This document provides an overview of the psychoanalytic approach to personality proposed by Sigmund Freud. It discusses:
1. Freud's discovery of the unconscious mind and development of psychoanalysis using free association.
2. Freud's structural model of personality consisting of the id, ego, and superego. It also discusses Freud's concepts of libido, thanatos, and defense mechanisms.
3. Freud's psychosexual stages of development including the oral, anal, and phallic stages and how fixation at different stages can influence adult personality.
The document provides a concise introduction to Freud's seminal psychoanalytic theory of personality.
Training Slides of Coaching and Industrial & Organisational Psychology Selecting Employees, discussing the importance of recruiting.
For further information regarding the course, please contact:
info@asia-masters.com
www.asia-masters.com
This document provides an overview of AQA A-Level Psychology content on attachment. It discusses caregiver-infant interactions, animal studies by Lorenz and Harlow, explanations of attachment including learning theory and Bowlby's theory, Ainsworth's Strange Situation research, cultural variations in attachment, Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis, and the influence of early attachment on later relationships.
Approaches - A Level AQA Revision NotesElla Warwick
This document summarizes several major approaches in psychology:
1) Learning approaches including behaviorism, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory. Behaviorism views humans as responding to environmental stimuli while social learning theory emphasizes observational learning.
2) The cognitive approach studies internal mental processes like memory, perception, and thinking using theoretical models and cognitive neuroscience.
3) The biological approach sees behavior as influenced by genes, biology, and evolution and uses family and twin studies to examine nature vs nurture influences.
4) The psychodynamic approach views unconscious forces as influencing behavior and personality, and uses concepts like the id, ego, superego, and defense mechanisms.
5) Humanistic psychology
The document discusses psychometric tools used for psychological assessment. It defines measurement and its core characteristics like standardized administration. It describes different types of measurements including tests of maximum and typical performance. It outlines scales used in psychological assessment and discusses the design of personality questionnaires. The document also summarizes several popular psychometric tools used in India like MBTI, SHL, DDI, and Predictive Index. It notes that while use is growing, many Indian organizations have concerns around cost, validity, and applicability of existing tools to the Indian context. The document recommends developing low-cost tools to address attrition and map return on investment from recruitment.
Personality disorders refer to long-standing patterns of behavior that depart from cultural expectations and impair functioning. They are coded on Axis II of the DSM and can co-occur with Axis I disorders. Personality disorders fall into three clusters - odd/eccentric, dramatic/erratic, and anxious/fearful - and include paranoid, schizoid, borderline, and antisocial personality disorders. Therapies aim to change understanding of childhood issues underlying disorders and target specific symptoms, with the goal of changing disorders into styles except for antisocial personality disorder. Complications can include depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and substance abuse.
The document outlines the 5 main steps in test development: 1) test conceptualization which includes defining what will be measured and pilot studies, 2) test construction including scaling methods, writing items, and approaches, 3) test tryout, 4) item analysis to evaluate item difficulty, reliability, validity, and discrimination, and 5) test revision to ensure quality over time as needed. Key aspects include defining the construct being measured, using various scaling and scoring models, analyzing item performance, and revalidating tests periodically.
The Psychology of Goal Achievement and PerformanceRichard Fryer
Applicable to both athletes, teams and corporate employees, this presentation outlines how our psychological response dictates our physiological response which in turn impacts on our ability to perform. The type of goals we set has a direct impact on the way we are likely to think, particularly under pressure.
Social comparison theory proposes that people have an innate drive to evaluate themselves in relation to others. There are two types of social comparison: upward comparison, where one compares themselves to those better off to seek improvement, and downward comparison, where one compares themselves to those worse off to feel better about their own abilities. The theory suggests that people use social comparison to accurately assess their skills, abilities, beliefs, and attitudes by comparing themselves to similar peers or reference groups.
Training Slides of Coaching and Industrial & Organisational Psychology Selecting Employees, discussing the importance of recruiting.
For further information regarding the course, please contact:
info@asia-masters.com
www.asia-masters.com
This document provides an overview of AQA A-Level Psychology content on attachment. It discusses caregiver-infant interactions, animal studies by Lorenz and Harlow, explanations of attachment including learning theory and Bowlby's theory, Ainsworth's Strange Situation research, cultural variations in attachment, Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis, and the influence of early attachment on later relationships.
Approaches - A Level AQA Revision NotesElla Warwick
This document summarizes several major approaches in psychology:
1) Learning approaches including behaviorism, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory. Behaviorism views humans as responding to environmental stimuli while social learning theory emphasizes observational learning.
2) The cognitive approach studies internal mental processes like memory, perception, and thinking using theoretical models and cognitive neuroscience.
3) The biological approach sees behavior as influenced by genes, biology, and evolution and uses family and twin studies to examine nature vs nurture influences.
4) The psychodynamic approach views unconscious forces as influencing behavior and personality, and uses concepts like the id, ego, superego, and defense mechanisms.
5) Humanistic psychology
The document discusses psychometric tools used for psychological assessment. It defines measurement and its core characteristics like standardized administration. It describes different types of measurements including tests of maximum and typical performance. It outlines scales used in psychological assessment and discusses the design of personality questionnaires. The document also summarizes several popular psychometric tools used in India like MBTI, SHL, DDI, and Predictive Index. It notes that while use is growing, many Indian organizations have concerns around cost, validity, and applicability of existing tools to the Indian context. The document recommends developing low-cost tools to address attrition and map return on investment from recruitment.
Personality disorders refer to long-standing patterns of behavior that depart from cultural expectations and impair functioning. They are coded on Axis II of the DSM and can co-occur with Axis I disorders. Personality disorders fall into three clusters - odd/eccentric, dramatic/erratic, and anxious/fearful - and include paranoid, schizoid, borderline, and antisocial personality disorders. Therapies aim to change understanding of childhood issues underlying disorders and target specific symptoms, with the goal of changing disorders into styles except for antisocial personality disorder. Complications can include depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and substance abuse.
The document outlines the 5 main steps in test development: 1) test conceptualization which includes defining what will be measured and pilot studies, 2) test construction including scaling methods, writing items, and approaches, 3) test tryout, 4) item analysis to evaluate item difficulty, reliability, validity, and discrimination, and 5) test revision to ensure quality over time as needed. Key aspects include defining the construct being measured, using various scaling and scoring models, analyzing item performance, and revalidating tests periodically.
The Psychology of Goal Achievement and PerformanceRichard Fryer
Applicable to both athletes, teams and corporate employees, this presentation outlines how our psychological response dictates our physiological response which in turn impacts on our ability to perform. The type of goals we set has a direct impact on the way we are likely to think, particularly under pressure.
Social comparison theory proposes that people have an innate drive to evaluate themselves in relation to others. There are two types of social comparison: upward comparison, where one compares themselves to those better off to seek improvement, and downward comparison, where one compares themselves to those worse off to feel better about their own abilities. The theory suggests that people use social comparison to accurately assess their skills, abilities, beliefs, and attitudes by comparing themselves to similar peers or reference groups.
Carl Jung had a disturbed childhood due to his mother's mental illness. He became interested in psychiatry after reading Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis. Jung furthered his education at the University of Basel medical school and joined the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital. There he began pioneering work with word association tests. Jung initially collaborated with Sigmund Freud but they later had a falling out over theoretical disagreements. Jung went on to develop his theories of archetypes, the collective unconscious, introversion and extroversion, individuation, and more. He recorded his visions and imaginings during a midlife crisis in The Red Book. Jung had a large influence on the fields of psychology and psychotherapy.
