Psychological tests were developed to assist in understanding human behavior and making important decisions in an objective manner. Tests provide standardized samples of behavior that can be used to infer underlying traits and make comparisons to norms. This allows for decisions to be made with less bias than relying solely on subjective human judgment. Tests quantify results to precisely describe behaviors and allow for clearer communication than qualitative descriptions alone.
A short note about the concept of the psychological test; introduction, definition, characteristics, needs, classification, types, and some selected psychological tests.
American psychologist Henry Murray developed a theory of personality that was organized in terms of motives, and needs. Murray described a need as a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances.
Theories of personality based upon needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a reflection of behaviors controlled by needs.
This presentation includes meaning of Aptitude test, with its importance and use in education.Advantages and disadvantages of using aptitude test as well as references are their for further readings.
Originally Eysenck characterized an individual's personality on two scales. Introversion - extraversion and stable - unstable. A person may thus be
Introverted and Stable,
Introverted and Unstable,
Extraverted and Stable or
Extraverted and Unstable.
The scale, stable - unstable, measures an increasing level of neuroticism. Eysenck's term "neuroticism" does not mean that the persons actually have neurosis, only that they are more inclined to get one.
They are continuous scales, so one can of course also score in the middle, for example, only 50% unstable and only 50% introverted. Later in his career he added Psychoticism.
A short note about the concept of the psychological test; introduction, definition, characteristics, needs, classification, types, and some selected psychological tests.
American psychologist Henry Murray developed a theory of personality that was organized in terms of motives, and needs. Murray described a need as a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances.
Theories of personality based upon needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a reflection of behaviors controlled by needs.
This presentation includes meaning of Aptitude test, with its importance and use in education.Advantages and disadvantages of using aptitude test as well as references are their for further readings.
Originally Eysenck characterized an individual's personality on two scales. Introversion - extraversion and stable - unstable. A person may thus be
Introverted and Stable,
Introverted and Unstable,
Extraverted and Stable or
Extraverted and Unstable.
The scale, stable - unstable, measures an increasing level of neuroticism. Eysenck's term "neuroticism" does not mean that the persons actually have neurosis, only that they are more inclined to get one.
They are continuous scales, so one can of course also score in the middle, for example, only 50% unstable and only 50% introverted. Later in his career he added Psychoticism.
Intelligence test used in the forensic psychology.
There are different tests are used to measure the intelligence or IQ of a person. Such as,
Ravens Progressive Matrices
Bhatia Battery of Intelligence
Culture Fair test
Wechsler scale
Alexander Pass a long test
etc.
Intelligence test used in the forensic psychology.
There are different tests are used to measure the intelligence or IQ of a person. Such as,
Ravens Progressive Matrices
Bhatia Battery of Intelligence
Culture Fair test
Wechsler scale
Alexander Pass a long test
etc.
Career Development. its about you identifying your potentials and developing them no matter the circumstances.
its best to do want you love doing best so that you can working hours in your lifetime than feel miserable doing something you don't like for about twenty years.
believe in yourself and don't let any thing discourage you.
Understand and Differentiate between strategic recruitment and selection.
Identify the dual goals of recruiting.
Comprehend recruitment process from organizational as well as individual perspective.
Identify what strategic decisions are involved in recruiting.
Explain the major recruitment methods and analyze their advantages and disadvantages.
Identify the basic selection criteria.
Design and administer an effective selection process.
Evaluate the three methods e.g., information gathering, tests and interviewing used in employee selection.
Appreciate varied contemporary interviewing techniques used by interviewers.
Design interview form and evaluation matrix.
Running head SETTING UP RESEARCH1 Chapter 6 Methods of Measu.docxtodd521
Running head: SETTING UP RESEARCH
1 Chapter 6 Methods of Measuring Behavior
WHAT YOU’LL LEARN ABOUT IN THIS CHAPTER:
· • The use of different methods of measuring behavior and collecting data
· • What a test is
· • How different types of tests are designed to assess different types of behavior
· • The use of achievement tests in the behavioral and social sciences
· • The design of multiple-choice items
· • How to do an item analysis
· • The application of attitude scales
· • The difference between Thurstone and Likert attitude scales
In Chapter 5, you got a healthy dose of the theoretical issues that provide the foundation for the science of measurement, why measurement is crucial to the research process, how reliability and validity are defined, and how each of these can be established.
