The Aging process is a broad topic. This power point hopes to help you understand the process and what can be done to help you age gracefully and positively.
Theory lecture for first semester RN students about the special needs of older adults. We have a growing older adult population.. we need education patients and family members how to adapt to this aging changes.
The Aging process is a broad topic. This power point hopes to help you understand the process and what can be done to help you age gracefully and positively.
Theory lecture for first semester RN students about the special needs of older adults. We have a growing older adult population.. we need education patients and family members how to adapt to this aging changes.
A man's life is normally divided into five main stages namely infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. In each of these stages an individual has to find himself in different situations and face different problems. The old age is not without problems. In old age physical strength deteriorates, mental stability diminishes; money power becomes bleak coupled with negligence from the younger generation.
Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over & improve their health by developing their resources to maintain or enhance well being.
Ethical issues of Care of elderly patients:-
Decision making capacity.
Informed consent.
Refusal of treatment.
Advance directive.
Major ethical principles.
Psycho-social aspects of aging.
Here you get all update about care of elderly like introduction, definition, the normal aging process, factors affecting aging process, theories, , health problem in old age and their nursing care and health promotion in elderly.
Precise guide for DGNM, B.Sc Nursing & M.Sc Nursing Students .. regarding Age Related Problems / Geriatric problems, and its management. Highly recommended for II B.Sc Nursing Students.
By 2030 one-fifth of the U.S. population will be 65 or older. Older populations are "not what they used to be" and need not support the myths about old age. This powerpoint talks about the upside of growing older.
A man's life is normally divided into five main stages namely infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. In each of these stages an individual has to find himself in different situations and face different problems. The old age is not without problems. In old age physical strength deteriorates, mental stability diminishes; money power becomes bleak coupled with negligence from the younger generation.
Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over & improve their health by developing their resources to maintain or enhance well being.
Ethical issues of Care of elderly patients:-
Decision making capacity.
Informed consent.
Refusal of treatment.
Advance directive.
Major ethical principles.
Psycho-social aspects of aging.
Here you get all update about care of elderly like introduction, definition, the normal aging process, factors affecting aging process, theories, , health problem in old age and their nursing care and health promotion in elderly.
Precise guide for DGNM, B.Sc Nursing & M.Sc Nursing Students .. regarding Age Related Problems / Geriatric problems, and its management. Highly recommended for II B.Sc Nursing Students.
By 2030 one-fifth of the U.S. population will be 65 or older. Older populations are "not what they used to be" and need not support the myths about old age. This powerpoint talks about the upside of growing older.
Understanding the Physical Impacts of Ageing: A Course for CarersIHNA Australia
This presentation is about understanding how ageing affects people and their everyday lives. This slideshow covers:
1. Strategies carers can use to promote healthy lifestyle practices.
2. Common problems carers may face with ageing clients.
3. Physical changes associated with ageing.
4. The impact changes associated with ageing may have on a person's everyday activities.
5. How to communicate potential risks and risks associated with ageing to the older person.
Author: Brent C. Williams, M.D., M.P.H., 2009
License: Unless otherwise noted, this material is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution – Share Alike 3.0 License:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
A Review Study on Spiritual Intelligence, Adolescence and Spiritual Intellige...Jonathan Dunnemann
This study reviewed the articles about adolescence, its relation to spiritual intelligence and the related theories. The adolescence period is the best time to develop positive emotions and training skills, because adolescents are seeking to find their identity and their future personality at this period. Approach: Spiritual intelligence had a significant influence on the quality of life and it goes without saying that adolescence is a sensitive period which requires specific
training to make a brighter future and be exposed to the difficulties. Spirituality can be viewed as a form of intelligence because it predicts functioning and adaptation and offers capabilities that enable people to solve problems and attain goals. Results: Conceiving spirituality as a sort of intelligence
extended the psychologist’s conception of spirituality and allowed its association with the rational cognitive processes like goal achievement and problem solving. Conclusion: Emotional intelligence allowed us to judge in which situation we were involved and then to behave appropriately within it.
Spiritual intelligence allowed us to ask if we want to be in this particular situation in the first place.