The document discusses conformity and several classic experiments that studied it. Solomon Asch's famous experiment showed that people's perceptions can change under peer pressure from a group. Later experiments by Stanley Milgram and Jane Elliott further demonstrated how people often conform to authorities, even when they disagree privately or have doubts about the authority's instructions. The document also discusses differences in individualism between Western and Eastern cultures and how the desire to fit in or seek guidance from others can lead to normative or informational conformity.
The document summarizes Alfred Adler's theory of striving for superiority. It discusses Adler's biography and how his childhood experiences influenced his theory. The key points of Adler's theory are:
1) Adler believed the single driving force behind all human motivation is the striving for superiority or success over others.
2) This striving is a result of innate feelings of inferiority that compel people to achieve more in order to feel whole.
3) People either strive for personal superiority, focused on their own gain, or strive for the success of humanity through socially-minded goals and cooperation with others.
Carl Jung developed the theory of analytical psychology and the concepts of the personal and collective unconscious. He believed humans are motivated by both individual experiences and inherited tendencies from ancestors. Jung proposed that the psyche aims for balance through incorporating opposing elements like introversion and extraversion. The goal of Jungian therapy is for clients to achieve self-realization by integrating the various parts of their psyche.
This document summarizes the contributions of several important female psychologists throughout history whose work was often overlooked or ignored. It describes how Anna Freud extended her father's psychoanalytic theories to child psychology, how Mamie Phipps Clark's doll experiments influenced the Brown vs. Board of Education decision, and how Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation assessment of attachment in children. It also outlines the influential research of Sandra Bem, Mary Whiton Calkins, Leta Hollingworth, Karen Horney, Melanie Klein, Brenda Milner, and Susan Blackmore on gender roles, neuropsychology, psychoanalysis, and the science of memes.
this ppt contains almost all concepts of freud's psychodynamic theory of personality. It can be very helpful for psychology students for understanding the concept and for their psychology notes.
Self-disclosure involves revealing personal information about oneself to others. It can be done consciously or unconsciously and includes disclosing information about others that impacts oneself. There are risks to self-disclosure such as revealing too much private information, experiencing rejection or loss of self-confidence, or material loss. However, there are also rewards like gaining self-knowledge, coping with problems through support from others, improving communication, and establishing meaningful relationships built on trust. The document provides guidelines for self-disclosing appropriately and responding supportively to others' disclosures, as well as resisting pressure to disclose privately if unwanted.
This document discusses temperament and attachment in infants and young children. It describes three main temperament types - easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. It then discusses early social behaviors and milestones in social development from 2 months to 3 years old. The document also summarizes Harry Harlow's experiment on attachment in rhesus monkeys and John Bowlby's attachment theory. It explains Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation experiment and the four attachment styles it identified - secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized.
Rosenhan conducted a famous study where sane individuals successfully gained admission to psychiatric hospitals by feigning auditory hallucinations. All were diagnosed with schizophrenia and their normal behavior was misinterpreted by staff. In a follow up study, hospital staff also could not distinguish real patients from those falsely claimed to be admitted. The study highlighted the depersonalization and powerlessness felt by patients when subjected to psychiatric labels and institutionalization rather than community-based care focused on behavior.
Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist who developed the theory of analytical psychology. He believed that people are extremely complex beings shaped by both conscious and unconscious experiences as well as inherited remnants from ancestors. Jung proposed that the psyche has different levels, including the personal unconscious and collective unconscious which contains archetypes. Some key archetypes are the persona, shadow, anima, animus, and self. Jung also developed the theory of psychological types which classified people into eight types based on their extraversion/introversion and dominant functions of sensing, thinking, feeling, or intuiting. Dream analysis and other techniques were used in Jung's therapeutic approach.
This document provides an overview of hypothesis testing. It begins by defining hypothesis testing and listing the typical steps: 1) formulating the null and alternative hypotheses, 2) computing the test statistic, 3) determining the p-value and interpretation, and 4) specifying the significance level. It then discusses different types of hypothesis tests for claims about a mean when the population standard deviation is known or unknown, as well as tests for claims about a population proportion. Examples are provided for each type of test to demonstrate how to apply the steps. The document aims to explain the concept and process of hypothesis testing for making data-driven decisions about statistical claims.
This document discusses the process of scale development. It outlines key steps in scale development including construct definition, item generation, content validity testing, measurement purification through techniques like exploratory factor analysis, and verification of dimensionality through assessing convergent and discriminant validity. It provides examples and guidelines for each step to help ensure a rigorous process for developing a valid and reliable measurement scale.
The TONI-4 is a nonverbal test of general intelligence that measures fluid intelligence and Spearman's g. It is ideal for testing individuals with language, hearing, motor, or cultural impairments. The test consists of 60 items involving shapes, positions, directions, and other nonverbal concepts. It takes approximately 15 minutes to complete. Scores include index scores, percentiles, age equivalents, and descriptive terms. The test shows adequate reliability and validity based on its standardization sample and has strengths such as its brevity and reduced cultural/language factors compared to previous versions. However, its normative sample was only tested in English and subgroup stratification could be improved. It is recommended as an alternative to verbal intelligence tests
The document provides an overview of the California Psychological Inventory (CPI), a self-report personality test used to assess normal adult personality and predict behaviors. It discusses the test structure, development history, scales, administration, scoring, validity, reliability, appropriate/inappropriate uses, and cultural applications. Some key points include:
- The CPI consists of 23 scales measuring traits like socialization, leadership, flexibility. It was developed using an empirical approach.
- Studies show moderate construct validity when compared to other personality tests and moderate predictive validity for behaviors.
- Reliability varies across scales but is generally adequate. Some scales like socialization predict behaviors better than others.
- The CPI can be used cross-
McClelland's Needs Theory identifies three important needs that motivate behavior: the need for power, the need for affiliation, and the need for achievement. The need for power involves influencing and controlling others, while the need for affiliation centers around developing social relationships and avoiding rejection. The need for achievement involves taking moderate or calculated risks to achieve goals and overcome obstacles. McClelland determined that these needs are learned over time based on life experiences rather than innate, and they influence the types of situations and roles that motivate different people.
Research methods in industrial and organizational psychologySeta Wicaksana
This document discusses research methods in industrial and organizational psychology. It outlines the research process as involving 5 steps: statement of the problem, research design, measurement of variables, data analysis, and conclusions. Key aspects of research design discussed include internal/external validity, naturalness of setting, and degree of control. Primary research methods covered are experiments, quasi-experiments, surveys, observation, and qualitative methods. The document also discusses measurement, statistical analysis including descriptive statistics, correlation and regression, and important considerations for data analysis and conclusions.
ABSTRACT : This paper critically examined a broad view of Structural Equation Model (SEM) with a view
of pointing out direction on how researchers can employ this model to future researches, with specific focus on
several traditional multivariate procedures like factor analysis, discriminant analysis, path analysis. This study
employed a descriptive survey and historical research design. Data was computed viaDescriptive Statistics,
Correlation Coefficient, Reliability. The study concluded that Novice researchers must take care of assumptions
and concepts of Structure Equation Modeling, while building a model to check the proposed hypothesis. SEM is
more or less an evolving technique in the research, which is expanding to new fields. Moreover, it is providing
new insights to researchers for conducting longitudinal investigations.
.
1. Reliability in psychological testing refers to the consistency or accuracy of measurement - the degree to which a test is free from errors of measurement.