In this chapter, you will begin learning about the application of some of these principles as you read about different methods that can be used to measure behavior, including the ubiquitous test, the questionnaire, the interview, and other techniques.
As you read this chapter, keep several things in mind. Your foremost concern in deciding what method you will use to measure the behavior of interest should be whether the tool you intend to use is a reliable and valid one. This is equally true for the best-designed test and for the most informal-appearing interview. If your test does not “work,” then virtually nothing else will.
Second, the way in which you ask your question will determine the way in which you go about measuring the variables that interest you. If you want to know about how people feel toward a particular issue, then you are talking about attitudinal scales. If you want to know how much information people have about a particular subject, then you are talking about an achievement test or some other measure of knowledge. The focus of a study (such as the effects of unemployment on self-esteem) might be the same, whether you measure attitude or achievement, but what you use to assess your outcome variable depends on the question you ask. You need to decide the intent of your research activity, which in turn reflects your original research question and hypothesis.
Third, really efficient researchers are fully onboard for using whatever method helps them answer the questions that are being asked. This might include a mixed-methods model where one aspect of a research program might include qualitative methods while another might include qualitative methods (see Chapter 10). As research questions and their associated hypotheses become more intricate and complex, the creative side of using a particular research method correctly becomes more important.
Finally, keep in mind that methods vary widely in the time it takes to learn how to use them, in the measurement process itself, and in what you can do with the information once you have collected it. For example, an interview might be appropriate to determine how teachers feel about chang.
Unit 09 psychological testing Course code 0840 Educational psychology from ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD.
prepared by Ms. SAMAN BIBI & Mariam Rafique
Due Thursday Feb 18, 2016 by NoonInstructions The critical eval.docxjacksnathalie
Due Thursday Feb 18, 2016 by Noon
Instructions: The critical evaluation essay – Be sure to submit a final draft in MLA format on word. This paper should be at least 700 words, but no more than 850. Also, take great care not to plagiarize.
Mark Twain “The Story of the Bad Little Boy”
Write a critical analysis of Mark Twain’s “The Story of the Bad Little Boy” approaches can be quite straightforward. Psychological, gender, sociological, biographical, and historical are all approaches that many use naturally in viewing a work. However, if your interest lies elsewhere, feel free to choose another approach. This essay will need a debatable thesis. A thesis is not a fact, a quote, or a question. It is your position on the topic. The reader already knows the story; you are to offer him a new perspective based on your observations.
Since the reader is familiar with the story, summary is unnecessary. Rather than tell him what happened, tell him what specific portions of the story support your thesis.
Link to “The Story of the Bad Little Boy”
http://www.washburn.edu/sobu/broach/badboy.html
This paper should be at least 700 words, but no more than 850. The paper should be formatted correctly MLA style and written in third person (do not use the words I, me, us, we, or you). The essay should also contain citations and a works cited list based on your selected essay in the assigned readings. Formulate the structured response from your own close reading of the text.
DISCLAIMER: Originality of attachments will be verified by Turnitin.
Key Terms
This document lists and defines some of the 28 most important concepts that all psychology students and psychologists should know and understand well. Many of these concepts will appear again and again in your future classes and work in psychology. You will go deeper into many of them as you explore the world of Psychology.
CONCEPTS
Definition
1. ABC
Behavior therapists conduct a thorough functional assessment (or behavioral analysis) to identify the maintaining conditions by systematically gathering information about situational antecedents (A), the dimensions of the problem behavior (B), and the consequences (C) of the problem. This is known as the ABC model, and the goal of a functional assessment of a client's behavior is to understand the ABC sequence. This model of behavior suggests that behavior (B) is influenced by some particular events that precede it, called antecedents (A), and by certain events that follow it, called consequences (C). Antecedent events cue or elicit a certain behavior. For example, with a client who has trouble going to sleep, listening to a relaxation tape may serve as a cue for sleep induction. Turning off the lights and removing the television from the bedroom may elicit sleep behaviors as well. Con- sequences are events that maintain a behavior in some way, either by increasing or decreasing it. For example, a client may be more likely to return to counselin ...