Systematic assessment of early symptoms of unspecified dementias in people wi...Premier Publishers
Researchers have shown that individuals with mental retardation or with developmental disabilities are at a greater risk of developing health problems and among others dementia than the general population. As the literature points out, dementia is characterized by progressive loss of cognitive functions, until the individual has lost all independency and ability in daily life. It is therefore necessary to carry out a systematic assessment throughout the developmental phases at the beginning of these signs. The purpose of this paper is to present the importance of systematic assessment of early symptoms of unspecified dementias in people with developmental disabilities. The methodology is based on the pre-dementia analysis of two study cases followed by a 2-year period. In conclusion, it can be argued that the diagnosis of dementia in people with developmental disabilities, in the early stages, has become difficult because of the lack of reliable and standardized criteria and diagnostic procedures and difficulties to investigate cognitive decline versus an already vulnerable developmental disability base. Therefore, in people with developmental disabilities, a diagnosis of dementia needs to be done based on changes in mental status from basic functioning. This helps a clinician to determine an accurate diagnosis in later years as hypothetically results from two case studies with later subcortical dementia. However, this endeavour remains to be discussed widely by mental health specialists, public health and cognitive neuroscience in order to determine whether this contribution provided actually has the power of explanation understandable or is understandable by the part of interest.
Discussion - Week 6Top of FormDiscussion Perspectives on the VinaOconner450
Discussion - Week 6
Top of Form
Discussion: Perspectives on the Aging Process
You may be familiar with the phrases, “You’re only as old as you feel” and “age is nothing but a number.” To what extent do you believe these common sayings? Do you see yourself as younger or older than your biological age? And what are your views on the aging process—is it something to be avoided and feared, or celebrated?
As individuals grow older, they experience biological changes, but how they experience those changes varies considerably. Someone who is particularly fit at 70, for example, might perceive themselves to be in their 50s. And someone who has dealt with significant hardship and ailing health who is 70 might feel like they are in their 80s. Aging adults’ experiences are influenced not only by how they feel but also by how an older adult should look or should act, according to societal norms and stereotypes.
In this Discussion you examine biological aspects of later adulthood, and how these aspects intersect with psychological and social domains. You also consider your own views on aging and how they might impact your work with older clients.
To Prepare:
· Review the Learning Resources on biological aspects of later adulthood and the aging process. Identify the biological changes that occur at this life stage.
· Consider your thoughts and experiences related to the aging process and people who are in later adulthood.
By 01/06/2021
Respond to two colleagues by describing additional ways in which their perspectives might impact work with older adults.
Use the Learning Resources to support your posts. Make sure to provide APA citations and a reference list.
Bottom of Form
Required Readings
Zastrow, C. H., Kirst-Ashman, K. K., & Hessenauer, S. L. (2019). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.
· Chapter 14, "Biological Aspects of Later Adulthood" (pp. 642–671)
Chapter Review:
Chapter Summary The following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to:
LO 1 Define later adulthood. Later adulthood begins at around age 65. This grouping is an extremely diverse one, spanning an age range of more than 30 years.
LO 2 Describe the physiological and mental changes that occur in later adulthood. Later adulthood is an age of recompense, a time when people reap the consequences of the kind of
life they have lived. The process of aging affects dif-ferent persons at different rates. Nature appears to have a built-in mechanism that promotes aging, but it is not known what this mechanism is.
LO 3 Understand contemporary theories on the causes of the aging process. Theories on the causes of aging can be grouped into three categories: genetic theories, nongenetic cellular theories, and physiological theories. Various factors accelerate the aging process: poor
diet, overwork, alcohol or drug abuse, prolonged i ...
social cognition domains and impairment.pptxDoha Rasheedy
Social cognition refers to a set of neurocognitive processes underlying the individuals’ ability to “make sense of others’ behavior” as a “crucial prerequisite of social interaction” The different psychological processes by which we perceive, interpret, and process social information about ourselves and others. These processes allow people to understand social behavior and respond in ways that are appropriate and beneficial Social cognitive impairments are a prominent concern, or even a core facet, of several neurodegenerative (e.g., behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia), neuropsychiatric (e.g., schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder), and neurodevelopmental (e.g., autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) conditions, and often occur after acute brain damage (e.g., traumatic brain injury and stroke). Moreover, such deficits are critical predictors of functional outcomes because they affect the ability to create and maintain interpersonal relationships, thereby removing their benefits in everyday life Social cognitive disturbances might be relatively subtle and harder to detect informally. Structured social cognitive assessment is, therefore , mandated.
Basic of geriatrics and internal medicine for physiotherapistDoha Rasheedy
collection of lectures for physiotherapy undergraduate students including notes of common health issues (frailty, sarcopenia, osteoporosis, neuropsychiatric issues, constipation, metabolic syndrome and its components, orthostatic hypotension, CLD, CKD, anemia, immobilization, dizziness, falls, fatigue) and how to handle in practice.
summary of age related changes and geriatric pharmacology, safe analgesic prescription in elderly
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
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Hot Selling Organic intermediates
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...
Psychological issues in elderly
1. Dr. DOHA RASHEEDY ALY
Lecturer of Geriatric Medicine
Department of Geriatric and Gerontology
Ain Shams University
2. Ageing
Aging is a process of general, irreversible,
and progressive physical deterioration that
occurs over time.