2. Several models of reliability are used to evaluate the error associated with administering a test, including test-retest, parallel forms, split-half, Kuder-Richardson, and coefficient alpha methods.
3. The level of reliability considered "high enough" depends on the purpose and use of the test, with clinical settings requiring higher reliability indices greater than .95 compared to basic research where .70-.80 may be sufficient.
CHAPTER 2 - NORM, CORRELATION AND REGRESSION.pptkriti137049
Norms are the accepted standards on particular test.
Norms consist of data that make it possible to determine the relative standing of an individual who has taken a test.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology and research methods, including:
- Different approaches to psychology like psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive.
- Common research methods like observation, surveys, experiments, and longitudinal studies.
- Key terms like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups.
- Ethical standards for psychological research involving informed consent and protecting participants.
- Ways of organizing data like frequency distributions, and measures of central tendency and variability like mean, median, and standard deviation.
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The document provides an overview of the history and major perspectives in psychology, including: structuralism, functionalism, gestalt psychology, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, physiological, evolutionary, cognitive, cultural/diversity, and environmental perspectives. It also discusses common research methods, ethics in research, subfields of psychology, and pathways to careers in psychology.
Carl Jung had a disturbed childhood due to his mother's mental illness. He became interested in psychiatry after reading Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis. Jung furthered his education at the University of Basel medical school and joined the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital. There he began pioneering work with word association tests. Jung initially collaborated with Sigmund Freud but they later had a falling out over theoretical disagreements. Jung went on to develop his theories of archetypes, the collective unconscious, introversion and extroversion, individuation, and more. He recorded his visions and imaginings during a midlife crisis in The Red Book. Jung had a large influence on the fields of psychology and psychotherapy.
The document discusses conformity and several classic experiments that studied it. Solomon Asch's famous experiment showed that people's perceptions can change under peer pressure from a group. Later experiments by Stanley Milgram and Jane Elliott further demonstrated how people often conform to authorities, even when they disagree privately or have doubts about the authority's instructions. The document also discusses differences in individualism between Western and Eastern cultures and how the desire to fit in or seek guidance from others can lead to normative or informational conformity.
The document summarizes Alfred Adler's theory of striving for superiority. It discusses Adler's biography and how his childhood experiences influenced his theory. The key points of Adler's theory are:
1) Adler believed the single driving force behind all human motivation is the striving for superiority or success over others.
2) This striving is a result of innate feelings of inferiority that compel people to achieve more in order to feel whole.
3) People either strive for personal superiority, focused on their own gain, or strive for the success of humanity through socially-minded goals and cooperation with others.
Carl Jung developed the theory of analytical psychology and the concepts of the personal and collective unconscious. He believed humans are motivated by both individual experiences and inherited tendencies from ancestors. Jung proposed that the psyche aims for balance through incorporating opposing elements like introversion and extraversion. The goal of Jungian therapy is for clients to achieve self-realization by integrating the various parts of their psyche.
This document summarizes the contributions of several important female psychologists throughout history whose work was often overlooked or ignored. It describes how Anna Freud extended her father's psychoanalytic theories to child psychology, how Mamie Phipps Clark's doll experiments influenced the Brown vs. Board of Education decision, and how Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation assessment of attachment in children. It also outlines the influential research of Sandra Bem, Mary Whiton Calkins, Leta Hollingworth, Karen Horney, Melanie Klein, Brenda Milner, and Susan Blackmore on gender roles, neuropsychology, psychoanalysis, and the science of memes.
this ppt contains almost all concepts of freud's psychodynamic theory of personality. It can be very helpful for psychology students for understanding the concept and for their psychology notes.
Self-disclosure involves revealing personal information about oneself to others. It can be done consciously or unconsciously and includes disclosing information about others that impacts oneself. There are risks to self-disclosure such as revealing too much private information, experiencing rejection or loss of self-confidence, or material loss. However, there are also rewards like gaining self-knowledge, coping with problems through support from others, improving communication, and establishing meaningful relationships built on trust. The document provides guidelines for self-disclosing appropriately and responding supportively to others' disclosures, as well as resisting pressure to disclose privately if unwanted.
This document discusses temperament and attachment in infants and young children. It describes three main temperament types - easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. It then discusses early social behaviors and milestones in social development from 2 months to 3 years old. The document also summarizes Harry Harlow's experiment on attachment in rhesus monkeys and John Bowlby's attachment theory. It explains Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation experiment and the four attachment styles it identified - secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized.
Rosenhan conducted a famous study where sane individuals successfully gained admission to psychiatric hospitals by feigning auditory hallucinations. All were diagnosed with schizophrenia and their normal behavior was misinterpreted by staff. In a follow up study, hospital staff also could not distinguish real patients from those falsely claimed to be admitted. The study highlighted the depersonalization and powerlessness felt by patients when subjected to psychiatric labels and institutionalization rather than community-based care focused on behavior.
Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist who developed the theory of analytical psychology. He believed that people are extremely complex beings shaped by both conscious and unconscious experiences as well as inherited remnants from ancestors. Jung proposed that the psyche has different levels, including the personal unconscious and collective unconscious which contains archetypes. Some key archetypes are the persona, shadow, anima, animus, and self. Jung also developed the theory of psychological types which classified people into eight types based on their extraversion/introversion and dominant functions of sensing, thinking, feeling, or intuiting. Dream analysis and other techniques were used in Jung's therapeutic approach.
This document provides an overview of hypothesis testing. It begins by defining hypothesis testing and listing the typical steps: 1) formulating the null and alternative hypotheses, 2) computing the test statistic, 3) determining the p-value and interpretation, and 4) specifying the significance level. It then discusses different types of hypothesis tests for claims about a mean when the population standard deviation is known or unknown, as well as tests for claims about a population proportion. Examples are provided for each type of test to demonstrate how to apply the steps. The document aims to explain the concept and process of hypothesis testing for making data-driven decisions about statistical claims.
This document discusses the process of scale development. It outlines key steps in scale development including construct definition, item generation, content validity testing, measurement purification through techniques like exploratory factor analysis, and verification of dimensionality through assessing convergent and discriminant validity. It provides examples and guidelines for each step to help ensure a rigorous process for developing a valid and reliable measurement scale.
The TONI-4 is a nonverbal test of general intelligence that measures fluid intelligence and Spearman's g. It is ideal for testing individuals with language, hearing, motor, or cultural impairments. The test consists of 60 items involving shapes, positions, directions, and other nonverbal concepts. It takes approximately 15 minutes to complete. Scores include index scores, percentiles, age equivalents, and descriptive terms. The test shows adequate reliability and validity based on its standardization sample and has strengths such as its brevity and reduced cultural/language factors compared to previous versions. However, its normative sample was only tested in English and subgroup stratification could be improved. It is recommended as an alternative to verbal intelligence tests
The document provides an overview of the California Psychological Inventory (CPI), a self-report personality test used to assess normal adult personality and predict behaviors. It discusses the test structure, development history, scales, administration, scoring, validity, reliability, appropriate/inappropriate uses, and cultural applications. Some key points include:
- The CPI consists of 23 scales measuring traits like socialization, leadership, flexibility. It was developed using an empirical approach.
- Studies show moderate construct validity when compared to other personality tests and moderate predictive validity for behaviors.
- Reliability varies across scales but is generally adequate. Some scales like socialization predict behaviors better than others.
