2. Specification
• Origins of psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of psychology as a
science.
• The basic assumptions of the following approaches:
• Learning approaches: the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s
research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; social learning
theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of
mediational processes and Bandura’s research.
• The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of
theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The
emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
• The biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on
behaviour. Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour.
• The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that is ID,
ego and superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and displacement,
psychosexual stages.
• Humanistic psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus on the
self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth. The infuence on counselling psychology.
• Comparison of approaches.
3. Origins
• Introspection – the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by
breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and
sensations.
• Used by philosophical and psychodynamic approaches.
• People wrote down their thoughts after being exposed to certain stimuli.
• Wilhelm Wundt (Germany in 1897):
• Separation of philosophy from psychology, so was known as the founding father of
psychology.
• Objective was to document and describe nature of consciousness.
• Controlled conditions:
• Used standardized instructions and procedures were repeated.
• John Watson (early 20th century):
• Questioned introspection as it is subjective.
• Scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured.
• Behaviorist psychology was born.
4. Learning Approaches (Behaviorist)
• Classical conditioning – learning through association.
• The unconditioned stimulus that gives the unconditioned response is paired with neutral stimulus. Eventually the neutral
stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus and gives the same response, but it is now known as the conditioned response.
• Pavlov’s research – salivation (unconditioned conditioned response) at the sound of the bell (neutral conditioned stimulus).
• Operant conditioning – learning through reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement – receiving a reward for a behavior. – rat presses button to receive food.
• Negative reinforcement – behavior to avoid a negative outcome. – rat presses lever to stop shock.
• Punishment – unpleasant consequence so behavior is less likely (finding a way to avoid is negative reinforcement).
• Skinner’s research – Skinner Box incorporates coloured lights, multiple sounds, and levers with electric shocks and food.
• Behaviorism brings in language and scientific methods that are unbiased and objective.
• Real life application – prisons and phobia treatment.
• Explains video game addiction.
• Machine like view – humans respond to the environment like machines.
• Deterministic view as ignores free will.
• Doesn’t look at consciousness or cognition just the response.
• Ethics of animal research.
5. Learning Approaches (SLT)
• Social learning theory:
• We learn through observation and imitation in a social context.
• We can learn directly through classical and operant conditioning, or indirectly through vicarious reinforcement.
• Identification – more likely to imitate someone you identify with (role-models), in the process of modelling
• The role of mediational processes – determine whether a behaviour is worth acquiring.
1. Attention – watch
2. Retention – remember
3. Motor reproduction – act
4. Motivation – is it rewarding?
• Lab studies are artificial
• Bandura’s Bobo doll study:
• Children between 3-5 saw an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll. There was more imitation of the same sex role model and boys were generally
more aggressive.
• Variation – seeing the model punished resulted in low imitation levels, seeing the model praised resulted in high imitation levels. (vicarious reinforcement).
• Underestimates biological factors – boys were more aggressive because of testosterone.
• Death of James Bulger a toddler by two 10 year old boys inspired by horror movie.
• Lead to censorship.
• Many argue against this to say that these videos scare children more than inspire them and this incident was down to home experiences.
• Explains why cultural norms are different as learnt from those around and media.
• Helps understand range of behaviors such as gender roles.
• Less deterministic than behaviorists, element of free will as we choose to perform.
• Relies on lab studies (low ecological validity)
6. Cognitive Approach
• The study of internal mental processes like memory, perception and thinking.
• Cognitive processes are affected by a persons beliefs or expectations (schema). These
knowledge packages develop as we experience. They act as mental framework.
• Allows us to process a lot of information quickly.
• Can lead to distortions and misconceptions.
• Theoretical and computer models are used to explain and make inferences about mental
processes suggesting there are similarities.
• Machine reductionism.
• Cognitive neuroscience – the scientific study of the influence of brain structure on mental
processes. Its is done by scanning.
• Scientific experimental processes.
• Real life application (artificial intelligence and therapy).
• Less deterministic than other approaches.
• Low ecological/external validity due to lab studies
• Over-simplifying, human emotion?
7. Biological Approach
• Biological approach says that thoughts feelings and behaviour have a physical basis.
• Twin (mz and dz), family history, and adoption studies are used.
• This involves comparing people with different degrees of relatedness to see how similar they are in relation to a trait or behaviour.
• Allows differentiation between nature and nurture.
• MZ twin adoption studies are ideal but extremely rare.
• The closer the relation to a schizophrenia patient, the more at risk of development.
• Concordance rate – the likeliness that if one person has a disorder the other will.
• Genotype – the genetic makeup. (alleles)
• Phenotype – the physical expression of genes. (brown hair)
• Genetic conditions may be recessive in both parents so there is a 25% chance of the offspring having this genetic disorder. E.g. cystic fibrosis, PKU.
• Evolution is a change in heritable traits within a population passed on through generations. (natural selection).
• Genetic basis for behaviour:
• Memory – could remember where resources are.
• Attachment – the baby is more likely to be kept safe.
• OCD – good hygiene and cleanliness is good. May link to hoarding behaviour.
• Scientific methodology e.g. scanning, blood tests, studies.
• Development of drugs
• Explanations for mental illness with neurotransmitters.
• Can’t separate nature fro nurture – 2 people can never live the same life.
• Cant separate cause and effect with neurotransmitters.
• Deterministic view.
• Criminal genes can lead to jumping to conclusions in the justice system. – Mobley (lawyers argued that the act was not free will but part of genetic predisposition)
8. Psychodynamic approach
• Freud found that physical symptoms were caused by deep conflicts of the unconscious mind.
• Unconscious forces determine our thoughts feelings and behaviour.
• Our behaviour is influenced by our childhood experiences.
• Abnormal behaviour is a result of unconscious mental conflict.
• The mind can be divided into 3 levels on consciousness. (ice burg)
• Personality:
• Id – instinct desires and impulses.
• Ego – conscious mind, seeks to satisfy id in acceptable ways.
• Super ego – morality. Split into ego ideal (feels pride) and the conscience (feels guilt).
• Psychosexual stage of development
• 0-1 – oral stage
• 1-3 – anal stage
• 3-6 – phallic stage
• Oedipus complex – unconscious sexual desires for the opposite sex parent.
• Defence mechanisms
• Repression – unconsciously block painful memories
• Denial – refusal to accept reality
• Displacement – redirecting feelings to something else (punching a wall)
• Small number of case studies e.g. little Hans – not possible to generalise.
• Not open to falsification – untestable concepts.
• Psychic determinism – no free will.
• Practical application – psychoanalysis therapy.
• Used to explain wide range of behaviours (moral and mental disorders).
9. Humanistic psychology
• Focuses on conscious human experience and free will of the self. Known as positive psychology as it emphasises growth and
fulfilment.
• Rogers argued that the concept of self comes from the opinions of others. (similar to Bowlby’s IWM).
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – our most basic needs must be fulfilled before we can move to more advanced needs.
• Self actualisation – a persons motivation to reach their full potential.
• We have how we see our selves and how we would like to see ourselves. When there is similarity to actual and ideal self we have a
state on congruence. If there is a large gap we have incongruence.
• Therapy focuses on incongruence and closing the gap, and conditions of worth.
• There is conditional and unconditional positive regard.
• Not reductionist.
• Positive approach.
• Lacks sound evidence and has untestable content.
• Associated with individualist cultures so is culturally bias.
• Described as a “loose set of abstract concepts” with a limited impact in psychology