This process usually occurs after sexual
maturation and continues up to the time of
maximum longevity (life span) for members
of a species.
Death is the final event.
3.
Biologically, ageing is defined as a deteriorative
process.
Socially too, ageing appears as a time of loss of roles
and relationships.
Thus it is not surprising that consideration of
adjustment should have such a prominent role in the
psychological study of ageing.
5. Definition
(Conceptual)
Normal Ageing
without biological or mental pathology
Optimal Ageing’ Successful ageing’
Ageing under development enhancing and age-friendly
environmental conditions
Pathological Ageing
Ageing process determined by pathological processes.
6. Conceptions of Age
Chronological age—number of years elapsed since
person’s birth
Biological age—age in terms of biological health
Psychological age—individual’s adaptive capacities
Social age—social roles and expectations related to
person’s age
7.
8.
9. Theories of ageing
Aging processes occur at the biological,
psychological and social levels. There are any
number of different theories of aging, which are
generally specific to each discipline. The truth is, no
one is really certain why we age, although we are
beginning to identify different processes which
regulate or govern the rate of aging.
10. Psychological Theories of
ageing
Life span
Selective optimization:
Socioemotional selectivity
Cognition and aging
Personality and aging
11. Life Span Development Theory
Life-Course Theories
·Erikson's developmental stages, which here approaches
maturity as a process. Within each stage the person faces a
crisis or dilemma that the person must resolve to move forward
to the next stage, or not resolve which results in incomplete
development
13. Psychological Theories of
ageing
Life span
Selective optimization:
Socioemotional selectivity
Cognition and aging
Personality and aging
14. Selective Optimization With
Compensation Theory
Optimization = Engagement
in behaviors that will enrich
ones life and help people
age successfully.
15. Psychological Theories of
ageing
Life span
Selective optimization:
Socioemotional selectivity
Cognition and aging
Personality and aging
16. Socioemotional Selectivity
Theory
The theory that social exchanges and interactions
are reduced over time.
As one ages a person may become more selective
with whom they choose to spend their time with.
Emotional closeness may become more
important with significant others. The idea to
which one can selectively choose with whom
they want to dedicate their time for becomes
more important as ones ages. * (quality verses
quantity)
17. Psychological Theories of
ageing
Life span
Selective optimization:
Socioemotional selectivity
Cognition and aging
Personality and aging
18. Cognitive and Aging Theories
―The theory of cognition is the age-related decline in
fluid cognitive performance (the efficiency or
effectiveness of performing tasks of learning,
memory, reasoning and spatial abilities.) However,
crystallized abilities are more stable across the life
span and may even increase with age. (Representing
social cultural influences on general world
knowledge)‖. (Bonder, 2009)
19. Cognitive and Aging
Theories
Cognitive changes with aging are well documented
and affect a broad range of functions. There are at
least three fundamental cognitive-processing
affected: the speed at which information can be
processed, working memory, and sensory and
perceptual skill.
20. Processing Speed
Perhaps the most predictable of all cognitive changes
is the reduced speed of information processing and
response. Slowed execution of component perceptual
and mental operations can affect attention, memory,
and decision making and can influence performance
even on tasks that have no obvious speed
requirements (Salthouse 1996).
21. Working Memory
Working memory refers to short-term retention and manipulation
of information held in conscious memory, Examples include
consciously recalling a telephone number long enough to write
it down, mentally calculating the sale price of an item that is
reduced by 15%. Information fades from working memory
within about 2 seconds, so to keep details ―alive‖ for a longer
time requires active rehearsal or continuing refocusing of
attention.
Aging is associated with a decline in working memory skills,
especially when active manipulation of information is required
(e.g., repeating numbers backward as opposed to forward).
Reductions in working memory, in turn, place limits on other
complex cognitive skills, including reasoning and other
executive processes, and learning and recall of new information
22. Sensory and Perceptual Changes
Most older adults experience decrements in visual and
auditory acuity and other perceptual changes. Some, but
not all, of the age-related visual changes can be corrected
by glasses, and although hearing aids help with detection
of low-frequency tones, they often amplify background
noise. In effect, many older adults find it hard to hear or
see well, especially with competing background noise and
poor lighting conditions.
Recent studies suggest a strong correlative link between
sensory and perceptual changes and cognitive
performance in old age
23.
These changes increase the likelihood of processing
overload in circumstances that may have once
presented little challenge.
In advanced old age, even basic activities such as
walking or maintaining postural control become less
automatic, with the result that older persons must
devote more conscious cognitive resources to these
activities.