- The CPI can be used cross-
McClelland's Needs Theory identifies three important needs that motivate behavior: the need for power, the need for affiliation, and the need for achievement. The need for power involves influencing and controlling others, while the need for affiliation centers around developing social relationships and avoiding rejection. The need for achievement involves taking moderate or calculated risks to achieve goals and overcome obstacles. McClelland determined that these needs are learned over time based on life experiences rather than innate, and they influence the types of situations and roles that motivate different people.
Research methods in industrial and organizational psychologySeta Wicaksana
This document discusses research methods in industrial and organizational psychology. It outlines the research process as involving 5 steps: statement of the problem, research design, measurement of variables, data analysis, and conclusions. Key aspects of research design discussed include internal/external validity, naturalness of setting, and degree of control. Primary research methods covered are experiments, quasi-experiments, surveys, observation, and qualitative methods. The document also discusses measurement, statistical analysis including descriptive statistics, correlation and regression, and important considerations for data analysis and conclusions.
ABSTRACT : This paper critically examined a broad view of Structural Equation Model (SEM) with a view
of pointing out direction on how researchers can employ this model to future researches, with specific focus on
several traditional multivariate procedures like factor analysis, discriminant analysis, path analysis. This study
employed a descriptive survey and historical research design. Data was computed viaDescriptive Statistics,
Correlation Coefficient, Reliability. The study concluded that Novice researchers must take care of assumptions
and concepts of Structure Equation Modeling, while building a model to check the proposed hypothesis. SEM is
more or less an evolving technique in the research, which is expanding to new fields. Moreover, it is providing
new insights to researchers for conducting longitudinal investigations.
.
1. Reliability in psychological testing refers to the consistency or accuracy of measurement - the degree to which a test is free from errors of measurement.
2. Several models of reliability are used to evaluate the error associated with administering a test, including test-retest, parallel forms, split-half, Kuder-Richardson, and coefficient alpha methods.
3. The level of reliability considered "high enough" depends on the purpose and use of the test, with clinical settings requiring higher reliability indices greater than .95 compared to basic research where .70-.80 may be sufficient.
CHAPTER 2 - NORM, CORRELATION AND REGRESSION.pptkriti137049
Norms are the accepted standards on particular test.
Norms consist of data that make it possible to determine the relative standing of an individual who has taken a test.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology and research methods, including:
- Different approaches to psychology like psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive.
- Common research methods like observation, surveys, experiments, and longitudinal studies.
- Key terms like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups.
- Ethical standards for psychological research involving informed consent and protecting participants.
- Ways of organizing data like frequency distributions, and measures of central tendency and variability like mean, median, and standard deviation.
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The document provides an overview of the history and major perspectives in psychology, including: structuralism, functionalism, gestalt psychology, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, physiological, evolutionary, cognitive, cultural/diversity, and environmental perspectives. It also discusses common research methods, ethics in research, subfields of psychology, and pathways to careers in psychology.
This document provides an overview of social psychology, including its key topics and research methods. Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. It examines how our behavior is shaped by social situations and other people. The document outlines some of social psychology's major ideas like social thinking, social influences, and obedience. It also describes common research methods in social psychology like correlational research, surveys, experiments, and the importance of ethics.
This document provides an introduction to quantitative and qualitative research methods. It discusses key aspects of research design including ontology, epistemology, methodology, and methods. Quantitative research uses numerical data and statistical analysis, while qualitative research uses non-numerical data sources like interviews. The appropriate approach depends on one's research questions, philosophy, and skills. Both approaches have strengths and limitations.
This document provides an introduction to quantitative and qualitative research methods. It discusses key aspects of research design including ontology, epistemology, methodology, and methods. Quantitative research uses numerical data and statistical analysis, while qualitative research uses non-numerical data sources like interviews. The appropriate approach depends on the research questions and philosophy. Both have benefits and limitations. Validity, reliability, and trustworthiness are also important aspects of research quality.
This document provides an introduction to quantitative and qualitative research methods. It discusses that research methods can be broadly split into quantitative and qualitative approaches. The choice of method depends on the research questions, underlying philosophy, and researcher's skills and preferences. It also outlines some basic principles of research design including ontology, epistemology, methodology, and specific methods. Common quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis techniques are also introduced.
Introduction to quantitative and qualitative researchLiz FitzGerald
This presentation, delivered in an Open University CALRG Building Knowledge session, gives a preliminary introduction to both quantitative and qualitative research approaches. There has been widespread debate when considering the relative merits of quantitative and qualitative strategies for research. Positions taken by individual researchers vary considerably, from those who see the two strategies as entirely separate, polar opposites that are based upon alternative views of the world, to those who are happy to mix these strategies within their research projects. We consider the different strengths, weaknesses and suitability of different approaches and draw upon some examples to highlight their use within educational technology.
Week 3 – 91417Today• 2nd Research Example• Q.docxcockekeshia
Week 3 – 9/14/17
Today
• 2nd Research Example
• Quiz #1 Debrief
• Research Ethics
• Practice
• Workplace Productivity – You are interested in the factors
that influence and have relationships with employee’s
productivity in the workplace.
Questions:
1. What are one (1) directional & one (1) non-directional
research hypothesis?
2. What are the IV and DV in this scenario?
a. What might be an operational definition for these variables?
3. Is this research being done experimentally or non-
experimentally?
a. How can you tell?
4. Is this a qualitative or quantitative research study?
a. How can you tell?
Research Scenario Example #2
Conceptual
Math Achievement
Trust (Workplace)
Depression
Anger
Operational
Score on PSSA Math
Score on the ITA (International
Trust Assessment)
Hamilton Depression Rating
Scale
Yelling, hitting, etc.
Variable Definition (IV or DV)
Quiz 1
• How’d it go?
• Questions / Concerns?
• 1 Hour?
• Let’s take a look.
Types of Variables
Continuous and discrete variables
• Continuous: Measured along a continuum at any
place beyond the decimal point, meaning that it
can be measured in whole units or fractional units
• E.g. Olympic sprinters are timed to the nearest
hundredths place (in seconds), but if the Olympic
judges wanted to clock them to the nearest millionths
place, they could
Types of Variables
Continuous and discrete variables
• Discrete: Measured in whole units or categories
that are not distributed along a continuum
• E.g. Number of brothers and sisters you have,
socioeconomic class (working class, middle class,
upper class)
Recap So Far
• Empirical Research
• Experimental vs. Non-Experimental
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Hypothesis vs. Research Question
• Directional
• Independent Variable vs. Dependent Variable
• Variable Definitions
• Conceptual vs. Operational
• Investigator is liable; must ensure…
– Protection from harm
– Experiments? Survey?
– Informed consent
– Privacy
– Knowledge of results
– Potential benefit
– Debriefing
• For sponsored work, University is also liable
– Institutional Review Board (IRB)
– Offering Inducements?
– Anonymity vs. Confidentiality
Ethics in Human Subject Research
IRB Approval
Ethical Use of Deception
Deception in research
• Can be active (deliberately untruthful) or passive
(omission of key information about a study)
• For IRB to approve the use of deception:
• The deception is necessary, and the use of
nondeceptive alternatives is not feasible
• There is no reasonable expectation for causing
physical pain or severe emotional distress to
participants
• Participants are informed of the deception as early as
possible, but no later than at the end of data
collection
• Use of Placebo
• Difficult to study topics
How did we get here?
• Who?
• Prisoners, Minorities, Children, Poor, Mental Disease, Cognitive
Disabilities
• What?
• Nuremberg Code
• Study of Disease Progressio.