ComFun6e_Ch03_C!.indd 66ComFun6e_Ch03_C!.indd 66 12/10/09 10:27:01 AM12/10/09 10:27:01 AM
A
ngela Savanti was 22 years old, lived at home with her mother, and was employed as a
secretary in a large insurance company. She . . . had had passing periods of “the blues”
before, but her present feelings of despondency were of much greater proportion. She
was troubled by a severe depression and frequent crying spells, which had not lessened
over the past two months. Angela found it hard to concentrate on her job, had great difficulty
falling asleep at night, and had a poor appetite. . . . Her depression had begun after she and
her boyfriend Jerry broke up two months previously.
(Leon, 1984, p. 109)
Her feelings of despondency led Angela Savanti to make an appointment with a
therapist at a local counseling center. The first step the clinician took was to learn
as much as possible about Angela and her disturbance. Who is she, what is her life
like, and what precisely are her symptoms? The answers might help to reveal the
causes and probable course of her present dysfunction and suggest what kinds of
strategies would be most likely to help her. Treatment could then be tailored to
Angela’s needs and particular pattern of abnormal functioning.
In Chapters 1 and 2 you read about how researchers in abnormal psychol-
ogy build a general understanding of abnormal functioning. Clinical practitioners
apply this broad information in their work, but their main focus when faced with
new clients is to gather idiographic, or individual, information about them
(Bornstein, 2007). To help persons overcome their problems, clinicians must fully
understand them and their particular difficulties. To gather such individual infor-
mation, clinicians use the procedures of assessment and diagnosis. Then they are in
a position to offer treatment.
jjClinical Assessment: How and Why
Does the Client Behave Abnormally?
Assessment is simply the collecting of relevant information in an effort to reach
a conclusion. It goes on in every realm of life. We make assessments when we
decide what cereal to buy or which presidential candidate to vote for. College
admissions officers, who have to select the “best” of the students applying to their
college, depend on academic records, recommendations, achievement test scores,
interviews, and application forms to help them decide (Sackett, Borneman, &
Connelly, 2008). Employers, who have to predict which applicants are most likely
to be effective workers, collect information from résumés, interviews, references,
and perhaps on-the-job observations.
Clinical assessment is used to determine how and why a person is behaving ab-
normally and how that person may be helped. It also enables clinicians to evaluate
people’s progress after they have been in treatment for a while and decide whether
the treatment should be changed. The hundreds of clinical assessment techniques
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT,
DI.
LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3LASA 1.docxDIPESH30
LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3
LASA 1: FINAL PROJECT EARLY METHODS SECTION
THE ROLE OF INTROVERSION AND EXTRAVERSION
PERSONALITY TRAITS ON MARITAL BLISS
STUDENT
_______ UNIVERSITY
PSY302-A01 Research Methods
Professor
April 15, 2015
Author Note:
This research was carried out as a partial fulfillment towards research methods course by.
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to
1. What is your research question?
What is the significance of extroversion and introversion in marriage?
1. What is your hypothesis or hypotheses? What is the null hypothesis?
Null Hypothesis: Extroversion brings along successful family institution and marital bliss.
Alternate hypothesis: Extroversion does not bring along successful family institution and marital bliss.
1. How many participants would you like to use and why? What are the inclusion characteristics, i.e., what must they have in order to be included in your study (for example, gender, diagnosis, age, personality traits, etc.)? Are there any exclusion characteristics, i.e. are there certain characteristics that would exclude them from being in your study? Does the sample need to be diverse? Why or why not?
20 participants will be engaged in the research study. This is a small number that is easier to manage as well as coordinate their activities during the data collection exercise. Ideally, participants are required and are normally sampled from a large population to be a representative. The nature of the study will require the researcher to get participants who have experiences in marriage. On gender, I will sample equal number of men and women to act as the representative of the general population. The approach is guided by the population in the community where the number of women and men is at par. On age, I will pick individuals from across ages although the highest percentage will constitute of married individuals between the age of 30 and 40 years. Further, I will also pick four individuals who have divorced with the aim of understanding whether introversion or extroversion contributed to their divorce. I will also look at the personal traits of individuals; hence will both social and anti-social individuals. The target participants will precise, representative and homogeneous. They will then be divided into different sets or strata that are mutually exclusive in order to aid it obtaining a systematic process of research.