26. moderating variables
Genetic factors About 50% of cognitive variability in old age can be traced to genetic factors.
Health Optimally healthy elderly persons outperform those with medical illnesses on many
cognitive tests.
Education Education accounts for up to 30% of cognitive variability in old age.
Mental activity Mentally stimulating activities correlate with higher cognitive performance and
reduced longitudinal decline.
Physical activity Aerobic fitness is associated with better cognitive performance in old age.
Expertise Aging experts may develop compensatory strategies to maintain a high level of
performance despite some erosion in underlying cognitive skills.
Personality and mood Depression correlates with self-perceived memory failure and with
performance impairments if symptoms are severe.
Social and cultural milieu Everyday memory lapses may be judged more critically when
experienced by older people than by young adults.
Cognitive training Cognitively unimpaired older persons benefit from practice and training in
specific cognitive skills.
Sex differences Cognitive aging trends are similar for the two sexes, but women may show
decrements on spatial tasks at an earlier age than men, and men may show decrements on verbal
tasks at an earlier age than women.
Racial and ethnic differences Performance differences favoring elderly white persons have been
reported on some cognitive tests, but when education is equated across groups, these differences
are reduced or eliminated.
27. Psychological Theories of
ageing
Life span
Selective optimization:
Socioemotional selectivity
Cognition and aging
Personality and aging
28. Personality & Aging Theories
Theories focus on the nature and extent of personality
stability and how they change over a persons life span.
Developmental Explanations and Personality Trait
Explanations based on the ―big five‖:
1) neuroticism
2) extroversion
3) openness to experience
4) agreeableness
5) conscientiousness
Many believe that personality traits are more stable later
in life whereas ―goals, values, coping styles and control
beliefs‖ are more that likely to change. (Bonder, 2009)
29. Personality and
Emotional Changes
Personality and emotions have not been studied as thoroughly
as cognition in old age. Moreover, it is unknown whether
observations about personality made within the confines of a
particular generation and culture can be generalized to other
places and times.
Core features of personality remain stable throughout
adulthood, and any marked change in mood or social behavior
may indicate a disorder. However, more subtle reordering of
personal priorities and shifts in coping styles are common with
normal aging. It is particularly important not to measure older
people’s coping by youthful standards.
Emotion-focused coping may be a sign of personality
development rather than regression, particularly if the problem
being faced (e.g., bereavement or serious illness) is difficult to
resolve through action.
30.
In one study comparing the emotions of younger to older
people, volunteers were asked to state how often in the
previous year they had experienced each of 46 different
emotions. The results showed that older people
experience stronger direct feelings of anxiety in the form
of fear or being scared, whereas younger people tend to
experience more guilt-related anxiety.
Older people also report fewer experiences of depression,
hostility or shyness. So, the overall structure of emotion
between older and younger people seems similar, but the
strength the relationship and frequency of emotional
experience does differ.
31.
It appears that older people do experience less intense
emotions. It may also help to explain why they find the
emotional dysregulation of early stage Alzheimer's so
troubling. In some situations the elderly may show very
little or no emotion where some might be expected; in
other situations they may be moved to tears in a display
of emotion that may seem out of place.
Variation in emotional pattern is something that needs to
be considered in any assessment of the elderly by
younger people. Caution against using phrases such as,
'flattened affect', or 'emotionally labile', should be
exercised in the realization that what is being observed is,
in fact, perfectly normal.
32. Hanighurst stated that for older people to progress they
must meet the following tasks
1. Adjust to declining health & physical strength.
2. Adjust to retirement & reduced income.
3. Adjust to the death of a spouse or family members.
4. Adjust to living arrangements different from what
they are accustomed.
5. Adjust to pleasures of aging i.e. increased leisure &
playing with grandchildren
34. Disengagement
Theory
developed by Cummings and Henry in late 1950’s.
―aging is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or
disengagement, resulting in decreased interaction
between the aging person and others in the social
system he/she belongs to.‖
35. Activity Theory
in the 1960’s.
developed by Robert Havighurst
supports the maintenance of regular activities, roles, and social
pursuits.
persons who achieve optimal age are those who stay active.
as roles change, the individual finds substitute activities for
these roles.
36. Continuity Theory
proposed by Havighurst and co-workers in reaction
to the disengagement theory
―basic personality, attitudes, and behaviors remain
constant throughout the life span‖
37.
38.
39. Developing psychopathology
(Psychodynamic models)
Busse & Pfeiffer 1969: Loss people, roles, physical
capacity, opportunity. (nb depression is no greater in
elderly)
Gutmann 1992: losses in later life re-enact losses in
childhood
Vaillant 1993:Immature defence mechanisms provide
insufficient defence against problems of old age
Gutmann 1992: loss of physical, cognitive, emotional
strengths undermine functioning of ego.