This document provides an overview of experimental psychology and the scientific method. It discusses the importance of gathering data systematically and objectively without personal biases. Nonexperimental research methods like case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys are described as alternatives to experiments that can still provide useful psychological data while imposing less control over subjects. Proper research ethics, obtaining informed consent, and avoiding harm to participants are emphasized.
NurseReview.Org - Research Notes NLE Examinationjben501
The document provides an overview of research methods and processes. It discusses key concepts like hypotheses, research design, data collection and analysis. Specifically, it outlines 10 major steps of scientific research including identification of the research problem, literature review, data collection and analysis, and dissemination of findings. It also discusses different sampling methods, research designs, data collection techniques, and theories of leadership.
The document outlines the basic steps of the scientific method used in sociological research: 1) Define the problem, 2) Review relevant literature, 3) Formulate a testable hypothesis, 4) Select a research design and collect/analyze data through methods like surveys, observation, or experiments, and 5) Develop a conclusion and ideas for further research. It discusses key aspects of each step, such as developing operational definitions, identifying independent and dependent variables, ensuring validity and reliability, and addressing ethical concerns.
This chapter introduces social psychology and discusses its key topics and themes.
1) Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of how people think, feel, and behave in social situations. It examines how people influence each other and make decisions.
2) The chapter contrasts social psychology with related fields like personality psychology and sociology. It also discusses proximal and distal influences on behavior.
3) Major themes in social psychology are reviewed, including the power of situations, construal processes, automatic vs. controlled thinking, evolution and culture's impact on behavior, and the need for empirical research.
Social psychology is the study of how people think, feel, and behave in social situations. There are two main areas of study: social cognition, which involves how people make sense of their social environment through mental processes like person perception, attribution, and attitudes; and social influence, which examines how behavior is affected by social situations and other people through conformity, obedience, and helping behaviors. Experiments have shown that people conform to group pressures even when the group is clearly wrong, and most participants in Milgram's study obediently administered what they believed were dangerous electric shocks when instructed by an authority figure.
The document discusses different types of research methods and designs, including experimental, quasi-experimental, non-experimental, qualitative, and quantitative approaches. It provides examples of true experimental designs, quasi-experimental designs, and non-experimental designs. It also outlines the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research, such as qualitative research being inductive while quantitative research is deductive. Finally, it discusses developing research questions and hypotheses for different types of studies.
Introduction to Social Psychology
I used local and foreign books. Some concepts are not mentioned here in my slides but will be discussed during our session.
If you want to know the resources feel free to comment below.
Critical Thinking and ArticleResearch Analysis Guidelines(Based.docxannettsparrow
Critical Thinking and Article/Research Analysis Guidelines
(Based on: Paul R. & Elder, L. (2014) Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools. www.criticalthinking.org)
Why Critical Thinking?
The Problem:
Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our though. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.
A Definition:
Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it.
The Result:
A well cultivated critical thinker:
· Raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
· Gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;
· Comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
· Thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
· Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
Analyzing & Assessing Research
Use this template to assess the quality of any research project or paper.
1. All research has a fundamental PURPOSE and goal.
· Research purposes and goals should be clearly stated.
· Related purposes should be explicitly distinguished.
· All segments of the research should be relevant to the purpose.
· All research purposes should be realistic and significant.
2. All research addresses a fundamental QUESTION, problem, or issue.
· The fundamental question at issue should be clearly and precisely stated.
· Related questions should be articulated and distinguished.
· All segments of the research should be relevant to the central question.
· All research questions should be realistic and significant.
· All research questions should define clearly stated intellectual tasks that, being fulfilled, settle the questions.
3. All research identifies data, INFORMATION, and evidence relevant to its fundamental question and purpose.
· All information should be clear, accurate, and relevant to the fundamental question at issue.
· Information gathered must be sufficient to settle the question at issue.
· Information contrary to the main conclusions of the research should be explained.
4. All research contains INFERENCES or interpretations by which conclusions are drawn.
· All conclusions should be clea.
This document discusses several non-experimental qualitative research methods, including interviews, observations, and case studies. It provides details on how each method is conducted and considerations for using each method ethically and effectively. Interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured and require informed consent. Observations can be participant or non-participant, and reactivity is a concern. Case studies provide rich insight but require protecting identities. Overall, the document outlines the purpose and process of key qualitative research techniques.
Doing sociological research involves applying the sociological perspective, being curious and asking questions objectively. There are different types of truths and ways of knowing, including scientific knowledge based on empirical evidence. Sociological research methods include positivist, interpretive, and critical sociology. Key aspects of research are concepts, variables, measurement, validity, reliability, and the relationship between variables. The scientific method involves collecting data through observation and experimentation. Common data collection methods are participant observation, interviews, surveys, existing sources, and experiments. It is important for sociological research to be objective and consider how factors like gender can influence results. Ethical standards help ensure research protects participants.
This document discusses the importance and applications of quantitative research across various fields including anthropology, communication, sports medicine, medical education, behavioral sciences, education/psychology, and social sciences. It provides examples of quantitative research questions and methods used in these fields, including experiments, surveys, and correlational studies. The key aspects of experimental design are outlined, including the need for treatment and control groups, random assignment, pre-and post-testing, and how field experiments differ from lab experiments.
Issues and debates revision - AQA psychology A LevelElla Warwick
This document summarizes key issues and debates in psychology, including:
1) Potential for gender and cultural bias in theories that may not adequately represent all groups.
2) The debate around free will vs. determinism and implications for moral responsibility.
3) The ongoing nature vs. nurture debate and evidence for complex interactions.
4) Tensions between holistic and reductionistic approaches to studying behavior.
5) Differences between idiographic and nomothetic methods and how they complement each other.
6) Ethical implications of socially sensitive research and importance of conducting it responsibly.
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This document proposes targeting Nintendo's Wii gaming console towards senior citizens aged 55 and older. The Wii has benefits for seniors such as promoting social interaction and physical exercise. An integrated marketing communications plan is proposed using advertising, public relations, direct marketing and sales promotions tailored towards seniors. The objectives are to build customer relationships with seniors and position the Wii as a healthy product. A budget for the IMC plan includes local TV, magazine and newspaper ads, billboards, and promotional activities at senior centers.
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Power Consulting helps clients make important decisions by providing strategic advice. The firm works with executives to identify key issues, develop solutions, and implement plans. Power Consulting focuses on energizing clients with insights and empowering them to drive organizational change.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in corporate finance and time value of money, including future and present value calculations, compounding and discounting of cash flows, perpetuities, and annuities. It includes examples and practice problems related to time value of money concepts like interest rates, inflation, and delayed cash flows. The document is from a college course on financial management and covers topics that will be addressed in weeks 2 and 3 of the course.
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We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
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- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
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We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
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- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
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Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
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- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
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This session provides introduction to UiPath Communication Mining, importance and platform overview. You will acquire a good understand of the phases in Communication Mining as we go over the platform with you. Topics covered:
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• Why is it important?
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• Phases in Communication Mining
• Demo on Platform overview
• Q/A
Communications Mining Series - Zero to Hero - Session 1
Psych Chapters 1-6 Midterm #1
1. Beatrice - 1,2
Miguel - 3,4
Darrel - 5,6
Chapter 1 What Is Personality
◆ The Person & The Situation
• Both the person and the situation contribute to behavior
- there are typical behavioral response patterns to situations
- The Main Question: What makes an individual's behavior different from another?