1. What sampling technique will be used to collect your sample? What population does yoursample generalize to?
Being a qualitative research, the research will utilize the sampling method in the collection of data. Surveying and questionnaire are the main data collection methods that are normally used in quantitative research. The methods aids in understanding the behavior and effects from different members of the focus groups. The approach helps to reduce biases that may emerge when using a bigger population size while at the same time gu ...
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles.docxdickonsondorris
Use the Capella library to locate two psychology research articles: a quantitative methods article and a qualitative methods article. These do not need to be on the same topic, but if you have a research topic in mind for your proposal (see Assessment 5), you may wish to pick something similar for this assessment. Read each article carefully.
Then, in a 2–3-page assessment, address the following elements:
1 Summarize the research question and hypothesis, the research methods, and the overall findings.
2 Compare the research methodologies used in each study. In what ways are the methodologies similar? In what ways are they different? (Be sure to use the technical psychological terms we are studying.)
3 Describe the sample and sample size for each study. Which one used a larger sample and why? How were participants selected?
4 Describe the data collection process for each study. What methods were used to collect the data? Surveys? Observations? Interviews? Be specific and discuss the instruments or measures fully—what do they measure? How is the test designed?
5 Summarize the data analysis process for each study. How was the data analyzed? Were statistics used? Were interviews coded?
6 In conclusion, craft 1–2 paragraphs explaining how these two articles illustrate the main differences between quantitative and qualitative research.
Additional Requirements
· Written communication: Written communication should be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
· APA formatting: Your assessment should be formatted according to APA (6th ed.) style and formatting.
· Length: A typical response will be 2–3 typed and double-spaced pages.
Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.
Research Methods
There are many different types of research studies, and the type of study that is done depends very much on the research question. Some studies demand strictly numerical data, such as a comparison of GPA among different college majors or weight loss among different types of eating programs. Others require more in-depth data, like interview responses. Such studies might include the lived experience of people that have been through a terrorist attack or understanding the experience of being physically disabled on a college campus. While there are a number of different types of studies that can be done, all of them fall under two basic categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research deals with numerical data. This means that any topic you study in a quantitative study must be quantifiable—grades, weight, height, depression, and intelligence are all things that can be quantified on some scale of measurement. Quantitative data is often considered hard data—numbers are seen as concrete, irrefutable evidence, but we have to take into account a number of factors that could impact such data. Errors in measurement and recording of such data, as well as the influence of other factors outside those in the study, make for ...
SAMPLINGFor what population do you want to test the new therap.docxanhlodge
SAMPLING
For what population do you want to test the new therapy?
Students should be able to give a concrete population to which they would like to generalize their results. For example, perhaps we are interested in seeing if our treatment is effective for all veterans with PTSD. Again, further specification can make implementation easier, but of course less specification might enable broader generalization, as long as we sample well.
Describe your sample. Name 5 specific characteristics.
Students should be able to state who is in their sample, from where they are obtaining their sample, and list at least 5 characteristics that are relevant to the example. Examples may be age, gender, ethnic diversity, SES, or things more specific for your psychological disorder. They will need to have these characteristics when they consider the representativeness of the sample to the population. These answers should be clear and specific.
What does it mean to generalize? Why is generalization important?
Use the definition from the list of concepts: “Generalization means the results of the study can be applied to people other than the actual participants of the study and to circumstances outside the actual study.”
Mention externalvalidity as it relates to generalization & representativeness. Use the vocabulary, or use the “language of experimental method.” This is why defining our population and sample clearly is important.
What specific methods will you use to recruit your participants?
Again, this will depend on your example so make sure it is appropriate for your population/sample. For example, if you are using veterans, it may make sense to recruit from the VA. Be careful not to introduce samplingbias, which leads to an unrepresentative sample, e.g. only people who use social media.
How could your methods of recruitment affect the characteristics of your sample? Why is that important?
Consider vocabulary terms like selection, how representativeness is affected, samplingbias, etc. within the context of the example. The idea is to minimize a systematic sampling bias and increase representativeness.
What incentives could you provide to increase participation? How could these incentives affect or confound the results?
Reference information about the potential effects of incentives, including samplingbias and consequent unrepresentativeness, demandcharacteristics, subject bias, ethics risks, and other potential confounds. Consider the possibility of misinformation/faulty data in order to continue participation and receive the incentive.
PROCEDURE (THERAPISTS)
Describe the basic procedure of your experiment.