40.
• Stressors faced by older people
• Mediators shaping a person’s response to stress
• Moderators that act on the stressor to lessen its
intensity or buffer its effect
41. Stressors
Demands that call forth a physiologic, behavioral, or emotional
response
TYPES OF STRESSORS:
Chronic
May be health-related (eg, the pain and mobility limitation of arthritis)
May be psychologic (eg, the prolonged worry over a chronically ill
spouse)
Acute
May be health-related (eg, a newly diagnosed medical condition)
May be psychologic (eg, experiencing the unexpected death of a close
friend
42. Examples OF STRESSORS
Caregiving
Loss and Grief
Role Loss ( spouse , friends, work) and Acquisition
(Grandparenthood and great-grandparenthood)
provide both new demands and opportunities.
Social Status
Changes in social identity: due to role loss in retirement
Losses in physical capacity and reserve
Functional losses may place older persons in help-
seeking rather than help-providing roles
43. Mediators
The internal and external resources a person can
bring to bear to:
Assess and interpret a stressor
Assess his or her capacities for addressing it
Formulate a coping response
Often modifiable through interventions such as
psychoeducation and family counseling
44. Types of Mediators
SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS: Sense of one’s own ability to manage
situations.
Strong self-efficacy beliefs:
Contribute to good choice-making, good performance, and persistence of effort (especially in
women)
Contribute to increased productivity
COPING STRATEGIESCommon coping strategy: selection, optimization,
compensation
Elderly select activities based on what they already do well
They do the selected activities more often and derive optimal credit
for doing them
As performance diminishes, they employ compensatory strategies to
put remaining capacities in the best light possible
SOCIAL INVOLVEMENT: there is an association between lack of
social involvement and affective disorders such as depression.
45. MODERATORS (Buffer)
Behaviors or components of a person’s life that affect
the demands of stressors
May be in place before the onset of a stressor or
may be developed in response to it
Three major types:
Social involvement
Spiritual or religious activity
Engaging in healthy lifestyle behaviors
48. Spirituality and
Religiosity
confused.
These concepts are frequently
Studies have found that nurses tend to avoid
addressing spiritual needs of patients.
49. Spirituality is the:
which all other
―totality of man’s inner resources,
the ultimate concerns around
values are focused,
the central philosophy of life that guides conduct,
and the meaning-giving center of human life
which influences all individual and social
behavior‖ (Moberg, 1979)
―trust & faith in a power greater than oneself‖
(levin & Taylor, 1997)
50. Religion is:
only one aspect of spirituality;
an organized practice of beliefs;
may or may not fill an individual’s spiritual needs
eg. spiritual needs are much broader & more
personal than any particular religious persuasion
51.
52.
53.
54.
55. Ageing and mental
disorder
Mental illness is not a manifestation of ageing
Approximately 88% of people over the age of
65 do not suffer from mental disorder
Excluding cognitive impairment means that
people over the age of 65 have the lowest
prevalence of mental disorder by age group.
59. EPIDEMIOLOGY
Prevalence over 65
▫ 1.4%
▫ 0.4%
▫ 1% overall
▫ Higher in institutional setting: Up to
25-40% in a general hospital setting
and in long term care
60.
Depression is under-reported: WHY?
Communication issues (eg. hearing impairment)
Presence of dementia
Symptom overlap
Stigma of aging
Depression is ―normal‖
Symptoms ―masked‖ by co-morbid illness
THEREFORE YOU MUST SCREEN IN THOSE AT
HIGHER RISK!
Geriatric Depression Rating Scale
61.
What are risk factors for depression in the
elderly?
Recently bereaved
Female gender
Single/widowed (recently)
Stressful life events (eg. prolonged hospitalization,
recent move to nursing home)
Social isolation
Persistent complaints of memory difficulties, diagnosis
of dementia
Chronic disabling illness or recent major physical illness
(eg. Parkinson’s disease, stroke)
Chronic sleep problems or anxiety
62.
Does depression look different in the elderly?