◆ Six Approaches To Personality (reference #'s in text)
• Psychoanalytical Approach (1)
- founded by Freud
- unconscious mind is responsible for important differences in behavior
• Trait Approach (2)
- identifies where a person lies along a continuum of various personality characteristics to
differentiate
• Biological Approach (3)
- behavior is different by inherited predispositions and processes
• Humanistic Approach (4)
- personal responsibility and feelings of self-acceptance are causes of differnces
• Behavioral/Social Learning Approach (5)
- B.F. Skinner
- conditioning and expectations create differences
• Cognitive Approach (6)
- difference in the way people process information cause differences in behavior
◆ Example of Behavior - Aggression - And the Perspective of the Approaches
• (1): unconscious desire to self destruct; unconsciously turned in outward expression; blocked
from reaching goals.
• (2): individual differences and stability of aggressive behavior; ie'- child aggressiveness likely to
become aggressive adults
• (3): born with aggressive tendencies; ie'- men are more aggressive then women
• (4): inherently born good, but their environment shapes them to be aggressive
• (5): learn to be aggressive through role models, TV, etc....
• (6): some people are more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as threatening
◆ Example of Behavior - Depression - " "
• (1): depression is anger expressed/turned inward
• (2): predicting behavior by identifying individuals prone to depression
• (3): depression is inherited
• (4): caused by under-developed self-esteem and no self-acceptance
• (5): caused by a lack of positive reinforces and exposure to uncontrollable events making one
feel helpless which in turn, one projects these feelings of helplessness generally to other situations.
• (6): how people interpret their inability to control events; interpret incoming information with a
depressive filter on.
◆ Personality and Culture
• People and their personality exist within a cultural context
• Individualistic Cultures: western countries; emphasis on individual needs and accomplishments;
people view themselves as independent and unique.
• Collectivist Cultures: focus on cooperation; belonging to a larger group - family, tribe, nation
2. • Behavior study in personality have different meanings in different cultures.
◆ Theory, Application, Assessment, and Research
• Theory - And Approach Perspective
- explains the mechanism and how the mechanism is responsible for creating individual behavior
- Genetic Vs. Environmental Influences
• To what extent are our behaviors inherited or shaped by our environment?
a) (1): emphasize innate needs and behavior patterns; unconscious - somewhat Genetic
b) (2)&(3): importance of inherited perdispositions - Genetic
c) (4),(5),&(6): less likely to emphasize inherited influences - leans toward Enviro.
- Conscious Vs. Unconscious
• To what extent are we aware?
a) (1): unconscious
b) (2)&(6): no extreme position but rely heavily on self-reported data (meaning more
conscious)
c) (4): middle ground, no extreme position
d) (5): people assume they understand and are conscious but really don't understand.
- Free Will Vs. Determinism
• extent of decisions or outside forces?
a) (1): emphasize innate needs, unconscious, outside our controll
b) (2)&(3): genetic predisposition tends to limit development
c) (4): we have personal choice; take responsibility
d) (5): no choosing, direct result of environmental stimuli
e) (6): people must recognize how they cause their own problems
• Application
- psychotherapy
• Assessment
- people self-report then data is interpreted by psychologist
- observing behavior and reporting
• Research
- Chapter 2.
Chapter 2 Research Methods
◆ Hypothesis-Testing Approach
• Based on previous theory and research, one generates a hypothesis and uses experimental
methods to collect data and prove hypothesis. Usually with large numbers of participants.
• Theory & Hypothesis
- Theory: general statement about a relationship between constructs or events
a) law of parsimony: simplest theory best explains
b) usefulness: theory must be able to generate a testable hypothesis
c) a theory is never tested
- Hypothesis: formal prediction about a relationship between 2 or more variables logically
derived from a theory
• Experimental Variables
- Independent Variable: how groups in experiments are divided; often manipulated by
experimenter. (aka. Treatment Variable)
- Dependent Variable: measured and used to compare groups. (aka. Outcome Variable)
a) differences in independent variable causes or correlates a change in the dependent variable
• Manipulated Vs. Non-Manipulated Independent Variables
3. - Manipulated: randomly assigned participants to an experimental group will average out other
differences; then, introduce independent variable (ie'- drugs: one group gets them, other doesn't)
- Non-Manipulated (Subject Variable): without researchers intention (ie'- male or female)
participants determine which group they belong to; cancels the averaged out differences so its difficult
to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
a) allows researchers to study differences between interesting topics(ie'- men and women /
introverts and extroverts)
• Prediction Vs. Hindsight
- Prediction is important because a predicted hypothesis proven or disproved has scientific
value; whereas, if a scientist does an experiment without a predicted hypothesis, he can argue the
outcome in either direction giving it no scientific value.
• Replication
- one study may find statistical significance, but to be commonly accepted by the psychological
community, the experiment must be re-done. to eliminate any special circumstance and to make sure
the findings either apply to a small particular group, or a larger population.
- downfall to replication: File Drawer Effect - when a replication fails to find significant effects,
the researcher says something went wrong and the research is filed away so some may not realize that
problems exist within the experiment.
◆ Case Study Method (qualitative)
• In depth study of at least one individual.
• Semi-structured interview on a personal level that is taped; in a location that is comfortable for
the subject.
• Researcher will describe their impressions of the behavior rather then report stats.
• The tape is the transcribed to a Coding Document: placing the subject in a category; ie'- level of
trauma
• Strengths
- detailed analysis that other methods don't allow for
- generating a hypothesis
a) "high mundane realism"
> studying what you actually want
- studying rare cases
- illustrating a treatment
- demonstrating possibilities
a) ie'- easily hypnotized people can form blisters on their skin when imagining its on fire
• Weaknesses/Limitations
- generalizing from a single individual to other people
- can't determine cause&effect; just correlation
- investigators' subjective judgments interfere with scientific objectivity
- no control over independent variables
- relying on recalled memories which can be shaped by current emotions
a) "retrospective bias" ; "retrospective distortion"
◆ Statistical Analysis of Data
• Statistical Significance
- telling if different group averages on dependent variables represent real effects
a) Analysis of Variance
b) Chi-Square Test
c) Correlation Coefficient
- Statistical significance
4. a) if two averages differed by a small amount that could be chance > no stat. significance
b) if two averages differed by a large amount, not likely caused by chance, and reflects a true
difference > stat. significance
• Stats tell us the probability of the difference being caused by chance
• Significance level is 0.5
- means that the difference is so large that it occurs less than 5% of the time by chance
◆ Correlation Coefficient
• Statistical test to understand the relationship between two measures.
- data is reduced to one number ranging from 1.00 to -1.00
a) the closer to 1.00 or -1.00 the stronger the relationship
• Positive Correlation: high score on one measure indicates a higher score on other measure
• Negative correlation: high score on one measure indicates a lower score on other measure
◆ Personality Assessment (survey method) - (quantitative)
• questionnaire with exact questions
• Strengths
- many people participate giving a lot of information
- leads to better statistics
- allows for anonymity, assumed more truthful
• Weaknesses
- same weaknesses as case study
- wording of question and response options; bias
- subject bias because of "social desirability norm"
- certain people will agree to take or send back the questionnaire.
• Reliability
- how consistently the test measures over time
a) test-restest reliability coefficient
- internal consistenty
a) when all items on the test measure the same thing
b) internal consistency coefficient
• Validity
- extent to which a test measures what it is designed to measure
a) how well is validity demonstrated?