Students can take some liberty here. They may need some assistance designing how the specific treatments can be implemented.
What specific part of the procedure will be different for the different groups?
Identify the independent variable (the therapy) only.
How will you determine who the therapists are for the different groups?
Consider compet.
Amanda WattenburgThursdayJul 26 at 724pmManage Discussioncheryllwashburn
Amanda Wattenburg
ThursdayJul 26 at 7:24pm
Manage Discussion Entry
Link to screen cast-o-matic:
https://screencast-o-matic.com/watch/cFitVbFMms (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
Script:
A brief introduction
Studying cognitive functioning is important as these processes impact individual’s behavior and emotions (Heeramun-Aubeeluck et al., 2015). Various factors can impact cognitive functioning. A disorder known to impact cognition is psychosis. Thus, it is essential to examine psychosis and how these psychotic experiences effect cognitive functioning over time.
Devise a specific research question related to the topic you chose in Week One.
How does psychosis effect cognitive functioning over time in patients who have experienced first-episode psychosis?
Explain the importance of the topic and research question.
Psychosis is a mental state in which individuals experience a loss of touch with reality(Boychuk, Lysaght, & Stuart, 2018). Psychosis may lead to additional occurrences or may indicate signs of a mental health disorder. It is important to examine the cognitive impairment that is caused as a result of psychotic episodes. In addition, this would unfold information that may lead to the importance of treating psychosis when the first signs are noticed in hopes of decreasing the chances of psychosis leading to a mental disorder.
A brief literature review
Zaytseva, Korsokava, Agius, & Gurovich (2013) and Bora & Murray (2014) discovered altered cognitive functioning exists prior to onset or before the prodrome stage. In addition, Bohus & Miclutia (2014) indicate that cognitive functioning at first-episode psychosis was not as strong. Thus, it can be concluded that cognitive functioning impairment occurs prior to first-episode onset however, there is varying research that indicates the impact on cognitive functioning as time goes on. Popolo, Vinci, & Balbi (2010) conducted a year-long study on neurocognitive functioning amongst children and adolescent patients with first-episode psychosis. Cognitive impairment is indicated in early psychosis onset thus the study focused on examining cognitive impairments. Several cognitive assessments were given to patients and the results were evaluated. The results of the cognitive assessments indicated that adolescents with first-episode psychosis (FEP) have neurocognitive impairments. In addition, psychotic patient’s cognitive deficiencies do not decline over the course of the psychotic disorder. However, according to the article
Neurocognitive functioning before and after the first psychotic episode: does psychosis result in cognitive deterioration? (2010)
, the results indicated that there is no decline in cognitive functioning during the first psychotic episode. This indicates a gap in research of the effect psychotic episodes has on cognitive functioning.
Evaluate published research studies on your topic found during your work on the Weeks One, Two, and ...
Teaching tech checklist Psych-heuristics implemented on mobile APPs [Alcohol ...Jacob Stotler
Teaching against risky behaviors and utilizing mobile phone APPs to design checklists for optimal decision making and structured investment strategy. (Stotler, 2019)
Testing 2
Testing
Christy Mock
PSY-FP7610
Assignment 3
Capella University
May 2017
Testing
Test
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC), Second Edition offers testing that can be completed in twenty-five to seventy-minute test settings. This test is designed to be administer in a school setting by a testing administer that has completed specific training and read the testing manual thoroughly with complete understanding. The scoring is completed through specialized software. This test consists of eighteen subtests that an administrator can administer in sections to avoid testing fatigue for the student. Per the website Pearson Clinical, the test is administered in eighteen subsets that are broken down into five categories. The five categories focus on specific aspects that will be assessed and offer different categories for different age ranges. Category 1 focuses on Simultaneous Triangles, this includes seven subsets that are: Face Recognition, Pattern Reasoning, Block Counting which are designed to be tested on students from five to eight years old (Pearson Clinical Psychology, 2017). This subset also includes Story Completion, Conceptual Thinking, Rover, and Gestalt Closure that can be used to test any ages between five and eighteen. Category two is Sequential Word Order, this set includes Number Recall, and Hand Movements that can also be used for any age category (Pearson Clinical Psychology, 2017). The third category Planning which measures the pattern reasoning and story completion in students from 7-18 (Pearson Clinical Psychology, 2017). This category includes testing the Learning Atlantis, Atlantis Delayed, Rebus, and Rebus. The last category is Delayed Knowledge which is included in the CHC model only Riddles, Expressive Vocabulary, and Verbal Knowledge (Pearson Clinical Psychology, 2017).This form of testing offers reliability and validity to the results.