• ―Depressed mood‖ may be less prominent
• More anxiety
• More likely to express somatic complaints
▫ 65% have hypochondriacal symptoms
• Less likely to report guilt feelings
• Cognitive impairment more common
• Psychosis more common
▫ Typical delusions – more common
Somatic, persecution, nihilism, poverty
63. DSM-IV DIAGNOSTIC
CRITERIA
• 5 or more symptoms lasting >2 wk,
change from previous functioning:
▫ Depressed mood and/or loss of interest
▫ Altered sleep, loss of energy, appetite
change or weight loss, feelings of
worthlessness/guilt,psychomotor
changes, loss of concentration and focus,
recurrent thoughts of death
65. Depression &Parkinson’s Disease
About 50% of patients develop depression
Useful treatment includes TCA’s
ECT helps depression and PD sx’s:
tremors, rigidity, & bradykinesia improved with 3-4
sessions
depression improved after 7-9 sessions
66. Depression in Early Alzheimer’s
Presents with:
insomnia
fatigue
agitation
psychomotor retardation
decreased interest & energy
concentration problems
50% of AD pt’s have depressive sx’s (15-20% with
major depression)
67. Vascular Depression
Cerebrovascular disease can precipitate or
perpetuate depression
Caused by ischemia (―silent strokes‖) in prefrontal
cortex and basal ganglia; motor & sensory deficits
usu. not found.
Marked apathy
Lack of insight into depression
Less depressed ideation
Executive dysfunction
Treatment resistance
68. Pseudodementia
“dementia of depression”
cognitive decline that clears if depression is treated
however, dementia rate in these patients is still
20%/year even after full recovery of intellectual
function.
69. SUICIDE IS A REAL
RISK
25% of all completed suicides are > 65
Suicide rate for depressed men over 65 is 5 times
higher than for younger men
20% of older people who committed suicide saw a
physician that day
Increased risk: financial problems, physical illness,
recent loss, abuse, isolation
70. ASSESSMENT
1-History:
Recent symptom profile
Recent changes/ how long?
Past psychiatric history
Past medical history
Current medications
Any recent medication changes
71. ASSESSMENT
Social history/ Personal history(include interests and
hobbies)
Functional ability/level of care
Any recent changes in ADL’s / IADL’s
Any stressors (past/new)
2-Screening tool:
Geriatric Depression Rating Scale
Mini- Mental Status Exam
3-medical work-up (includes blood work, urines, CT Scan,
X-Rays etc..)
72. INTERVENTIONS
Seek out medical illness
Recognize medical side effects
Rehab services to maximize remaining function and
retrain impaired iADL’s
Involve family and caretakers
Counselling: role transitions, grief, dependency
Medications / ECT
73. MEDICAL THERAPY IN
GERIATRIC DEPRESSION
Select based on symptoms, prior response,
concurrent illness, side effect profile
Reassess after 4-6 weeks:
Increase dose, augment with second agent, add
psychotherapy
Consider psychiatric consult/referral
74. Guidelines for Starting Antidepressants:
“Start low, go slow”
Start at half the dose of younger people
Aim to reach an average dose at one month
75. Guidelines for Switching
Antidepressants
Change if:
No improvement in symptoms after at least 4 weeks at
maximum tolerated or recommended dose
Insufficient improvement after 8 weeks at maximum tolerated
or recommended dose
When recovery is incomplete after an adequate trial, consider:
Further 4 weeks of treatment, with or without augmentation
(meds or psychotherapy)
Switching to another antidepressant
When switching, it is safe to reduce the first medication
while starting the alternate (cross-over titration)
Consider specific interaction profiles
76.
Long-term Treatment Guidelines:
After 1st episode continue to treat for at least a year
Monitor for recurrence up to 2 years
Medication discontinuation should be slow (over months)
Patients with partial resolution of symptoms, more than 2
episodes, severe or difficult to treat depression, or
treatment requiring ECT, should receive indefinite
treatment
Treatment response in nursing home patients should be
evaluated monthly after initial improvement, and at
quarterly care conferences and annual assessment once
remission is achieved
Consider tolerance of treatment versus risks of
discontinuation
77. ANTIDEPRESSANTS TO
AVIOD IN THE ELDERLY
Too many side effects:
Older TCA’s:
amitriptyline, clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine,
protriptyline, trimipramine
MAOI’s:
phenelzine, tranylcypromine
78.
PROGNOSIS?
Similar response rates to younger
patients
79. Other Treatments
Counseling
Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT)
Support Groups
Day Hospital Treatment programs
Social/ Community groups
Combination of medications and above items
Volunteer work
Hobbies
Pet therapy
80. Other Treatments
Music therapy
Humor therapy
Reminiscence
Depression education
Bereavement therapy
81. Electroconvulsive Therapy
Relatively safe (complication rate 1 in 1400
treatments, mortality rate 1 in 10,000)
Effective - about 80% respond, although this drops to
50% if all other modalities have been tried
Particularly useful for active suicidal ideation,
psychotic depression, Parkinson’s-related
depression, and for medication failures
Very effective short term, but with high relapse rates
over next 6-12 months.