- Hypothetical Construct: describe concepts that have no physical reality; ie'- intelligence,
masculinity, social anxiety
• Construct Validity
- demonstrates that a test accurately gauges the personality dimension being measured
• Face Validity
- the test obivously and straightforwardly measures a contruct
• Congruent Validity
- extent to which test scores correlate to other methods of measuring the same construct
• Discriminant Validity
- extent to which test scores don't correlate to scores of theoretically unrelated constructs
• Behavioral Validation
- test scores should be able to predict relevant behavior
Chapter 3 The Psychoanalytic Approach
1. Freud Discovers the Unconscious
5. a. Sigmund Freud - Neurologist back in the early 1900s
b. Joseph Breuer, a physician, and Jean-Martin Charcot, a neurologist, were both hypnosis
to treat hysterical patients
i. Hysteria is a disorder that consists of a variety of physical symptoms such as
blindness, deafness, and inability to walk or use an arm, etc.
a. One of Breuer's patients, Anna O., had hysteria, inability to move left arm, and she
could only speak English when her native toungue was German
i. After several sessions of hypnosis, she was able to move her left arm and was
able to speak German again.
a. Freud began to get disillusioned with hypnosis and looked for alternative methods, he
wanted patients to be able to say whatever was in their mind
i. Free Association - a procedure used in psychoanalysis in which patients say
whatever comes into their mind.
a. Freud's approach to treatment was so radical that many respected physicians
considered it absurd
b. Gradually, Freud's theory gained acceptance within the growing field of psychology
2. The Freudian Theory of Personality
a. The Topographic Model
i. Originally divided into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.
1. Conscious - The part of personality that contains the thoughts we are
currently aware of
2. Preconscious - The part of personality that contains thoughts that can
be brought into awareness with little difficulty
3. Unconscious - The part of personality that contains material that cannot
easily be brought into awareness
a. The Structural Model
i. Freud felt the topographic model was too limited in description of human
personality
ii. Divides personality into the id, ego and the superego
1. ID - The selfish part of you, concerned only with satisfying your personal
desires, pleasure principle
a. Wish Fulfillment - if the desired object is not available, the id will
imagine what it wants
b. Freud described id as being buried entirely in the unconscious
1. Ego - Based on the reality principle, the primary job of the ego is to
satisfy the id impulses but in a manner that takes into consideration the
realities of the situation.
a. Unlike the id, the ego is free and moves between the
unconscious, preconscious and conscious.
b. The ego is also responsible to satisfy the id but at the same time
reducing tension
i. Example: your id desire is hunger, which makes you want
to grab any food you see, but the ego is the realization
that you can't just grab any food you see because it is
unacceptable, thus lessoning the tension, and, in a way
considers the consequence.
6. a. As children interact with their environment during their first 2
years, the second part, ego, gradually develops
1. Superego - by the time children reach age 5 the third part, superego, is
formed; represents society's - and, in particular, the parents' - values
and standards
a. Superego places more restrictions on what we can and can't do
b. Primary weapon that superego brings is guilt
c. Provides ideals the ego uses to determine if a behavior is
virtuous and thus worthy of praise
a. Libidy and Thanatos
i. Topographic provides playing field, structural provides characters, libido and
thanatos sets this Freud theory in motion
1. Triebe - internal forces that human behavior is motivated by
i. Libido - The limited amount of psychic energy that powers mental activity, life
or sexual instinct
ii. Thanatos - the self-destructive (death) instinct, which is often turned outward
in the form of aggression
1. Energy within a physical system does not disappear but exists in finite
amounts
a. So if the ego has to expend large amounts of energy to control
the id, it has little energy left to carry out the rest of its functions
efficiently
a. Defense Mechanisms
1. Neurotic anxiety - vague feelings of anxiety sparked by the sensation that
unacceptable unconscious thoughts are about to burst through the awareness
barrier and express themselves in consciousness
i. Defense Mechanisms - devices the ego uses to keep threatening material out of
awareness and thereby reduce or avoid anxiety
1. Repression - the ego pushes threatening material out of awareness and
into unconscious.
a. Example - a boy sees his father abuse his mother and when
asked about the experience, the boy insists he never saw
anything. Although he may not be lying but he may have found it
too horrific to accept it.
1. Sublimation - Threatening unconscious impulses are channeled into
socially acceptable behaviors
a. Example - Football players, or other athletics: aggressive
athletes are often considered hero's
1. Displacement - A response is directed at a nonthreatening target
instead of the unconsciously preferred one
a. Example - as a result of mistreatment or abuse, a woman might
carry with her a great deal of unconscious anger
1. Denial - When we simply refuse to accept that certain facts exist
2. Reaction Formation - People act in a manner opposite to their
unconscious desires
7. a. A daughter that goes around saying how much she LOVES her
mother might actually be masking strong unconscious hatred for
her mother
1. Intellectualization - The emotional content of threatening material is
removed before it is brought into awareness, that is, by considering
something in a strictly intellectual way and not emotional.
2. Projection - One's own unconscious thoughts and impulses are
attributed to other people.
a. Example - the woman who thinks everyone in her neighborhood
is committing adultery may be harboring sexual desires for the
married man living next door
a. Psychosexual Stages of Development
i. Freud argued that the adult personality is formed by experiences from the first
5-6 years of life.
ii. Freud thinks that our adult personalities are formed in different stages called
psychosexual stages of development
iii. Fixation - Tying up psychic energy at one psychosexual stage, which results in
adult behaviors characteristic of that state
iv. Oral Stage - the psychosexual stage of development in which the mouth, lips,
and tongue are the primary erogenous zones, that is, you don't have to look at
a 6 month old baby to realize that everything pretty much enters the body
through the mouth
1. People with oral personalities are considered dependent on others as
adults
i. Anal stage - psychosexual stage in which the anal region is the primary
erogenous zone
1. When children enter 18 months old, they enter anal stage.
2. In this stage most children are toilet trained
i. Phallic Stage - psychosexual stage where the genital region is the primary
erogenous zone and in which the oedipus complex develops also referred to as
the oedipus complex
1. Oedipus - greek mythical character that unknowingly married his
mother
i. Castration anxiety - when boys are scared that their fathers will discover their
thoughts and want to cut off their penis
1. If they have seen their sisters genitals, they assume that the fate had
already reached his sister.
2. Girls develop Penis Envy, the desire to have a penis
i. After the oedipus complex, the child passes into latency stage, right before
puberty. Sexual desires begin to form and get stronger when the genital stage
comes through
a. Getting at Unconscious Material
i. Dreams - Freud called it the "royal road to the unconscious"
1. Dreams provide id impulses with a stage for expression, they are a type
of wish fulfillment. Dreams represent the things we want or desire
2. Many of our thoughts and desires are presented symbolically.
8. a. Example - Body is represented as a house, parents as king queen,
children as small animals and penis's as phallic looking objects.
i. Projective Tests - Those ink blob tests where you look at and try to explain in
the form of a story or identification of object. There is no right or wrong answer
ii. Free association - it is the fundamental rule of psychoanalysis. To be able to just
say whatever is on your mind, and express the unconscious
iii. Freudian slip - when a patient accidently calls his wife by her maiden name or
says that her mind is her "breast" feature. This is insightful because the
husband may not have ever wanted to marry her and her best feature might
really be her breasts
iv. Hypnosis - It is the pipeline to the unconscious
v. Accidents - say your arguing with someone and "accidently" knock over and
break a statue, is it really an accident?
1. Resistance - when a patient for whatever reason starts missing regular
therapy meetings
i. Symbolic Behavior - example: say your moms favorite flower is the daisy and
you have a doormat outside your house with a bunch of daisies on it. You come
every day from work and rub your shoes all over the door mat, symbolically the
daisies represent the mother and you are stomping on your mother.