Reliability and Validity
The validity evidence from associations that are compared to different mediums produced outcomes that offered the same as the results that would have been expected. Per the article published by Kaufman, the subscale and index-score relationships are commonly offered in association with the K-ABC, also per the index and IQ scores of the WISC-III, WISC-IV, and WPPSI-III, with the KAIT, and with the Cognitive clusters of the Woodcock-Johnson III. Correlations of KABC-II scales with the like-named clusters of the WJ III Cog battery reveal weak discriminant validity (Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L, 2004). Large amounts of clinical studies disclose variances that exist in different section of students with disabilities and the norm group. In the group that included Autistic Disorder, ADHD, and emotional disturbance the greatest pattern of differences could be found. The authors of the study often warn about considering the smaller differences too much as it could take focus off the larger benefits of using the test.
Strengths.
Similar to Psychological testing, meaning, advantages and limitations (20)
Psychological testing, meaning, advantages and limitations
1.
2. In this presentation
You could know that what
a psychological test is.
Its characteristics.
Advantages and limitations.
Why psychological tests were
developed.
How they can be used to assist
individuals in our societies to prom
better understanding of human
behavior and to make decisions.
4. The need to make decisions about people is not a new ch
for the human race. Every day people in our societies are
with the task of making decisions that are important and h
long-term implications for individuals.
11. Traditionally, we have
relied on a number of
methods (e.g. tradition
supernatural forces,
laws or logic) to assist
us in these processes
For example, in ancien
China, astrology and
numerology were
used to evaluate
the compatibility
between brides and
grooms.
12. For the profession of psychology, personal judgment and c
intuition have been used for a long time to assist psycholo
to arrive at a decision or to understand behavior.
13. For example, psychologists who work in busi
organizations have made decisions about hir
individuals based on interviewing them.
14. Similarly, clinicians have used interviews to decide if some
is suffering from mental illness or brain injury.
15. It has been shown
repeatedly, however, that
human judgment is
subjective and fallible.
Some of the factors that
can influence the outcomes
of human judgment include,
stereotyping, personal
bias, positive and negative
halo effect, and errors of
central tendency
16. Given that most decisions relating to professional psychol
have significant implication for the person involved or the
person who made decision, an error in making the decisio
costly and devastating, and may not be reversible.
17. For example, an erroneous judgment about the mental competency
person can lead to the rights of the person being wrongfully remove
18. As another example, a lot of time and money could be wa
if the wrong person was hired for a job
19. Psychologists consider psychological tests better than per
judgment in informing decision making in many situations
because of the nature and defining characteristics of these
21. This seems to be a difficult question to answer when one
examines the plethora of published tests in the market and
that they can differ in so many respects.
22. While some psychological tests take only a few minutes
complete, others can take hours to administer.
23. For some psychological tests, a respondent is required to provide o
simple yes/no answer, other tests are designed in such a way that a
has to navigate and respond in a virtual reality environment.
24. Some psychological tests can be administered to hundreds of peop
one time and scored and interpreted by a computer, but other tests
face-to-face administration and individual scoring and interpretation
require years of training and experience.
25. Despite the above wide-ranging differences, all
psychological tests are considered to have one th
common, that is, they are the tools that psycholog
use to collect data about people
26. More specifically, a psychological test is an objective proc
for sampling and quantifying human behaviour to make an
inference about a particular psychological construct using
standardize stimuli, and methods of administration and sc
27. In addition, to demonstrate its usefulness, a psychological
requires appropriate norms and evidence
28. A psychological test is a sample of behavior that is used t
make inferences about the individual in a significant socia
context. The behavior sample may be considered comple
itself or, as is more often the case, as a sign of an underly
disposition that mediates behaviour.
29. Take, for example, a psychological test that is used to decide whethe
individual will be able to understand instructional material to be used
job training. The test for this purpose may consist of sample passage
the daily newspaper. The test taker’s task is to read each of the pass
and report their meanings. If comprehension of most of the passage
accurate, the test taker can be judged to read well enough for the pu
of the job. As long as the difficulty level of the passages approximate
that of the instructional material, the test provides a basis for inferrin
adequate performance in training.
