species.
2. Evidence for evolution includes the fossil record, which shows organisms changing over time and new species arising as others become extinct.
3. Natural selection plays a role in speciation when environmental changes cause isolated populations to evolve adaptations better suited to their local conditions, leading to reproductive isolation and the formation of new species over prolonged periods of separation.
B2.7 meiosis and mitosis
Meiosis and mitosis are two types of cell division. Meiosis occurs in sex organs and produces gametes through two divisions, resulting in four cells each with half the number of chromosomes, while mitosis occurs throughout the body and involves one division to produce two identical cells with the same number of chromosomes. The main differences are that meiosis produces gametes and reduces chromosome number, while mitosis produces somatic cells to grow and repair tissues.
B2.7 genetic disorders
This document discusses several genetic disorders including polydactyly, cystic fibrosis, and Huntington's disease. It provides details on the inheritance patterns and characteristics of each disorder. Potential treatments and ethical issues related to genetic testing, gene therapy, cloning, and preimplantation genetic diagnosis are also examined.
B2.5 proteins enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules that act as biological catalysts, increasing the rate of chemical reactions. They are specific and only catalyze one reaction. Enzymes are found in animals, plants and microorganisms and are used widely in the home and industry. Some advantages of using enzymes include enabling reactions to occur at lower temperatures and making industrial processes cheaper. However, enzymes are sensitive to temperature and pH changes.
Aerobic & anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, releasing energy. This occurs in mitochondria and produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic respiration. During intense exercise, the body shifts to anaerobic respiration which takes place in the cytoplasm when oxygen demand outstrips supply. It generates lactic acid and ATP more quickly but to a lesser extent. The human body repays this oxygen debt through deep breathing after exercise to oxidize lactic acid buildup.
B1.4 pollution detectors
Lichens are useful as bio-indicators of pollution levels because they absorb nutrients and pollutants from the air. Different lichen species show varying sensitivities and abilities to accumulate pollutants. They can survive in almost all environments and seasons. Indicator species found in water can also indicate pollution levels, with mayfly nymphs and caddis fly larvae found in cleaner water, and water lice and sludgeworms found in more polluted water, allowing conclusions about water quality to be drawn. Samples should be taken at the same time each year for valid comparisons, and other factors like oxygen, pH, metals or chemicals can also act as non-biological pollution indicators.
B1.3 use and abuse of drugs
- Drugs affect the body's chemistry and can be used for medical or recreational purposes.
- Medical drugs undergo extensive testing before use to evaluate safety, effectiveness, and appropriate dosages. Thalidomide was originally developed as a sleeping pill but caused birth defects when taken by pregnant women.
- Some people use recreational drugs like alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, and heroin for their effects, though these can be addictive and harmful to health. The overall health impact of legal drugs is greater due to widespread use.
Aerobic & anaerobic respiration
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration are the two main types of cellular respiration. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose and produce energy through ATP in the mitochondria. It produces much more energy than anaerobic respiration but requires oxygen. Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen in the cytoplasm and produces lactic acid, leading to fatigue. It produces energy more quickly than aerobic respiration but in smaller amounts. Both types of respiration are important for energy production during exercise.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is caused by unstable atomic nuclei that emit radiation to achieve stability. There are three main types of radiation emitted - alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Alpha particles have a strong ionizing power but can only travel a short distance, while gamma rays have a very weak ionizing power but can travel farther. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample to decay.
Stars
Stars form when enough dust and gas from space is pulled together by gravitational attraction. During a star's main sequence period, it is stable as the forces within it are balanced. A star goes through a life cycle determined by its size, where it fuses hydrogen into helium for millions of years through nuclear fusion, then changes dramatically at the end of its life.
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Radiation safety p6
- 1. Radiation health and safety P6 explain the principles and effects of radiation therapy including the equipment used
- 2. What is radiation therapy? Radiation therapy is high-energy particles such as x-rays gamma rays or electron beams that destroy or damage cells
- 3. Effects of radiation on cells • Radiation damages cells through ionisation • Radiation may kill some cells or it may cause genetic damage • Fast growing cells (eg fetus, reproductive organs and bone marrow- as well as cancerous cells) are radiation sensitive
- 4. • Cancerous cells are fast growing so are more sensitive to radiation and thus capable of being selectively destroyed. • The target is the DNA strands to produce cell death or loss of reproductive capacity • Healthy cells recover more quickly - so short ‘fractions’ of treatment are best - little and often
- 5. Types of radiation therapy • Internal • External • Systemic
- 6. Internal • This is also known as brachytherapy • A radioactive source is implanted in the body in contact with the cancerous cells
- 7. Systemic • Radiopharmaceuticals are injected into the body
- 8. External • High-energy linear accelerators (LINAC) are used to deliver radiation to the cancerous cells • Electrons generated strike a tungsten target and produce x-rays - orthovoltage and megavoltage