3. Application: Psychoanalysis
a. Freud was the first person to outline and advocate a system of psychotherapy
b. Psychoanalysis - The system of psychotherapy
i. It's goal is to bring crucial unconscious material into the conscious where it can
be examined and dealt with
ii. Typically, the psychoanalysis client lies on a couch while the therapist sits
behind them out of sight
iii. The bulk of time during these sessions is getting out the unconscious, it's very
difficult because the ego is programmed to keep the unconscious where it is at
iv. Transference - When clients bring out emotions of past clients
v. Countertransference - when the therapist actually brings out his own emotions
into the mix
4. Assessment: Projective Tests
a. Types of Projective Tests
i. Rorscharch Inkblot test -…the inkblot..that's all it is...
ii. Thematic apperception test (TAT) - consists of series of ambiguous pictures,
the test takers are asked to tell a story about each picture
iii. Human figure drawing test - where the test taker is asked to draw a person, or
a family or a tree. It tests level of intelligence in children as well
Chapter 4
1. People don't always believe the Freudian theory, some even ridicule it.
2. Freud tried several ways to validate his findings
3. Chapter 4 is about testing whether or not Freud's theory(s) is correct.
9. 4. Dream Interpretation
i. Dream interpretation was popularized by Freud
a. The Meaning of Dream Content
i. According to Freud, dreams provide meaning to what is in the unconscious
ii. Dreams could either be symbols, usually sexual symbols in Freudian tradition
1. Dream researchers have different procedures where they'll ask a patient
to write their dreams down in a diary first thing in the morning, or talk
about a last or recurrent dream
i. Experiment - participants spent several nights in a sleep laboratory, they would
be woken up in the middle of every night to be asked about their dreams.
When they were suggested of a dream, they were able to actually focus on
what was suggested to them.
ii. Women's dreams typically have an equal amount of males and females
iii. Men typically dream of more male characters, and this difference is found in all
ages
1. Males make up 50% of female's dreams and 65% of male dreams
2. This is so because men usually never get over issues with their fathers
3. Nothing can really be proven as to why males dream of more males than
females, but there are
i. Recurrent Dreams - they can represent anxiety or unresolved issues. The
unconscious conflict comes out at night and the anxiety comes out during the
day. People who have these dreams are thought of having more anxiety
ii. Sexual symbols - hasn't been proven that objects in dreams are sexual symbols
1. It is believed that people who can't express their sexual desires when
they are awake express them when they are asleep
2. There was a test done on a few people for 10 days where they basically
recorded their anxiety level and their dreams. Although the more
anxiety did in fact bring out more symbols, the theory still remains
elusive
a. The Function of Dreams
i. Freud believed people dream because unconscious impulses can't be
suppressed forever
ii. REM Sleep - Rapid eye movement. People experience REM between 1 1/2 to 2
hours a night spread over several preiods
1. REM sleep has much more dreams and non-REM sleep has significantly
less dreams
i. Researchers believe that depriving someone of REM sleep can bring serious
psychological distrurbances
ii. REM sleep is essential for having less difficulty with stressful tasts
iii. People with traumatic experiences usually ignore those during the day but they
come out at night during sleep
a. Conclusion
i. Nothing has really been proven about dreams, but we can definitely agree that
REM sleep brings some sort of psychological positive benefits
5. Defense Mechanisms
i. People use defense mechanisms unconsciously all the time and don't even realize it
10. a. Identifying and Measuring Defense Mechanisms
i. Identification - People who use this mechanism associate themselves with
powerful and successful individuals.
1. Plays a big role in development of gender identity
2. Young men identify with their fathers and young women with their
mothers (generally speaking)
a. Developmental Differences
i. Adults have much more defenses they can use to ward off anxiety than
children. Children usually can only result to denial
ii. Around middle elementary school, kids begin to realize that denying things
every happened doesn't make them go away
iii. Older kids use projection
1. Projection - protects us from threatening anxiety by attributing
unacceptable thoughts and feelings to someone else
a. Example: If I extremely disliked my hair - unconsciously - I would
probably be criticizing other people's hair as well.
a. Defense Style
i. Some people depend rely on some defense mechanisms more than others, this
is called defense style
ii. Identifying a persons defense style can say a lot about his or her general well-
being
iii. Some say that defense mechanisms can be normal and even adaptive
1. Sublimation - Turning the unconscious impulse into a socially acceptable
action - can serve a dual function of relieving anxiety and improving a
person's life situation
i. It's not normal for adults to still use the same childhood defense mech. Such as
denial or projection
ii. People who deal with high level of stress during their child hood might end up
depending more on denial and projection as adults
6. Humor
a. Freud's Theory of Humor
i. Freud saw two different kinds of jokes: (1) those dealing with hostility and (2)
those dealing with sex
ii. Freud believed that aggressive jokes allow the expression of impulses ordinarily
held in check
1. A good insulting joke allows us to express these same aggressive desires
in a socially appropriate manner
i. Catharsis - A release of tension or anxiety
1. Freud thought that we laugh at those kind of jokes not because they are
clever or witty, but because the punch line of the joke allows for
catharsis
a. Research on Freud's Theory of Humor
i. A group of students were tested to test Freud's theory and to their surprise,
they performed just as Freud would believe they would
11. 1. They showed them a picture with no sense of sexuality or anything and
asked to write a funny caption, all the students came up with something
like "I was late because I was with your wife"
i. Several investigators support Freud's theory that people find aggressive and
sexual themes funny
1. People find cartoons and shows funnier when they reference to
aggression, pain or sex
2. If hostile humor allows us to satisfy aggressive impulses, we should find
a joke funnier when it pokes fun at a person or group we don't like
i. Hostile humor reduces aggression because of the catharsis hostile humor
creates.
1. Example - There was an experiment where angry participants read
cartoons that expressed hostility toward women, later they were given
the opportunity to give electric shocks to a woman as an "experiment".
These participants gave less intense and shorter shocks than angry
participants who had not seen the cartoons
i. But hostile humor doesn't only reduce aggression, in some cases it could
actually increase it
7. Level of Tension and Funniness
a. A person nervous and slightly frightened person is more vulnerable to a funny joke
than someone who is calm and therefore tensionless
b. The more tension people experience before a punch line, the funnier the joke will be
i. There were experiments that tested this theory and proved it right
a. Interpreting the Findings
i. Researchers have uncovered some evidence to support Freud's theory of
humor, but the thing is that there is always alternative explanations for things.
8. Hypnosis
a. Hypnosis taps an aspect of the human mind that is otherwise difficult to reach.
b. Neodissociation theory - Hilgard's theory, which maintains that consciousness is
divided into aware and unaware parts during hypnosis
i. The part of you that is aware of the hypnosis is called the "hidden observer"
ii. Some researchers argue that hypnosis is not some magical thing that's going on,
that is, that people do things they are told during hypnosis not because they are
in a trance but because they think they are supposed to
1. They also argue that nothing done during hypnosis cannot be done
without hypnosis as well
a. Why do some people claim to forget what they did when hypnotized?
i. Some researchers believe it's because the events that happen during hypnosis
is stored in a pocket of the mind created by ego
ii. Others argue that people don't remember because they don't expect to
remember anything thus not making an effort to remember anything.
a. The hypnotist isn't what makes the difference, it’s the participant.
i. Some participants respond more to hypnosis than others, this has very little to
do with the actual hypnotist
ii. Absorption - the ability to become highly involved in sensory and imaginative
experiences