30. In a clinical setting, a test may provide a sample of the behavior that the client find
disturbing. For example, a client may suffer an irrational fear of an object that is n
actually dangerous, such as harmless spiders. As a result of the fear, the client ca
enter a darkened room or clean out cupboards because of the likelihood of confro
a spider. To assess the magnitude of the irrational fear, the tester may ask the cli
approach a harmless spider being held in a glass case. The distance from the spi
that induces a report of anxiety is taken as an indication of the severity of the clie
avoidance behaviour. This can be used to judge the effectiveness of any subseq
planned intervention to reduce the problem. After the treatment the client should b
to approach the spider more closely that before.
31. In both of these cases, the sample of behavior is complete in itself,
it assesses directly what the tester wants to know; namely, compreh
common passages of English text or avoiding an object of a phobia
32. The samples could be used, however,
the basis for indirect inferences, by
arguing that each in its own way reflect
an underlying disposition that is
responsible for the individual’s behavio
Thus, the comprehension test might be
used to infer the individual’s level of
general mental ability or intelligence
and the avoidance test may be used to
infer the individual’s level of neuroticis
that is, the likelihood that they will suffe
an anxiety disorder. In these cases, the
content of the particular sample is
incidental and can be replaced by a
different sample that is also thought
for the test of verbal comprehension as
a sign of general mental ability, or a se
of questions about episodes of anxiety
and depression may be substituted for
the avoidance test as a sign of the
individual’s level of neuroticism. Such
substitution would make no sense if the
tests were being used as a sample
rather than a sigh.
33. The distinction between tests as samples of behavior or as sig
underlying disposition rests on theoretical differences about th
causes of human behavior. We draw attention to the distinction
for two reasons. First, it is important for the tester to be aware
whether any particular test is being used principally as a samp
behavior or as a sign of an underlying disposition we say ‘princ
’ because the distinction when probed is not hard and fast
34. The other reason for making
the distinction is that tests
used in these two ways are
interpreted differently.
Where the test is a
sample, interpretation
of test performance is
usually in terms of what
has been called
‘criterion referencing’;
where the test is used as
a sign, what is termed a
‘norm referencing’
strategy is usually
adopted.
35. In the case of former, what is effective behavior in the situation in qu
can be specified reasonably objectively and the individual’s perform
is judged against this standard or criterion.
36. Thus, a person might be expected to understand most, if not all, of what th
read in a newspaper if they are to deal with instructional manuals on the jo
person free of a spider phobia can be expected to come close to a harmle
spider, but perhaps not touch it. In the case of norm referencing, on the ot
hand, the performance of the individual is related to the performance of a
of individuals similar to the test taker in important respects (e.g. gender,
educational level and cultural background) How well or badly a person ha
performed is thus assessed against what the average person can do, or w
norm is. Many psychological tests are thought of as signs of underlying
dispositions and as such are norm referenced.
37. The second characteristics of a psycholo
test, similar to other scientific measurem
instruments, is that it is an objective
procedure. It uses the same standardize
material administration instructions, time
and scoring procedures for all test takers
This ensures that there is no bias, uninte
or otherwise, in collecting the information
and that meaningful comparisons can be
made between individuals who are
administered the same psychological tes
Unless two people are treated in the sam
way (e.g. same instruction, same order o
questions and same time limits), it is not
possible to attribute any differences in th
performance to differences between them
The difference in performance could just
well be due to the difference in the ways
they were tested. To ensure uniformity o
test stimuli and procedures, the manual
accompanies a psychological test usuall
includes detailed and clear instructions
38. The objective nature of psychological tests is one the main advanta
they have over other methods for assisting us to understand human
behavior and make decisions about it, not the least because it minim
errors of judgment relating to personal bias or subjectivity.
39. Third, unlike subjective human judgment, the result of a psychologic
is summarized quantitatively in terms of a score or scores. Again, th
characteristic is similar to that of other scientific measurement instru
that use numbers to represent the extent of variables such as weigh
temperature and velocity.
40. The quantification of psychological test results allow
human behavior to be described more precisely an
be communicated more clearly. For example, the u
an IQ score allows psychologists to provide a more
fine-grained description of a person’s intellectual ab
41. Fourth, a psychological test provides an objective referenc
point for evaluating the behavior it measures.