Drug therapy can reduce relapse
82. PSYCHOTHERAPY
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), problem-
solving therapy (PST), and interpersonal
psychotherapy (IPT) are effective treatments for
major depression either alone or in combination with
pharmacotherapy.
84. Ageing & Personality
There is no clear answer to the question of whether or not
personality changes with age.
Several studies have demonstrated remarkable stability of
personality factors with aging. Others have shown age-related
changes in certain personality traits, including decreases in
extraversion and an increase in harm-avoidance.
It is possible that the apparent stability of personality with age
relates to genetic factors and environmental stability. The
changes reported in some studies may reflect adaptations to
changing life-roles, medical co-morbidity and social
circumstances. The issue is complex, as changes in behavior do
not necessarily reflect shifts in personality.
85.
personality disorders as persistent, pervasive
patterns of inner experience and behaviour that
begin in childhood or adolescence, continue into
adulthood and are stable over time.
These disorders manifest in cognitive, affective and
behavioural patterns that deviate markedly from
cultural norms and lead to distress or impairment.
None of the instruments for assessment of
personality disorder have been validated for use in
elderly.
89.
Cross-sectional studies of personality disorder in old
age suggest that there is a lower prevalence of cluster
B disorders and a higher prevalence of cluster C
disorders.
However, some suggest that features of borderline
personality disorder are relatively dormant in
middle life and re-emerge in old age.
91. Anxiety disorder
Determining the epidemiology and prevalence of
anxiety disorders in old age is complicated by the
fact that anxiety is a symptom of most psychiatric
and many medical conditions in old age.
Classes of Anxiety Disorders
Panic Disorder
Phobic Disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
92. ASSESSMENT
DIFFICULTIES
Medical comorbidity
Difficulty in differentiating anxiety from depression
Falsely high scores on anxiety rating scales due to
cardiac and respiratory problems
Tendency of older patients to resist psychiatric
evaluation
93. PANIC DISORDER
Panic attack:
Acute, discrete episode of intense anxiety
Reaction to some perceived threat
Lasts between a few minutes and a half hour
Symptoms may include:
Trembling, dizziness, sweating, nausea
Accelerated heart rate, chest pain, shortness of breath
Sense of detachment from surroundings
Slide
94. DIAGNOSIS OF PANIC DISORDER
Recurrent and unpredictable panic attacks
Have occurred for at least 1 month
Patient spends time in worried anticipation of
possible recurrence
Onset after age 55:
Fewer panic symptoms
Less avoidance
Lower score on somatization measures
Less likely to persist into old age
Slide
95. SPECIFIC PHOBIA
Involves a distinct trigger, such as a specific person,
animal, place, object, event, or situation that results in
symptoms of anxiety
Commonly, the patient’s anxiety level increases
instantly when the feared trigger is encountered
Patient is able to identify this fear as unrealistic and
unsupported, even though the cognitive and
physiologic responses persist
Slide
96. SOCIAL PHOBIA
Fear of reactions that are embarrassing in social
situations, such as:
Trembling, Blushing, Sweating profusely
Feared situations include:
Giving public speeches, Socializing with others at a
function or party
Slide
97. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER
Obsessions: persistent thoughts or ideas that come to
mind in a particular situation
Compulsions: behaviors performed in an effort to
decrease the anxiety experienced as a result of the
obsessions
Chronic and often disabling
New onset in late life is unlikelycommonly associated
with a depressive syndrome or early dementia
Slide
98. POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
Common symptoms:
Re-experiencing of the traumatic event
Avoidance of associated stimuli (both cognitively and
behaviorally)
Hyperarousal (eg, difficulty falling or staying asleep,
Often comorbid with depression, panic disorder, and
substance abuse
Diagnosis requires presence of symptoms for 1 month and
clinically significant distress or functional impairment
Slide
99. GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER
Distinctive symptoms:
Feeling easily tired
Muscle tension
Trouble sleeping through the night
Difficulty concentrating on a task
Feeling irritable or on edge
Diagnosis requires:
Presence of symptoms for at least 6 months
Sense that one cannot control the anxiety
Slide
100. COMORBIDITY
Mixed Anxiety and Depression
Anxiety and Agitation in Dementia
Anxiety and Medical Disorders
Slide
101. Management
Pharmacological
Antidepressants are probably the treatment of choice. Studies in older adults are
limited but citalopram and venlafaxine have been shown to be effective and well
tolerated.
Benzodiazepines are effective in treating the symptoms of anxiety but at the cost of
confusion, sedation, falls, tolerance and dependence. Use of benzodiazepines is
limited to low doses for short periods and is generally avoided.
Buspirone has been shown to be effective in the treatment of GAD and does not
cause sedation or dependence. It may be less effective than antidepressants in the
treatment of anxiety. Response delayed for 2-4 wks.
