This document discusses several non-experimental qualitative research methods, including interviews, observations, and case studies. It provides details on how each method is conducted and considerations for using each method ethically and effectively. Interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured and require informed consent. Observations can be participant or non-participant, and reactivity is a concern. Case studies provide rich insight but require protecting identities. Overall, the document outlines the purpose and process of key qualitative research techniques.

1. Non-Experimental methods:
Qualitative research

2. Why used?
• Growing concern about artificiality and lack of
ecological validity in research
• Non experimental research is now seen as valuable to
psychology
• Examples:
– Surveys
– Interviews
– Observations
– Case Studies

3. • Triangulation – combination of different research
methods in a study in order to collect richer data.
Depends on the topic.
• Deductive approach – the quantitative approach -
with a hypothesis that is tested against empirical
evidence.
• Inductive approach – qualitative approach –
researchers study how people experience
situations. They gather data and then see what
these could mean.

4. Subjectivity vs objectivity
• The role of the qualitative researcher involves an
active engagement in the research process –
a subjective element is placed in to the research
process.
• Experimental method is based on the assumption
of objectivity in the research process.

5. Interview

6. Interviews
• One of the most common ways of gathering
qualitative data
Can be short or in-depth
Need interview schedule – plan to follow with
structured or open ended questions
Interviewers need training!

7. Considerations of Interview
• Interviewer effect – researcher needs to act
professionally and be aware of responses to age, sex,
ethnicity of the interviewer.
• Participant bias – people often adjust their responses
to what they THINK is appropriate for the interviewer.
• Social Desirability Bias – most people want to present
a positive picture of themselves so they don’t always
tell the truth.

8. Types of Interviews
• Structured
– procedure is highly controlled
– Specific questions
– Easy to analyze and compare data
• Unstructured
– Open ended: only topic and time are specified
– Difficult to analyze, but more info are revealed
• Semi-structured
– Look like informal conversation but follow the schedule
– Closed and open-ended questions (respondent can answer
morefreely)

9. Ethics in interviews
• Informed consent and confidentiality
• May be distressing and sensitive
• Researcher must be professional!
• If respondents decide to withdraw their
information, you must follow wishes.

10. Your turn to be a researcher
 You have been commissioned to carry out research using interviews on
one of the following issues:
1. positive and negative experiences in CAS projects
2. what it is like to live in a foreign country
3. teenagers and drug use and abuse
4. prejudice in classroom
 Consider the following questions
1. How would you carry out your research?
2. How would you obtain your sample?
3. What potential difficulties do you anticipate in carrying out the
interview?

11. Observation

12. Observation
• A data collection method which aims to describe
behavior without trying to establish cause and
effect relationships.
• Most take place in a natural setting - Naturalistic
Observations
• Originally used with animal studies – but now
some are used in labs (one way mirrors)
• Raw data may be visual, audio or written

13. Observation
• Impossible to record EVERYTHING
• Researcher Bias – often the researcher sees what
s/he WANTS to see (to counteract - several
researchers and comparing notes – to ensure
inter-observer reliability)
• Try to get people and animals to act naturally -
typically they change their behavior when know
being watched.

14. Observation
• Participant observation
• Non-participant observation
• Reactivity – people and animals change their
behaviour when they are observed
• Covert observation (secret)
• Overt observation (participants know)

15. Example
• What happens when an administrator comes in
to observe students or the teacher? (overt
observation)
– How valid is the data?
• What happens when an administrator asks
student to observe or report on activities in a
classroom?(covert)
– How valid is the data?

16. Your Turn
• During the break you will conduct an
observation.
• Where are you going to carry out your
observation? (cafeteria, media center,
front office, classroom)
• Each member of the group should take
notes.(!!!)

17. Your Turn
1. Compare your notes. To what
extent are your observations
similar? Discuss this.
2. Are there any ethical
considerations in what you did?
3. Discuss how you could make
sense of this data.

18. Ethics of Observational Research
1. Need to obtain informed consent of those being
observed.
2. If using covert research, must make proposal to
ethics committees.
3. It could be argued that observation in public places
does not violate rights because they are in
a PUBLIC place!

19. Famous Covert Participant Observation:
Rosenhan, 1973
• Read the story in a frame – p. 34
1. Discuss ethical issues in
Rosenhan’s participant
observation
2. Was the use of covert
observation justified?

20. Case Studies

21. Case Studies
• Originated in clinical medicine – patient’s
personal history
• Grounded in real life, produces rich data that
provides insight into unique phenomenon or
individual’s behavior

22. Case Studies
• Individual or group observed
• Describes people’s experiences, feelings, thoughts
(qualitative data)
• Can include quantitative data – test scores, IQ scores,
blood tests
• Allows for in-depth investigations of human experience
not available in other research methods

23. Case Studies
• Not really a research method itself, but an approach
to the study of something unique (the case)
• Methods used for gathering data
– Interviews, observations
– Letters, diaries, pictures, TRIANGULATION
– Clinical notes,
– Blood samples

24. Ethical Aspects of Case Study
• It is deeply personal in nature, so researcher must be very
protective of identities
• Researcher needs professional competence (understand
anorexia, child abuse, drug dependence, etc.)
• Include
– Informed consent, no deception
– Right to withdraw, debriefing
– confidentiality

25. Famous Case Study: Money 1974
• Dr. Money and the Boy With No Penis
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUTcwqR4Q4Y&hd=1#t=12
• Another case study: Genie – wild child
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmdycJQi4QA&hd=1
• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2112gchild.html
• http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/genie.html