42. Criterion-Referenced Test
In the case of a criterion-referenced test, a standard of performance is
determined in advance by some empirical method, and the test taker’s
performance is compared with this standard in determining whether the
or fail. It may be, for example , the judgment of experts that determines
the standard, but it is open to all to see what the standard is that is bein
set. It is not the personal viewpoint of the person collecting the informa
43. Norm-Referenced Test
In the same way, in a norm-referenced test the performance of a
representative group of people on the test is used in preparing the t
norms and these are used in scoring the test. The individual’s perfo
is thus referred to that of the norming group, a reference point that i
an individual’s judgment.
44. In both cases, the psychological te
allows the comparison between th
individual in question and some so
of standard performance.
45. Fifth, possible the most important defining characteristics of a
psychological test is that it must meet a number of criteria to be a us
information-gathering device. The criteria relate to its quality as mea
device; for example, how accurate and reproducible are the scores
obtained with it how well does it measure what it intends to measure
46. Psychometric Properties
These criteria are referred to as psychometric properties. They are
evaluated in the course of test construction and again subsequently
are reported or made available to test users. This is in fact a proces
quality control to ensure that the test is operating in the way the auth
claim it does. By showing that the psychometric properties of a
psychological test have reached a required standard, we can have
confidence in using the results obtained from the test.
47. Although it is important to know that psychological tests have a num
advantages, it is also necessary to be aware of the limitations of tes
knowing limitations can lead to an over-reliance on, or misunderstan
the psychological test results obtained.
48. The first of these limitations, as mentioned earlier, is that psychological tests are o
As such, they do not and cannot take decisions for test users. Decision making is
responsibility of the person who commissioned the use of the test and to who the
results are made available. the person may be the psychologist who administered
but the two roles should not be confused. The test provides a way of gathering inf
and , if well chosen, will provide accurate and pertinent information, but the use o
information, including a bad decision, is in the hands of the decision maker. Not b
aware of this limitation can lead the test user and the person involved to be depen
the test results and accept them passively. Instead, psychological test results sho
used as a source of data, along with other sources of data such as personal histo
current circumstances, to assist the test user or the individual to arrive at or make
informed decision.
49. Second, psychological tests are often used in an attempt to capture
effects of hypothetical constructs. As in other scientific disciplines,
psychology employs constructs that are not directly observable, rath
their effects can only be inferred. As such, we need to be aware tha
sometimes a gap exists between what the psychologist intends to m
using a psychological test and what a test actually measures
50. For example, although IQ tests were developed to measure intellige
we need to be aware that the value of these tests in telling us about
person’s intelligence depends very much on our understanding of th
construct of intelligence and the type(s) of behaviors included in any
particular test. Not being aware of this issue can lead to the develop
of unwarranted faith in psychological tests and total acceptance of t
test results without being aware of their limitations.
51. Third, because of continual development or refinement of psychological theories,
development of technology and passage of time, psychological tests can become
obsolete. They may no longer be suitable for use because the theory that their co
was based on has been shown to be wrong or because the content of the items is
appropriate because of social or cultural change. In the early part of the twentieth
century, for example, church attendance in Western countries was very much high
is now and a reasonable level of Bible knowledge could be assumed. A test item
draw on this fact. Although useful then it is might now be far too esoteric to be of m
use today. According to the Australian Psychological Society and the American
Psychological Association, tests should be revised or updated regularly and norm
samples should be kept current.
52. Finally, although it may not be the intention of a test developer, som
a psychological test can disadvantage a subgroup of test takers bec
of their cultural experience or language background. A vocabulary te
that usefully discriminates levels of verbal ability among children fro
white, English-speaking, middle class homes may be of no use for t
purpose with children with a different sub-cultural experience or thos
do not have English as their first language. Test are not universally
applicable and to treat them as such may do an injustice to some.
53. For better understanding you can produce your answe
Q: What are some of the ways that psychological tests
have been used to assist individuals in promoting
understanding and making decisions?
Q: What are the five defining characteristics of
psychological test?
Q: The advantages of a psychological test outweigh its
limitations. Discuss.
Q: Some questionnaires (e.g. Am I moody individual? H
your marital relationship?) in popular magazines look lik
but are not psychological tests, Why are they not.