Beta-blockers are sometimes prescribed to treat the physiological symptoms of
anxiety.but in elderly patients the benefit is likely to be outweighed by the risk of
side effects.
102. Non-pharmacological
CBT is effective in elderly patients. but less so than in
younger adults.
Nondirective supportive therapy may be as effective
as CBT in the elderly.
104. PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS
Hallucinations are abnormal perceptions that can
affect any of the 5 sensory modalities (auditory,
visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory)
Delusions are false fixed believes that can be:
Suspicious (paranoid)
Grandiose
Somatic
Self-blaming
Hopeless
105. Differential diagnosis PERSON WITH
PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS
Delirium
Dementia
Delusional disorder
Primary mood disorder and Schizoaffective disorder
Schizophrenia
Temporal lobe epilepsy
Medications
Isolated Suspiciousness
Syndromes of Isolated Hallucinations
Charles Bonnet Syndrome
Organic Hallucinations
106.
Only after other causes are excluded should the
diagnosis of a schizophrenia-like state be made
Delirium, most often superimposed on an underlying
dementia, is the most common cause of new-onset
psychosis in late life
• Next, consider a primary mood disorder
107. PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS IN
DELIRIUM
Hallucinations, particularly visual hallucinations,
can be a symptom of delirium, even when it is mild
Onset is usually acute, and there is often an
identifiable metabolic or infectious cause
Mental status examination reveals:
Multiple cognitive impairments
Diminished or waxing and waning level of
consciousness
108. PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS IN
MOOD DISORDER
Delusions are ―mood congruent‖
In patients with depression:
Delusional content usually reflects self-deprecation,
self-blame, hopelessness, or the conviction of ill health
In patients with mania:
Delusions are grandiose.
109. PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS IN
DEMENTIA
Patients with dementia experience both
hallucinations and delusions
Usually less complex than the delusions seen in
schizophrenia or mood disorder
Common delusions in dementia:
Belief that one’s belongings have been stolen
Conviction that one is being persecuted
Belief that one’s spouse is unfaithful
110. ISOLATED SUSPICIOUSNESS
Suspiciousness is a personality trait (common to all
humans but varying in its prominence)
May become more common in those 65
Distinguished from psychotic disorders by:
The understandable nature of the ideas (for example,
excessive worry about safety)
The absence of other psychotic symptoms
111. CHARLES BONNET SYNDROME
The criteria for this syndrome are:
Visual impairment
Visual hallucinations
Partially or fully intact insight (the patient is aware that the
perceptions cannot be real but still reports that they appear
absolutely real and vivid)
Lack of evidence of brain disease or other psychiatric disorder
Affects 10%–13% of patients w/ bilateral acuity <20/60
Reassure the patient that the hallucinations are
a sign of eye disease, not mental illness
112. SCHIZOPHRENIA
Chronic psychiatric disorder characterized by both positive and
negative symptoms
Examples of positive symptoms:
Hallucinations
Delusions
Thought disorder
Examples of negative symptoms:
Social dilapidation
Apathy
Exclude mood disorder and cognitive disorder
113. SCHIZOPHRENIA-LIKE
SYNDROMES OF LATE LIFE
Onset after age 44
Female:male ratio ranges from 5:1 to 10:1
Prominent persecutory (paranoid) delusions and
multimodal hallucinations
Differences from early-onset schizophrenia:
Much lower incidence of thought disorder
Personality often intact
114.
Unlike individuals with early-onset schizophrenia, many
persons with late-onset schizophrenia-like psychosis have
been able to:
hold responsible jobs
work efficiently
But premorbid symptoms are common:
Isolation
―Schizoid‖ (socially isolated personality) traits
For that reason, can be confused with frontotemporal
dementia (formerly called Pick’s disease)
115. NONPHARMACOLOGIC TREATMENT
OF LATE-ONSET SCHIZOPHRENIA
Establish trusting therapeutic relationship
Empathize with distress caused by symptoms
Encourage patient to maintain important
relationships
Ask permission to discuss source of symptoms with
close family members or friends
116. PHARMACOLOGIC TREATMENT OF
LATE-ONSET SCHIZOPHRENIA
Antipsychotic drugs are as effective in late-onset
schizophrenia as in early-onset cases
Increase dose semiweekly or weekly, as needed
Responders should continue for at least 6 months
For patients who relapse on treatment or when the dose is
lowered, maintain treatment for at least 1 to 2 years
Monitor for extrapyramidal side effects (EPS), such as
tremor, dystonic reactions, and bradykinesia
Avoid polypharmacy by reducing or switching medication
rather than adding a medication for EPS